CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM

The teacher as a curriculum designer

Fundamentals of curriculum design

Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Design

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time.
3. Curriculum changes made after earlier can exist concurrently with newer
curriculum changes.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of
alternatives.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather
than a “piecemeal”.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is.

ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM DESIGN

I. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES OR INTENDED LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Begin with the end in view.
2. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for undertaking the
learning lesson from the student’s point of view;
3. its desired learning outcome: accomplished in a particular learning episode,
engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the teacher.
4. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning
outcomes to be achieved.
5. both the learner and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish.

II. CONTENT/SUBJECT MATTER

1. Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum.
2. An effective curriculum is purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning
outcomes.
3. Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit.
4. An effective curriculum is progressive, leading students towards building on
previous lessons.
5. Contents which are too basic or too advanced for the development levels of
learners make students either bored or baffled, and affect their motivation to
learn.
6. Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current
knowledge and concepts.

III. REFERENCES
1. The reference follows the content.
2. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken.
3. The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication.
4. It must bear the author of the material and if possible, the publications.
IV. Teaching and Learning Methods
1. Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together.
2. Students are guided to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems.
3. The role of the teachers is to guide the learners. Democratic process is
encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of learning.
4. Students learn from each other in ways. Group projects and activities
considerably enhance the curriculum.

1. Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility.

i. The degree of independence to learn how to learn is enhanced.
ii. This strategy is more appropriate for fast learners.

2. Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another
in a healthy manner allow learners to perform to their maximum.
i. Most successful individuals in their adult life are competitive, even in early
schooling.
ii. They mostly become the survivors in a very competitive world.

3. The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is

recommended.
I. Online learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but
these need to be planned carefully to be effective.

V. ASSESSMENT/ EVALUATION
1. Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own
learning.
 This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce
graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical.
2. Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning.
 This can be viewed as an extension of self assessment and presupposes trust and
mutual respect.
3. Research suggest that students can learn to judge each other’s work as a reliably as
staff.
4. Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers test and gives
feedback on the student’s performance.

Approaches to curriculum design

Types of Curriculum Design Method

1. Subject-Centered Design
 focuses on the content of the curriculum.
 subject-centered design corresponds mostly to the textbooks because textbooks
are usually written based the specific subject or course.
Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations
individual subject
specific discipline
combination of subjects or disciplines
broad field or interdisciplinary.
1.1 Subject design is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers,
parents and other laymen.
1.2 Discipline Design this curriculum design model is related to the subject design.
However, while subject design centers only on the cluster, discipline design focuses
on the academic disciplines.
1.3 Correlation design coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links
separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one
another and still maintain their identity.
1.4 broad field design/ interdisciplinary is a variation of the subject-centered
design. This design was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate
subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another.

.2. Learner-Centered Design

 the learner is the center of educative process
 very strong in the elementary level
 in high school, the subject or content has become the focus
 in the college level, the discipline is the center
 both levels still recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum.

2.1 Child-centered design. This design is often attributed to the influence of John
Dewey, Rouseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel. This Curriculum design is anchored on the
needs and interests of the child.
2.2 Experience-centered design. This design is similar to the child-centered design.
Although the focus remains to be the child, experience-centered designs believes that
the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the
learners become the starting point of the curriculum, thus the school environment is
left open and free.
2.3 Humanistic design. In this curriculum design, the development of self is the
ultimate objective of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of
thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.

- problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of

the learners
- Various problems are given emphasis
- center on life situations, contemporary life problems, areas of living
- content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and
abilities of the students

3.1 Life-situations design. In this curriculum design, the contents are organized in
ways that allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past and the present
experiences of learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living.
3.2 Core problem design. It centers on general education and the problems are based
on the common human activities. The central focus of the core design includes
common needs, problems, and concerns of the learner.
Ways on how to proceed using core design of a curriculum
(Faunce and Bossing in 1959)
Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.
Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on the areas of study, including class grouping.
Step 5. Obtain and organize information for resources.
Step 6. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 7. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 8. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Step 9. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 10. Explore other avenues for further problem solving.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

Child or Learner-centered Approach
This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying philosophy that the
child or the learner is the center of the educational process.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differential instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learner.

Subject-Centered Approach
This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct subjects
for every educational level: basic education, higher education or vocational-technical
education. This approach consider the following principles:
1. The primary focus is the subject matter.
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.

Problem-Centered Approach
This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the process of living,
children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to become
increasingly able to achieve complete or total development as individuals. This
approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs.

1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving the
problems, thus developing every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in
seeking solutions. Learners are problem solvers themselves.
 Curriculum Mapping
- a process or procedure that follows curriculum designing
- done before curriculum implementation or the organization of the written curriculum
- Heidi Hayes Jacob in 2004 in her book Greeting Results with Curriculum Mapping
(ASCD, 2004).
- “work-in-progress”
- not a one-time initiative but a continuing action which involves the teacher and other
stakeholders, who have common concerns.
- Curriculum mapping can be done by teachers alone, a group of teaching the same
subject, the department, the whole school or district or the whole educational system.

The curriculum map

 visual timelines that outline:
- desired learning outcomes to be achieved, contents
- skills and values taught
- instructional time
- assessment to be used
- the overall student movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes
 Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate that can be used by individual
teacher, a department, the whole school or educational system.
 A map is geared to be a school calendar.
 provide quality control of what are taught in school to maintain excellence,
efficiency and effectiveness
 to improve instruction and maintain quality of education that all stakeholders
need to be assured
 Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at the
curriculum map to see that intended outcomes and content are covered.
 A map can reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing, and alignment
of the subject horizontally or vertically.
 It will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and misalignment.
 Courses that are not correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly assess the
mastery of the skills in the previous grade, to avoid necessary reteaching.
 always a work in progress
 enables the teacher or the curriculum review team to create and recreate the
curriculum.
 provides a good information for modification of curriculum
 changing of standards and competencies in order to find ways to build
connections in the elements of the curricula.
 Implementing the Curriculum
 It is the phase where teacher action takes place.
 It is one of the most crucial processes in curriculum development although many
education planners would say :
 Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum
that has been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular guides and subjects.
 It is a process wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge,
skills, attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function
effectively in the society.
 Ornstein and Hunkins (1998)
As the interaction between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the
person who are in charged to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies
the following :
 Shift from what is the current to a new or enhanced curriculum.
 Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the person involved.
 Change in behavior using new strategies and resources.
 Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.

 Loucks and Lieberman (1983)

 The trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a
school system.

 In the classroom context

 Teaching
 Implementing means using the plan as a guide to engage with the learners in the
teaching learning process with the end in view that learning has occurred and
learning outcomes have been achieved.
 It involves the different strategies of teaching with the support instructional
materials to go with the strategy.
 In the larger scale
 Putting the curriculum into operation with the different implementing agents.
 Curriculum implementation takes place in a class, a school, a district, a division,
or the whole higher education system.
 In higher education
 happens for the course, a degree program, the institution or the whole higher
education system. It requires time, money, personal interaction, personal contacts
and support.

Implementing the Curriculum: The teacher as Curriculum Implementer and

Manager
Teachers as Curriculum Developers and Implementers
 The teaching and learning process, the other side of the coin is the teacher.
 Planning and writing the curriculum are the primary roles of the teacher.
 A teacher is a curriculum maker. He/she writes curriculum daily through a lesson
plan, unit plan or yearly plan.
 The teachers prepare activities for the students to do.
Teachers as Curriculum Developers and Implementers
- The teacher addresses the goals, needs, interests, of the learners by creating
experiences from where the students can learn.
- The teacher designs, enriches and modifies the curriculum to suit the learner’s
characteristics.
- As a curriculum developer, teachers are part of textbooks committees, faculty
selection boards, school evaluation committee or textbook writers themselves.

Views of the students about the teacher as a curriculum maker and implementer.
 “Teachers are the most crucial persons in the implementation of a curriculum.”
 “Teachers shape the school curriculum by sharing the experiences that they have
and the resources they are capable of giving or imparting to the learners.”
 Therefore, no technology can ever replace a teacher; it will only support the
multifaceted role of the teacher. Thus, the complexity of teaching requires
tremendous maturity, decision making in the implementation of any curricular
plan as in the choice of materials, methods or strategy of teaching and modes of
evaluation.
Curriculum Managers and Administrators
 In school organization, there is always a curriculum manager or school
administrator. In fact, for school principals, one of their functions is being a
curriculum manager.
Why are school administrators and curriculum managers important to
curriculum implementation?
 “The school administrators play an important role in shaping the school
curriculum because they are the people who are responsible in the formulation of
the schools’ vision, philosophy, mission and objectives.
 They provide necessary leadership in evaluating teaching personnel and school
program. Keeping records of curriculum and reporting learning outcomes are also
the managers’ responsibilities.”
 “The school administrators have the responsibility of running the entire school
effectively.
 They have to oversee the smooth transition of the child from one grade level to
another and they should see to it that the curriculum is implemented vertically or
horizontally with very minimal overlaps.
 Instead there should be continuity, relevance, balance, so that overall curriculum
will produce a well rounded person.”
 Indeed the role of the administrators can never be ignored.
 The principle of command responsibility and institutional leadership rests on the
shoulder of the school administrators.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Levin’s Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change
Kurt Levin (1951)
 As the father of social psychology explains the process of change, the model can
be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.
 In the educational landscape
 There are always two forces that oppose each other. These are the driving force
and the restraining force.
Based on Kevin’s Force Field Model
Driving Force
Government Intervention
Society’s Values
Technological Changes
Knowledge Explosion
Administrative Support
Restraining Forces
Fear of the Unknown
Negative Attitude to change
Tradition values
Limited Resources
Obsolete equipment

Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 1990 categorized curriculum change as follows:
1. Substitution – The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new
one. Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul.
2. Alteration – there is a minor change to the current or existing curriculum.
3. Restructuring – building a new structure would mean major change or
modification in the school system, degree program or educational system.
4. Perturbations – these are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust
to them within a fairly short time.
5. Value orientation – To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this
classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which
are not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa.

3 elements of Curriculum implementation

 Developmental
 Participatory
 Supportive

Developmental - should develop multi perspective and make learning autonomous.

There should be teacher support in trying new task, reflection on the new experiences
and challenge.
Participatory - for curriculum implementation to succeed. Because other stakeholder
like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum specialist necessary.
Supportive - curriculum implementation is required in the process of change.
Material support like supplies, equipment, conductive learning environment like
classroom, laboratory should made available.
Time - is an important commodity for a successful change process. And Support
from peers, principal ,external stakeholder will add to the success of implementation.

Dep.ED Order No.70 s. 2012

Teachers of all public elementary and secondary schools will not be required to
prepare detailed lesson plans.
However, teachers with less than 2 years teaching experience shall be required to
prepare Daily Lesson Plans which shall include the following:
I. Objectives
II. Subject Matter
III. Procedure
IV. Assessment
V. Assignment

I. Starting the Class Right: laying Down the Curriculum Plan

The main parts of a lesson plan are:
(1) Objectives or Intended learning
outcomes(ILO)
(2) Subject matter (SM),
(3) Procedure or Strategies of teaching,
(4) Assessment of Learning Outcomes
(5) Assignment or Agreement

II. Intended learning Outcomes

These learning focuses of the lesson
Learning outcomes are based on Taxonomy of Objectives presented to us as
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Bloom’s Taxonomy has revisited by his own
student Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl.
BLOOMS TAXONOMY REVISED BLOOM’S BY
(1956) ANDERSON (2001)

EVALUATION CREATING
SYNTHESIS EVALUATING
ANALYSIS ANALYZING
APPLICATION APPLYING
COMPREHENSION UNDERSTANDING
KNOWLEDGE REMEMBERING

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy: A Quick Look

a) Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs.
b) Rearranging these categories.
c) Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original version.

Remembering
- recall or retrieve previous learned information.
- Defines, describes, identifies, labels, outlines, selects, states.
Understanding
- Comprehend, translation, state problem in own words, making meaning.
- Comprehends, explains, distinguishes, estimates, gives examples, interprets,
predicts, rewrites, summarizes.
Applying
- Use of concept in new situation, applies what has been learned in new situation.
- Applies, changes, computes, operates, constructs, modifies, uses, manipulates,
prepares, shows, solves.
Evaluating
- Makes judgments about the value of ideas or materials
- Appraises, compares, criticizes, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates,
interprets, justifies, summarizes.
Analyzing
- Separates materials or concepts into component parts so that the organization is
clear. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.
- Breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, differentiates, discriminates, identifies,
infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Creating
- builds a structure or pattern from various elements. Put parts together to create a
whole, to make new meaning and structure.
- Composes, complies, designs, generates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes,
creates.

LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Factual Knowledge
- ideas, specific data or information
2. Conceptual knowledge
- words or ideas known by common name, common features, multiple specific
examples which may either be concrete or abstract. Concepts are facts that interrelate
with each other to function together
3. Procedural knowledge
- how things work, step-by-step actions methods of inquiry.
4. Metacognitive knowledge
- knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of knowledge of one’s own
cognition, thinking about thinking.

SMART way
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Result Oriented (outcomes)
Time Bounded

Subject Matter or Content

- comes from the body of knowledge that will be learned through the guidance of the
teacher. Subject matter is the WHAT in teaching

Ways of Teaching for the

different kinds of Learners (Corpuz & Salandanan, 2013)
1. Direct Demonstration Methods: Guided Exploratory/Discovery Approach, Inquiry
Method, Problem-based Learning , Project Method.
2. Cooperative Learning Approaches: Peer Tutoring, Learning Action cells, Think-
Pair Share
3.Deductive or Inductive Approaches: Project Teaching, Inquiry-based Learning,
4.Other Approaches: Blended learning, Reflective Teaching, Integrated Learning,
Outcomes-based Approach
Students Different Learning Styles
Common Characteristics Tips for Teachers about Learners

Visual – Uses, graphs, charts, pictures. Turns notes into pictures, diagram, maps.
Tends to remember things that are written Learn the big picture first than details.
in form Make mind maps concept maps.

Auditory – Recalls information through Record lectures and listen to these.

hearing and speaking . Prefers to be told Repeat materials out loud “parrots”. Read
how to do things orally. Learns aloud aloud.

Kinesthetic – Prefers hand-on approach. Learn something while doing another

Demonstrates how to do, rather than thing (eats while studying). Work while
explain. Likes group work with hands on standing. Likes fieldwork. Does many
–minds on. things at one time.

Cone of Learning & Experience

GUIDELINES FOR INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT MATERIALS

1. Use of direct purposeful experience through learning by doing retains almost all of the learning
outcomes. Ninety percent of learning is retained.
2. Participation in class activities, discussion, reporting and similar activities where learners have the
opportunity to say and write. Seventy percent of learning is remembered,
3. Passive participation as in watching a movie, viewing exhibits, watching demonstration will retain
around 50% of what has been communicated.
4. By just looking at still pictures, painting, illustration and drawings, will allow the retention of around
30% of the material
5. By hearing as in lecture, sermon, monologues, only 20% is remembered.