SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies

School of Law
Program: B.A., LL.B. (Hons.) 8101 & B.B.A., LL.B. (Hons.) 8102
Semester: II
Module: Journalism & Mass Communication

Unit IX Journalistic Writing & tools

Ms. Bhoomika Ahuja

Assistant Professor
Journalistic Writing & tools
• What is News, sources, difference between hard and soft news , Difference
between News report and feature article, Inverted pyramid style
• Writing for audio and video (radio/ podcast/ film/ tv news), difference
between writing for Print and digital
• Basics of photography and cinematography
Resources
• https://ijh.rodrigozamith.com/sourcing-information/news-
sources/#:~:text=The%20term%20'news%20source'%20refers,citizen%20who%20witnessed%20an%20event
• https://www.lkouniv.ac.in/site/writereaddata/siteContent/202004070948262317mukul_News.pdf
• https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/57073/1/Unit%202.pdf
• https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/57072/1/Unit%201.pdf
• https://riverside.fm/blog/podcast-descriptions
• https://www.thenewsmanual.net/Manuals%20Volume%202/volume2_48.htm
• https://www.nyfa.edu/student-resources/differences-tv-radio-podcast-journalism/
•
What is News?
• Human beings’ curiosity to know and comprehend as to what is happening
around them is unlimited and unbound. People are always eager to know
why and how are certain events and incidents taking place, who is
responsible for these events, who are being affected by them; and what
does the future hold for them?
• If these events are of recent occurrence, and are of interest to a vast
majority of people, it becomes all the more important and necessary for
them to look for further information about these events. By piecing
together the details of all these points, some concrete, some hazy and
quite often valuable and useful facts emerge. Whatever emerges from such
information is quite often crucial and people need to know these and all
possible details about these.
• Such type of information, therefore, is called “NEWS”.
What is News?
• John Bogart has given this comment that • Difference b/w information & News
became synonymous with news. ‘When a dog
bites a man that is not news, because it
happens so often. But if a man bites a dog,
that is news’.
• Though this may seem true, sometimes, when
a dog bites a man that can also become news.
Suppose a dog bites a famous film star, it
definitely makes big news.
• It is said that the letter in the word “NEWS” is
derived from the four directions as indicated
below:
• North
• East
• West
• South.
Definitions
• According to the Random House Dictionary of English Language, the meaning of
‘news’ is: “a report of a recent event; intelligence, information.
• The Oxford Dictionary says: News is the report of recent events, or occurrences
brought or coming to one as new information; new occurrences as a subject of
report or talk.”
• “A contemporary issue or event which is of interest to a large number of people is
news. Best news is that in which the majority has maximum interest.” - William G.
Blair
• “News is that description of any current issue, event or dispute which entices
consumers”. - Woolsely and Campbell
• “News is that information which was unknown to you till yesterday”. - Turner
Katliz
• “Any information which arouses curiosity among a large number of people
constitutes news provided it does not violate the rules of good taste and
propriety.”- J.J. Cindler
News Sources
• News sources are people who journalists interview, talk to, quote, observe
or meet to ‘construct’ a news story. They provide the basic information
which is the building block of a news story. At the same time no two
sources can lend the same meaning to a news story.
• Since the role of journalists is interpretational in that they infer an event
for us, framing it or mapping it in a certain social or cultural context and
thus making it intelligible to the audiences, the choice of one source over
another is often ideological.
• Stuart Hall points at three aspects of the social production of news-
• first, the bureaucratic organisation of the media which produces the news in specific
types or categories;
• second, the structure of news values which orders the selection and ranking of
stories within these categories and
• third, the moment of the construction of news stories which implies
contextualisation of an event by the media.
News Sources
• Hall argues that this process of identification, classification and
contextualisation of events by the media is a social process made up
of a number of journalistic practices. This process of signification that
is giving social meanings to events ‘both assumes and helps to
construct society as a consensus’.
• Consensus implies overall one perspective on events which is
provided by the central value system of the society. Media are one of
the institutions which are involved in organising and encouraging this
broad consensus.
• Media’s mapping of extraordinary events is often the only explanation
people get in order to interpret events and understanding the ‘how’
and ‘why’ of it.
Types of News Sources
• 1. News Agencies
• News agencies are large, centralized organizations that collect, verify, and
distribute news to various media outlets. They serve as primary sources of
information, providing accurate and factual reports to newspapers, television
channels, radio stations, and online platforms. Prominent news agencies include
Reuters, Associated Press (AP), and Agence France-Presse (AFP). Their reports
cover a wide range of topics, including politics, business, sports, and international
affairs. News agencies prioritize objectivity and factual accuracy, making their
content highly reliable.
• These agencies play a crucial role in breaking news coverage, as they have
correspondents stationed globally. Their ability to gather and disseminate
information quickly ensures that media organizations have access to timely and
consistent news. Media outlets often rely heavily on news agencies, particularly
for international news, due to their extensive network and credibility.
Types of News Sources
• 2. Wire Copies
• Wire copies are pre-written news reports distributed by news agencies or
syndicates to media organizations. They offer standardized, ready-to-
publish content that can be used directly or edited by media outlets. These
copies are particularly useful for smaller news organizations that may lack
the resources to cover stories independently. Wire copies cover a broad
range of topics, including politics, economics, entertainment, and global
events.
• The key advantage of wire copies is their reliability and efficiency. Since
they are produced by established news agencies, they maintain a high
standard of accuracy. However, over-reliance on wire copies can lead to a
lack of original reporting and reduced diversity in news coverage, as
multiple outlets may publish the same content with little modification.
Types of News Sources
• 3. Reporters
• Reporters are journalists responsible for gathering and reporting news
through firsthand investigation. They conduct interviews, attend events,
and verify facts to provide detailed and accurate accounts of current
affairs. Reporters often specialize in specific beats, such as crime, politics,
sports, or business, allowing them to develop expertise in their respective
areas. Their work involves both field reporting and desk research,
contributing to in-depth and authentic news coverage.
• The credibility of a news story heavily depends on the reporter's accuracy
and integrity. Unlike wire copies, reporters’ stories often contain unique
insights, exclusive interviews, and localized perspectives. Their work brings
a human touch to news reporting by adding context, emotions, and
detailed analysis, making the news more engaging and relatable.
Types of News Sources
• 4. Individual Sources
• Individual sources refer to people with direct or indirect knowledge of an
event or issue, such as eyewitnesses, whistleblowers, experts, or affected
individuals. These sources provide unique and sometimes exclusive
information that enhances the authenticity and depth of news stories.
Reporters and journalists often rely on individual sources for insights that
are not publicly available.
• While individual sources can add credibility and human interest to a story,
they require careful verification. The accuracy of their information must be
cross-checked to avoid the spread of misinformation. Anonymous sources
are sometimes used when individuals fear retribution, but this practice
requires media outlets to balance confidentiality with transparency.
Types of News Sources
• 5. Bureau Reports
• Bureau reports are generated by regional or local branches of media
organizations. These bureaus cover specific geographic areas, providing
localized news and contributing to the larger media network. Bureau
reporters are responsible for monitoring regional developments, covering
local events, and providing in-depth coverage of area-specific issues. Their
reports are often fed to the central office, which compiles and distributes
them for national or international audiences.
• Bureau reports offer the advantage of proximity and contextual
understanding, making them valuable for accurate and nuanced local
reporting. They help large media organizations maintain a presence in
different regions without having to station their main staff in every
location. This decentralized structure enhances the breadth and diversity of
news coverage.
Types of News Sources
• 6. Online Sources and Social Media Platforms
• Online sources and social media platforms have become prominent in
modern news dissemination. Websites, blogs, and digital publications offer
a continuous stream of news, while social media platforms like Twitter,
Facebook, and Instagram allow for real-time updates and citizen
journalism. These platforms have revolutionized how news is consumed,
enabling instant access to information and interaction with content.
• However, the credibility of online sources varies significantly. While
established media houses provide reliable digital content, social media
often carries unverified information, making fact-checking essential.
Despite this challenge, social media has become a powerful tool for
breaking news, public opinion expression, and grassroots reporting, playing
an increasingly vital role in contemporary journalism.
HARD NEWS
• Those news items fall under this category which hold importance for
majority of readers, listeners or viewers.
• News from government departments, political news, news related to
international affairs, educational news, industrial and commercial
news, religious news, jurisdictional news, economical news, etc, come
under the purview of hard news.
• The most distinguishing quality of hard news is that it cannot be
withheld or procrastinated.
• They have to be communicated to the readers/listeners/viewers as
soon as they are received. Most headlines of newspapers are made
up of hard news.
HARD NEWS
• Example: 5 percent decline in intermediate results “Lucknow, 2nd
June. Results of intermediate students have plummeted by a
whopping 5 percent for the first time in recent years after ‘use of
unfair means during board examinations’was reinstated as a
cognizable offense by the government. Results of approximately
25,000 students have been withheld on the basis of doubt regarding
use of unfair means during examination. Not only the pass
percentage has declined but, the number of students passing in the
first class has also declined considerably.” There is no ambiguity about
the fact that daily newspapers dedicate their maximum attention
towards hard news and it constitutes majority of news published in
them.
SOFT NEWS
• Soft news is concerned with human interest news. Generally, crime,
tragedy, comedy and other such elements of appealing to the
emotions of the audiences constitute soft news.
• Basically, soft news is that news which does not demand immediate
transmission to the audiences as opposed to hard news.
• Most news features are based upon soft news.
• Following is an example of soft news: “Video conferencing is bringing
about revolutionary changes in global mass media of communication.
This technology has eliminated all the boundaries of space and time.
This process works through digital networking.”
Balance b/w the two
• Although, hard news is very important but is read by only the
educated or intellectual people of the society as it demands a certain
perspicuity of mind and greater attention on the part of the readers.
• Readers normally do not have enough time to devote to them. The
importance of hard news increases under certain special
circumstances such as political turmoil, war, etc.
• The completeness of a newspaper lies in maintaining a balance
between hard news and soft news as they are complementary in
nature.
Differences Between Hard News and Soft News
Aspect Hard News Soft News
News that holds importance for the majority of News focused on human interest, emotions, and
Definition
readers, listeners, or viewers. entertainment.
Covers serious and significant topics like politics,
Includes crime, tragedy, comedy, lifestyle, and other
Content Type economy, international affairs, and government
emotionally appealing stories.
policies.

Urgency Requires immediate reporting and cannot be delayed. Can be published later as it is not time-sensitive.

Aims to inform and update the public with factual, Designed to entertain, engage, or evoke emotional
Purpose
critical, and timely information. responses.

Usually makes up the headlines and front-page stories Often featured in special sections, weekend
Publication Priority
of newspapers. editions, or as news features.

Appeals to intellectual and educated readers, as it Attracts a broader audience due to its relatable and
Audience
demands greater attention and comprehension. emotional content.

"5 percent decline in intermediate results due to

"Video conferencing is bringing revolutionary
Example reinstatement of unfair means as a cognizable
changes in global communication."
offense."
Forms the majority of news coverage in daily Adds variety and balance, making the content more
Impact on Newspapers
newspapers. engaging.
News Report
• A news report is a factual and concise presentation of current events
or breaking news, aimed at informing the public about recent and
relevant occurrences. It focuses on providing accurate and objective
information in a clear and straightforward manner.
• News reports typically follow the inverted pyramid structure, where
the most important information (who, what, when, where, why, and
how) is presented first, followed by supporting details and
background information.
• This format ensures that readers can grasp the essential facts quickly,
even if they do not read the entire article.
News Report
• News reports are time-sensitive and cover events such as political
developments, accidents, crimes, sports updates, and business
announcements.
• They maintain a formal and impersonal tone, relying heavily on
verified facts and direct quotes from credible sources.
• Since their primary purpose is to inform rather than entertain, news
reports prioritize accuracy, brevity, and neutrality.
• For example, a report on a government policy change would highlight
the policy details, its implications, and statements from officials or
affected individuals.
Feature Article
• A feature article is a more elaborate and descriptive piece of writing
that explores a topic, issue, or story in depth.
• Unlike a news report, which focuses on hard facts, a feature article
often incorporates creative storytelling, personal insights, and
emotional appeal.
• It offers a broader perspective on a subject, going beyond the
immediate facts to provide context, analysis, and sometimes opinion.
• Feature articles often focus on human interest stories, lifestyle trends,
social issues, or cultural phenomena.
Feature Article
• The structure of a feature article is more flexible and narrative-driven. It
typically begins with a compelling introduction designed to engage the
reader, followed by a well-developed body that includes anecdotes, expert
opinions, and descriptive language.
• The article concludes with a thoughtful closing, often leaving the reader
with a lasting impression or reflection. Feature articles are less time-
sensitive than news reports, making them suitable for magazine
publications, weekend editions, or special newspaper segments.
• For example, a feature article on the impact of remote work would not
only provide data and expert opinions but also include personal stories
from remote employees, making the piece more relatable and engaging.
Feature articles often use more visuals, such as infographics, images, and
creative formatting, to enhance the reader’s experience.
Differences Between News Report and Feature Article
Aspect News Report Feature Article
A factual and concise presentation of current events or breaking A detailed and descriptive article exploring a topic in depth,
Definition
news. often with a creative or narrative style.

To entertain, educate, or provide insights into a specific topic

Purpose To inform the public about recent, factual, and objective events.
or issue.

Content Style Factual, straightforward, and objective. Descriptive, creative, and sometimes subjective.

Follows the inverted pyramid style: most important information Uses a narrative or thematic structure, with a compelling
Structure
first, followed by supporting details. introduction, body, and conclusion.

Tone and Language Formal, direct, and impersonal language. Informal or semi-formal, descriptive, and engaging language.

Timeliness Time-sensitive; covers recent events and breaking news. Less time-sensitive; explores ongoing or timeless topics.

Length Short and concise, typically 300-500 words. Longer, ranging from 800 to 2000+ words.

May use quotes, but also incorporates personal opinions or

Use of Quotes Includes direct quotes from sources to support the facts.
expert analysis.

Often accompanied by more visuals, infographics, or creative

Visuals May include relevant images or data charts.
images.

"Government announces new tax reforms affecting small "The changing landscape of work-from-home culture: A
Example
businesses." personal take on remote productivity."
 The Inverted Pyramid
• The inverted pyramid is a traditional news writing technique where the
most significant information is presented at the beginning of the story,
followed by progressively less important details.
• This format is designed to quickly convey the essential facts to readers
who may not read the entire article.
• The first paragraph, known as the lead or intro, contains the core
information, including the 5 Ws and 1 H (Who, What, When, Where, Why,
and How).
• The subsequent paragraphs elaborate on the context, provide supporting
details, and include background information.
 History of the Inverted Pyramid
• The inverted pyramid technique originated during the American Civil War,
around 150 years ago. Prior to this, news articles were written in a
chronological, narrative style, where the most significant point often came at
the end.
• However, during the war, there was an urgent need to communicate the latest
developments quickly and efficiently. Since journalists used the Morse telegraph
to transmit war updates, placing the most recent and important information in
the first paragraph ensured that the key news would be received promptly, even
if the telegraph transmission was interrupted.
• This change in writing style ensured that newspapers received the most relevant
news upfront. Over time, the inverted pyramid became the standard format for
news writing.
• Its adoption was driven by technological constraints and reader preferences for
concise and easily digestible information. The style remains popular today
because it allows readers with limited time to access the core information
quickly while enabling editors to prioritize space and readability​
 The Inverted Pyramid
• The structure resembles an upside-down pyramid,
with the broadest and most important
information at the top and the least significant
details at the bottom.
• This style ensures that even if readers only skim
the first few sentences, they still grasp the main
point of the story.
• It also enables editors to cut content from the
bottom without losing critical information, making
it easier to fit articles into limited print space or
news broadcasts.
• The inverted pyramid is widely used in journalism
because it prioritizes readability, efficiency, and
clarity
The Inverted Pyramid

Pg 8 https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/57072/1/Unit%201.pdf
The Inverted Pyramid
Here are some more illustrations and diagrams to tell you as to how should the news story be constructed and
written. These are borrowed from a famous book entitled Exploring Journalism, written by two most well-
known American professors of journalism, Roland E. Wolesely and Laurence R. Campbell, more than 50 years
ago. In fact, the late Roland Wolesely taught at the Hislop College of Journalism at Nagpur in the early 1960s,
and also edited a book on journalism for Indian students.
Inverted Pyramid: A Critique
• Although the inverted pyramid remains widely used, it has faced criticism from some
journalism scholars and practitioners. Critics argue that the format is too rigid and
predictable, making news articles formulaic and less engaging. According to
Christopher Passante, an American journalism professor, the inverted pyramid’s
structure often results in dry and impersonal writing. He questions why the pyramid
should be inverted when a traditional narrative pyramid (climax at the end) could
create more suspense and reader engagement.
• Another critic, Professor William Metz from the University of Nevada, believes that
the inverted pyramid is not a natural storytelling technique. He contends that placing
the climax at the beginning reduces reader interest, as the article becomes less
engaging toward the end. Additionally, former United Press International (UPI) editor
Roger Tatarian noted that narrative news leads are becoming more popular,
especially for stories that readers may have already heard through broadcast media.
• In response to these critiques, many prominent newspapers, such as The New York
Times and The Washington Post, have increasingly adopted a “featurised” style. This
approach uses more narrative and descriptive techniques, making the news more
engaging and reader-friendly. Critics argue that while the inverted pyramid is still
practical for breaking news, it is less effective for in-depth and human-interest
stories, which benefit from a more narrative-driven format​.
Writing For Audio And Video
(Radio/ Podcast/ Film/ Tv News)
• In the dynamic realm of mass communication, writing for audio and video
platforms such as radio, podcasts, films, and television news demands a specialized
skill set that transcends traditional print journalism. Unlike print, where the reader
controls the pace and rereads for clarity, audio-visual media require immediate
clarity, emotional resonance, and a narrative that flows seamlessly with sound and
visuals.
• Each format—whether the intimate storytelling of a podcast, the immediacy of
radio bulletins, the visual impact of television news, or the immersive world of
film—has its own conventions, audiences, and storytelling techniques.
• This field blends journalistic integrity with creative expression, requiring writers to
craft content that is not only factually accurate and concise but also engaging and
tailored to the medium's unique strengths. Understanding tone, timing, script
structure, voice modulation, and visual cues is essential in ensuring the message is
delivered effectively and memorably. As technology and audience expectations
evolve, so too must the strategies employed in scripting for these platforms.
Writing For Audio And Video
(Radio/ Podcast/ Film/ Tv News)
Radio & Podcasts
• Radio and podcasts are audio-driven mediums where storytelling relies entirely on sound,
voice modulation, and background effects to create an immersive experience. Since there
are no visual cues, the writing must be engaging, descriptive, and clear.
• Audio-Driven Storytelling: Without visuals, writers must focus on sound elements such as
dialogues, narration, music, and sound effects to convey emotions and settings. For
example, footsteps and background noise can indicate a character’s movement in a
scripted drama.
• Conversational Style: The writing should mimic natural speech, making it easy for
listeners to follow. This applies to talk shows, interviews, and even scripted content.
• Short and Clear Sentences: Listeners process spoken words in real time, so sentences
must be concise and to the point. Complex or long-winded sentences can lead to
confusion.
• Use of Sound Effects & Music: Background music, ambient noises, and sound effects
enhance storytelling by setting the mood and emphasizing key moments.
• Different Formats: Writing for radio and podcasts can vary depending on the genre,
including news reports, fictional dramas, interviews, and educational content.
Writing For Audio And Video
(Radio/ Podcast/ Film/ Tv News)
TV News
• While all forms of journalism involve a flow of information between the journalist and the
audience—be it readers, listeners, or viewers—this interaction becomes especially crucial
in broadcast media. In such formats, it is essential that the reporter communicates
directly with the audience through the voice of the newsreader or announcer.
• Even when broadcasting to a large audience, scripts should be written as though the story
is being told to a single individual. Visualizing a familiar person—such as a relative or close
acquaintance—can aid in adopting an appropriate tone that feels personal and engaging.
• The writing style must be conversational and, wherever possible, kept simple. Unlike print
journalism, where readers can re-read content or scan for specific details, broadcast
audiences generally hear the information only once, in a continuous and linear manner.
This makes clarity and immediacy of comprehension essential.
• Information should therefore be presented in a logical and concise sequence, allowing the
audience to follow the story without confusion. Since listeners and viewers are often
consuming content in personal spaces such as homes, workplaces, or vehicles, the tone of
delivery should reflect an understanding of this context.
• Effective broadcast writing involves addressing the audience as individuals, maintaining a
direct and accessible style that mirrors a one-on-one conversation.
Writing For Audio And Video
(Radio/ Podcast/ Film/ Tv News)
Films
• Film is a visual medium where storytelling primarily happens through action, cinematography, and
dialogue. Unlike radio, film scripts need to focus on "showing" rather than "telling."
• Visual Storytelling: The script must consider camera angles, scene transitions, and on-screen
movements. Instead of writing "he is nervous," the script should show the character fidgeting or
looking away.
• Screenplay Format: Film scripts follow a standard structure, including scene headings (INT./EXT.
for location), action descriptions, and dialogue formatted according to industry standards.
• "Show, Don’t Tell": Dialogue should be minimal and impactful. The audience should infer
emotions from characters' actions and expressions rather than excessive verbal explanation.
• Character Development: Strong, multidimensional characters are essential. Their motivations,
conflicts, and arcs must be well-structured to maintain engagement.
• Three-Act Structure: Most films follow a classic three-act structure—setup (introducing characters
and conflict), confrontation (rising action and climax), and resolution (conclusion of the story).
Difference Between Writing For Print And Digital
PRINT DIGITAL
• Print Journalism involves writing for • Digital Journalism involves writing for
physical formats such as newspapers, online platforms like news websites,
magazines, and journals. These are blogs, or social media. It is intangible
and dynamic.
tangible and static.
• Digital writing benefits from flexible
• Print writing must consider physical formats, integrating text, video, audio,
constraints—limited space, layout, animations, and hyperlinks to enhance
and cost of printing. storytelling.
• Print is often local or regional, • Digital platforms provide global reach,
constrained by distribution networks. accessible instantly from anywhere
with internet.
• Print content is prepared in advance • Digital writing allows for real-time
and can’t be altered once published. updates. Articles can be corrected,
There's a time lag due to production revised, or expanded.
and delivery.
Difference Between Writing For Print And Digital
PRINT DIGITAL
• Print is non-interactive—readers • Digital writing enables engagement
consume passively. through comments, likes, shares, and
even live feedback.
• Print writing is part of a costly • Digital writing is more cost-efficient but
production involving ink, paper, and demands investment in technology, SEO,
physical distribution. Advertisements and analytics. Ads are dynamic, targeted,
are static. and often interactive.
• Digital writing is often conversational,
• Print writing tends to be formal, concise, and SEO-friendly, tailored to
structured, and in-depth, focusing on shorter attention spans and scan ability.
accuracy and credibility. • Digital content is easily searchable,
• Print archives are physical, requiring shareable, and often stored indefinitely in
databases or cloud servers.
space and manual retrieval.
• Digital writing can be quickly updated or
• Print offers little room for post- edited, reflecting the latest facts or
publication corrections. correcting mistakes in real-time.
Difference Between Writing For Print And Digital
Aspect Print Journalism Digital Journalism

Aspect Print Journalism Digital Journalism

Medium Tangible, static Intangible, dynamic

Format Text & image Text, audio, video, animations

Timeliness Delayed Real-time

Interactivity None High (comments, shares)

Audience Local Global

Archiving Physical Digital, searchable

Style Formal, in-depth Concise, engaging

Cost High (materials) Variable (tech-based)

Update Flexibility Low High

Basics of photography and cinematography
• Classroom discussion + PDF