TRADITIONAL MEDICINE USE AND INFORMATION SOURCES

AMONG RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN AHOADA WEST LOCAL

GOVERNMENT AREA, RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA.

BY
EGWU, CLEMENT ONISOMISE
95349084CF

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS,

EXTENSION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT,
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE,
NIGER DELTA UNIVERSITY,
WILBERFORCE ISLAND,
BAYELSA STATE.

SUPERVISOR: Ms. O. BETHEL

AUGUST, 2024
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS i

CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Statement of Problem 4

1.3 Objective of the Study 5

1.5 Justification of the Study 6

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study 7

CHAPTER TWO 8
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 8
CHAPTER THREE 9

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 9

3.1 Study Area 9

3.2 Method of Sampling. 10

3.3 Method of Data Collection 10

3.4 Method of Data Analysis 10

REFERENCES 11

APPENDIX 17
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Agriculture is the main trust of National survival, employment and food in developing countries

like Nigeria; in developed countries, agriculture is the single biggest employer of labour (Ben,

2012). However, the agricultural sector is one of the most hazardous in terms of occupational

hazards in that farmers are usually exposed to harsh weather, difficult working posture and

lengthy hours of work due to the use of local farm tools since majority of them are small scale

subsistence farmers. Many of Nigeria’s farm families usually have close contacts with plants,

wild and domesticated animals, and agricultural chemicals such as inorganic fertilizers and

pesticides. Thus, several farm activities do pre-dispose farmers to disease infection and illnesses.

(International Labour Organization [ILO], 2000).

Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social well-being and merely the absence of

disease or infirmity (World Health Organization, [WHO], 2018). It is also a dynamic concept

that encompasses various aspects of human life viz-a-viz; the proper functioning of the body

system (physical health), being able to make contributions to their own community by realizing

their own abilities (mental health) and the ability to form and maintain meaningful relationships,

participate in social activities and contribute to society (social health) (WHO, 2019). Farmers'

health has significant effects on agricultural productivity because health, wellness and economic

growth are important in the overall development of a people.

The World Bank (2009) stated that between 2003 and 2007, 4544 outbreaks of H5N1 strain of

avian influenza were recorded in 36 countries. These outbreaks affected the health of farmers
and were associated with 269 cases and 163 fatalities. The Food and Agriculture Organization

(FAO, 2002) indicated that approximately 3 million people were poisoned and 200,000 died

from pesticides' use annually. The adverse effects of illness/diseases on agriculture and rural

development are manifest primarily in loss of labour supply, farm income and assets. According

to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2003), the HIV/AIDS pandemic significantly

compromised food security of affected households and communities, reducing the availability of

labour and diverting income, depleting savings and assets.

Traditional Medicine variously known as ethno-medicine, folk medicine, native healing, or

complementary, alternative medicine often referred to as indigenous medicine in Asia is the

oldest form of health care system that has stood the test of time. It is an ancient culture-bound

method of healing that humans have used to cope and deal with various diseases that have

threatened their health, existence and survival (Abdullahi, 2011). Consequently, different

societies have evolved different forms of indigenous healing methods that are captured under the

broad concept of Traditional Medicine. E.g. Chinese, Indian and African Traditional Medicines.

(Abdullahi, 2011).

Traditional medicine, is as old as creation itself. The importance of plants for medicinal purposes

is revealed in many verses of the Bible among which Ezekiel 47:12 ‘’the fruit of trees shall be

for eating and the leaves for medicine” is very notable. For Africa, traditional medicine is a

holistic concept which covers nature, the sociological environment whether living or dead and

the metaphysical forces of the universe (Okunlola, 2007; Mafimisebi & Fakoya, 2007). In

Nigeria before 1873 when the Lagos General Hospital was established, there was no record of

Orthodox medicine (OM) practice. Following this, a make-shift temporary civil hospital was

built in Asaba (now in Delta State of Nigeria) in 1888. A Government Hospital was also built in
Calabar in 1898 as a result of the wide impact the first two hospitals made on the indigenes and

the colonial personnel and their families (Fasola, 2006). As OM received official and

government promotion and funding, people were made to believe that it was a better alternative

to traditional medicine. Traditional medicine was thereafter adjudged by the colonial authorities

to be dangerous and inimical to health. Sermons by some sects in the Christian religion also

equated traditional medicine to idol worship (Fasola, 2006). Furthermore, some deficiencies

inherent in the practice of traditional medicine such as lack of standardization of the prescribed

dosage are making a growing number of elites to disdain it. As a result, the practice of traditional

medicine was completely left unorganized and scientifically undeveloped.

Nigeria, like any other typical African country, is an agrarian economy in which agriculture and

agro-allied enterprises are the most popular income-generating activities providing employment

for up to 90% of the rural dwellers (World Bank, 1993). The rural populace, which constitutes

about 70% of the country’s total population and provides virtually all of the nation’s home-

produced food, usually has little or no access to quality orthodox medicine (OM). In addition,

disease incidences are higher in the rural areas because of higher levels of illiteracy, poverty and

ignorance (National Bureau of Statistics, 2006). These rural dwellers rely almost exclusively on

traditional medicine for their healthcare needs in order to remain economically active. Were it

not for traditional medicine therefore, it is probable that the food problem in Nigeria would have

been more acute than it presently is ((Mafimisebi Oguntade & Mafimisebi, 2008).

In recent years there has been a growing interest in Traditional Medicine and their relevance to

public health both in developed and developing countries. Diversity, easy accessibility, broad

continuity, relative low cost, low levels of technological input, relatively low side effects and

growing economic importance are some of the positive features of Traditional Medicine. Poor or
inadequate supply and utilization of information to traditional health practitioners may poses a

lot of problem in primary health care delivery in Nigeria hence this study. This study aims to

access the traditional medicine use and information sources among rural households in Ahoada

West LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Ill-health is a great factor that brings about the absenteeism of individual at work as well as the

absence of farmers from the farm. It greatly reduces farmers yield and income accruable from

farm production due to loss of man days at work which in turn increases the poverty level of

farmers. In order to prevent this, curative measures are used, in recent times, there seems to be a

drastic shift by some farmers from orthodox drugs to herbal products in curing their ailment.

Ulimwengu (2009) indicated that healthy farmers who were found to produce more per unit of

inputs, earn more income and supply more labour than farmers affected by sickness. Production

inefficiency increases significantly with the number of days lost to sickness. Ajani and Ugwu

(2008) also found that a one percent improvement in a farmers’ health condition led to a 31

percent increase in efficiency and farmers spent as much as 13% of their total household

expenditure on treatment of malaria alone using traditional medicine. In Tanzania, a study of

vegetable farmer reported that 68% of farmers who used pesticides reported having felt sick after

routine pesticides application (Ngowi, Mbise, Ijani,. London & Ajayi, 2007).

Despite the availability of modern health care options, rural farmers continue to rely heavily on

traditional medicine for their needs leading to concerns about the efficacy, safety and

accessibility of these practices (WHO, 2022). The use of traditional medicine among farmers is

often driven by cultural beliefs, limited access to modern to modern healthcare facilities and
economic constraint (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNISEF].

2020). However, the lack of regulation and standardization of traditional medicine practices can

result in inconsistent quality, potential toxicity and adverse interactions with modern medications

(National Institutes of Health, 2020). Furthermore, the reliance on traditional medicine may also

lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment of serious health conditions, worsening health disparities

among rural farming communities (Rural Health Hub, 2022). It is also interesting and worthy of

note that the National Agency for food, drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC) have

encouraged some Traditional Medicine practitioners by registration of Traditional Medicines and

approving the usage of Traditional Medicines and approving the usage of Traditional Medicine

with approved NAFDAC numbers. This is done in recognition of the efficacy of Traditional

Medicine.

There is a rising cost of imported medication and other commodities used for medicines. it is

important to stress the use of Traditional Medicine and their source of information as a

researchable issue among farmers in Ahoada West LGA, Rivers State. Most farmers in the rural

communities don’t have access to orthodox medicine and it is estimated that over 75% of the

populace still prefers to solve their health problems consulting traditional healers (Awudu, 2000)

Therefore, this study seeks to examine the traditional medicine use and information sources

among rural households in Ahoada West LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to examine traditional medicine use and information sources

among rural households in Ahoada West Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria.

The specific objectives of this study are to:

 i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of the rural household heads in the study

area;

ii. to identify the types of traditional medicine used by rural households for various health

conditions,

iii. to identify the sources of information that rural households rely on for traditional

medicine knowledge,

iv. to investigate the reason for preference of traditional medicine among rural households in

the study area,

1.5 Justification of the Study

Rural households in Nigeria rely on traditional medicine for healthcare due to limited access to

modern healthcare facilities and services. Despite its significance, there is a paucity of research

on traditional medicine use and information sources among rural households in Nigeria,

particularly in Ahoada West LGA. Understanding traditional medicine use and information

sources can inform policy decisions and interventions aimed at improving healthcare outcomes

in rural areas. Studying traditional medicine use can identify opportunities for integrating

traditional and modern healthcare practices, enhancing healthcare delivery in rural areas. By

exploring information sources, the study can identify ways to improve health literacy and

empower rural households to make informed healthcare decisions. This study contributes to

achieving global health goals, such as Universal Health Coverage (UHC) and the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs), by addressing healthcare disparities in rural Nigeria. The study

addresses gaps in knowledge on traditional medicine use, information sources, and healthcare-

seeking behaviors among rural households, providing insights for future research and

interventions. By investigating traditional medicine use and information sources among rural
households in Ahoada West LGA, this study aims to contribute to the body of knowledge on

healthcare in rural Nigeria, informing policies and interventions that promote healthcare access,

equity, and quality.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The scope of this study is to examine the traditional medicine use and information sources

among rural farmers in Ahoada West LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria. It is delineated to describing

the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers in the study area, identify the types of

traditional medicine used by rural farmers for various health conditions, identify the sources of

information that rural families rely on for traditional medicine knowledge and to investigate the

reason for preference to traditional medicine among rural farmers in the study area,
 CHAPTER TWO
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Chapter two will be under the following headings

2.1 History of traditional medicine

2.2 African traditional medicine

2.3 Types of traditional medicines

2.4 Uses of traditional medicines

2.5 Types of sickness experienced by rural households

2.6 Information sources of traditional medicine

2.7 Benefit of the traditional medicine

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Study Area

The study area is Ahoada West Local Government Area (LGA). it is a region in Rivers State,

Nigeria. it is location in the western part of Rivers State with 5°5′11″N 6°28′31″E coordinates.

Ahoada West Local Government Area is bounded by the following LGAs: Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni

Local Government Area, Abua/Odual Local Government Area, Ahoada East Local Government

Area on the east, we have Besini and Yenagoa both of Bayelsa State on the North and West

respectively (Ahoada West Nigeria History, 2024) An annual rainfall of 2,400 mm - 3,000 mm,

its population is approximately 250,000 people (National Population Commission, 2006) and a

projected population of 290,000 people as at 2022 (Rivers State Government, 2022) It is

characterized by tropical rainforests, rivers, and wetlands. It was extracted in 1996 in the General

Sani Abacha military regime from the old Ahoada Local Government that makes up the present

Orashi Region of Rivers State. Its seat is in the town of Akinima.(Ahoada West Nigeria History,

2024)

The Local Government Area (LGA) comprises the Ekpeyes (Ubies and Ibuduyas), Engenni and

Ogbogolo communities. Thus, there are three distinct languages namely, Ekpeye, Engenni and

Ogbogolo. The Orashi River criss-crosses which is at the lower basin of the Niger River, the

entire Local Government area and its vegetation is mainly a high dense rain forest. Thus, the

occupations of the Ahoada West people are mainly farming, fishing, and hunting. (Ahoada West

Nigeria History, 2024).

3.2. Method of Sampling.
Two-stage sampling technique will be used in this study. Firstly, 5 communities will be

purposely selected because of the prevalence of kidnaping in the study area; Mbiama, Okogbe,

Olokogbe, Odiologboji and Akinima. Out of the five (5) communities, ten (10) households will

be randomly selected, making a total of fifty (50) respondents will be the total sample for the

study.

3.3. Method of Data Collection

Data for this study will be collected with the aid of structured questionnaire. The questionnaire

will be used to elicit information on the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers in the

study area, the types of traditional medicine used by rural farmers for various health conditions,

identify the sources of information that rural families rely on for traditional medicine knowledge

and to investigate the reason for preference of traditional medicine among rural farmers in the

study area,

3.4. Method of Data Analysis

Descriptive statistical tools such as frequency distributions, means, percentages and multiple

responses will be used to analyze the objectives. Tables will be used for data presentation.
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 APPENDIX

Department of Agricultural Economics,

Extension and Rural Development,
Faculty of Agriculture, Niger Delta University,
Wilberforce Island,
Bayelsa State.
Dear Respondent,

A REQUEST TO RESPOND TO A QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a final year student of the above-mentioned University, currently carrying out a research
project on the topic Traditional Medicine use and Information Sources Among
Rural Farmers in Ahoada West Local Government Area, Rivers State,
Nigeria. The questionnaire is a part of the research procedure that will enable me to gather
adequate information to give my work authenticity, reliability and consistency. Therefore, your
sincere assistance is needed by providing information to the questions. This research work is
strictly for academic purpose and any information supplied shall be treated in utmost
confidentiality.
Thanks for your co-operation.

Yours Faithfully,

_________________

Egwu, Clement Onisomise

Researche
 QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTION: please, indicate by ticking [✓]against the option that is applicable to you.

SECTION A: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

a) Sex: Male Female
b) Age of Respondent: 20 – 29 Years 30 – 39 Years 40 – 49 Years 50 – 59 Years
60 and Above
c) Marital Status: Single Married Separated Divorced
d) Farming Experience: 1 – 10 years 11 – 20 Years 21 – 30 Years 31 – 40 years
41 and above
e) House hold size: (a) 1 – 4 (b) 5 – 8 (c) 9 – 12
f) Level of education:
a) No formal education [ ]
b) Primary education [ ]
c) Secondary education [ ]
d) Tertiary education [ ]
g) Are you a member of farmers’ cooperative society (a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ]
h) Do you have access to credit? (a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ]

SECTION B: TYPES OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINES USED IN THE STUDY AREA

1. Scent leaves [ ]
2. Bitter leaves [ ]
3. Neem (Dogoyaro) [ ]
4. Yoruba Orishas (using spiritual practices and ritual) [ ]
5. Hausa traditional medicine ( use of plants and animal minerals) [ ]
6. Traditional bones setting [ ]
7. Olopa (respiratory diseases such as asthma, cough etc.) [ ]
8. Ewe (treatment of digestive issues such as dysentery, diarrhea stomach ulcers) [ ]
9. Agbo, [ ]

SECTION C: SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

1. What are your sources of information for traditional medicine

a) The internet [ ]
 b) Traditional medicine practitioners [ ]
c) Friends and family [ ]
d) Advertisements on television and radio [ ]
e) Worshops and seminar [ ]
f) Books and articles [ ]
g) Medical health personnels [ ]
h) Agricultural extension agents [ ]
i. to identify the sources of information that rural families rely on for traditional medicine

knowledge

ii. to investigate the perceived effectiveness of traditional medicine among rural farmers in

the study area,

SECTION D: PREFERENCE OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

10. Why do you prefer traditional medicine?
a. They are effective [ ]
b. They are cheaper [ ]
c. They are readily available [ ]
d. They are natural [ ]
e. They don’t have side effects [ ]
f. They can be self made [ ]
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 African Traditional Medicine

African Traditional Medicine is the oldest, and perhaps the most assorted, of all therapeutic

systems. Africa is considered to be the cradle of mankind with a rich biological and cultural

diversity marked by regional differences in healing practices (Gurib-Fakim, 2006; Aone, 2001).

African Traditional Medicine in its varied forms is holistic involving both the body and the mind.

The traditional healer typically diagnoses and treats the psychological basis of an illness before

prescribing medicines, particularly medicinal plants to treat the symptoms (Gurib-Fakim, 2006;

Aone, 2001; Gurib-Fakim and Mahomoodally 2013; Gurib-Fakim, Brendler, Phillips, and Eloff,

2010). The sustained interest in Traditional Medicine in the African healthcare system can be

justified by two major reasons. The first one is inadequate access to allopathic medicines and

western forms of treaTraditional Medicineents, whereby the majority of people in Africa cannot

afford access to modern medical care either because it is too costly or because there are no

medical service providers. Second, there is a lack of effective modern medical treaTraditional

Medicineent for some ailments such as malaria and/or HIV/AIDS, which, although global in

distribution, disproportionately affect Africa more than other areas in the world.

The most common Traditional Medicine in common practice across the African continent is the

use of medicinal plants. In many parts of Africa, medicinal plants are the most easily accessible

health resource available to the community. In addition, they are most often the preferred option

for the patients. For most of these people, traditional healers offer information, counseling, and

treaTraditional Medicineent to patients and their families in a personal manner as well as having

an understanding of their patient’s environment ( Gurib-Fakim, 2006; Aone; 2001; Gurib-Fakim

and Mahomoodally, 2013). Indeed, Africa is blessed with enormous biodiversity resources and it

is estimated to contain between 40 and 45,000 species of plant with a potential for development

and out of which 5,000 species are used medicinally. This is not surprising since Africa is

located within the tropical and subtropical climate and it is a known fact that plants accumulate

important secondary metabolites through evolution as a natural means of surviving in a hostile

environment (Manach, Scalbert, Morand, Rémésy, and Jiménez, 2004). Because of her tropical

conditions, Africa has an unfair share of strong ultraviolet rays of the tropical sunlight and

numerous pathogenic microbes, including several species of bacteria, fungi, and viruses,

suggesting that African plants could accumulate chemopreventive substances more than plants

from the northern hemisphere. Interestingly, Abegaz et al. (2004) have observed that of all

species of Dorstenia (Moraceae) analysed, only the African species, Dorstenia mannii Hook.f, a

perennial herb growing in the tropical rain forest of Central Africa contained more biological

activity than related species (Manach, Scalbert, Morand, Rémésy, and Jiménez, 2004; Abegaz,

Ngadjui and Folefoc, 2004).

2.2 Importance of Traditional Medicine

Importance of Traditional Medicine cannot be overemphasized, as such, Hill (2003), stated that

traditional healing has been a practices designed to promote mental, physical and spiritual well-

being that are based on beliefs which go back to the time before the spread of western scientific

bio-medicine. The appropriation of culture has had impacts on tradition as we currently

understand it. World Health Organization (2002) made it known that populations throughout

Africa, Asia and Latin America use Traditional Medicine to help meet their primary health care

needs. As the economic importance of traditional knowledge and medicinal plants based

products and services are growing, they provide employment opportunities to various people and
at the same time it raises concerns about availability of medicinal plants, increasing costs of the

herbal products in domestic market especially for marginalized population and a dilution of

classical practices. In post-independence Africa, efforts have been made to recognize Traditional

Medicine as important aspect of health care delivery system in Africa. World Health

Organization (2002) gave an instance with Nigeria by stating that in the 1980’s, policies were put

in place to accredit and register native healers and regulate their practice. WHO (2001) stated

that in 1981, the national council on health unanimously approved the establishment of a

National Traditional Healers Board at the federal level involving representatives of federal and

state government. Under the present care reform of the Federal Government of Nigeria,

Traditional Medicine is purportedly recognized as an important component of health care

delivery system especially at the primary care level (Oyelacin, 2009). However, for such health

care services to be improved there is the need for exchange of information for the purpose of

standardizing the product.

2.3 Challenges Faced by Traditional Medicine

Discourses about the impact of colonialism in Africa are clouded by a mixture of ‘fortune’ and

‘agony’. Some scholars (such as Olsson, 2009) are of the opinion that the process of

modernisation in Africa is intrinsically connected with foreign intervention particularly in areas

of health and democracy. For example, Curtin (1998) argues that the period between 1840 and

1860 marked a significant and rapid innovation in tropical medicine, particularly, the invention

of quinine to stem the scourge of malaria in the most endemic region of the world. From this

point of view, the institutionalisation of the modern health care system can, therefore, be seen as

one of the many ‘legacies’ of Western encroachment in Africa. On the contrary, there are those

who believe that Western invasion was/is a set-back in the process of development in Africa
(Afisi, 2009) particularly in ‘modes of knowledge production’ (Taiwo, 1993: 891). These

scholars mention slavery, capitalism, colonialism and imperialism, neo-colonialism and all forms

of dominations and exploitations that were/are embedded in these epochs as major stumbling-

blocks in the actualisation of indigenous African development. Indeed, the current political and

socio-economic crises in Africa are attributed to colonialism and its attributes.

Similarly, while some critics of colonialism have focused on the economic and political impacts,

others have shifted attention to the impact of colonialism on indigenous knowledge system (IKS)

(Mapara, 2009) especially knowledge of medicine (Feierman, 2002; Konadu, 2008; Millar,

2004). Such arguments underscore the negative impact of colonialism on indigenous medicine. It

is explained that the introduction of Western medicine and culture gave rise to ‘cultural-

ideological clash’ which had hitherto created an unequal power-relation that practically

undermined and stigmatised the traditional health care system in Africa because of the over-

riding power of the Western medicine. This became manifested in South Africa during the

Apartheid regime.

According to Hassim et al. (2010) a century of colonialism, cultural imperialism and apartheid in

South Africa have held back the development of African traditional health care in general and

medicines in particular. During several centuries of conquest and invasion, European systems of

medicine were introduced by colonisers. Pre-existing African systems were stigmatised and

marginalised. Indigenous knowledge systems were denied the chance to systematise and

develop.

In some extreme cases, traditional medicine was outrightly banned. For instance, the South

African Medical Association outlawed traditional medical system in South Africa in 1953

(Hassim, et al., 2010). In addition, the Witchcraft Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft
Suppression Amendment Act of 1970 also declared traditional medicine unconstitutional thereby

disallowing the practitioners from doing their business in South Africa (Hassim et aal, 2010).

The ban of traditional medicine was partially based on the belief that the conception of disease

and illness in Africa was historically embedded in “witchcraft” where, in Western knowledge,

witchcraft reinforces “backwardness”, “superstition” and “dark continent”. However, recent

studies have shown that etiologies of illnesses in Africa are viewed from both natural and

supernatural perspectives (Bello, 2006; Erinosho,2005, 2006). The subjugation of traditional

medicine continued in most African countries even after independence. Indeed, local efforts were

initiated to challenge the condemnation and stigmatisation of traditional medicinein some

African communities during and after colonialism. Erinosho (2006) reported that the first protest

against the marginalisation of traditional medicine in Nigeria is dated back to 1922 when a group

of native healers insisted that their medicine be legally recognised.

In post independence Africa, concerted efforts have been made to recognise traditional medicine

as important aspect of health care delivery system in Africa. For instance, in Nigeria, the Federal

Government through the Ministry of Health encouraged and authorised the University of Ibadan

in 1966 to conduct research into the medicinal properties of local herbs with a view to

standardise and regulate traditional medicine(WHO, 2001). In 1980s, policies were put in place

to accredit and register native healers and regulate their practice. In 1981, the National Council

on Health (NCH) unanimously approved the establishment of a National Traditional Healers’

Board at the Federal level involving representatives of the Federal and State governments which

was to be duplicated at the State levels. Under the present health care reform of the Federal

Government of Nigeria, traditional medicineis purportedly recognised as an important

component of health care delivery system especially at the primary care level (Federal Ministry
of Health (FmoH), 2004). The Federal Government of Nigeria has established the Nigeria

Natural Medicine Development Agency (NNMDA) to study, collate, document, develop,

preserve and promote Nigerian Traditional Medicine products and practices and to also fast-track

the integration of the traditional medicineinto the mainstream of modern health care system in

line with happenings in China and India (The Sun news online, 2010). However, the lingering

mutual distrust between allopathic and traditional practitioners in Africa has continuously

hampered and thwarted the process of integration and cooperation between traditional and

modern medicines (Nevin 2001) as well as the difficulties in regulating traditional medical

practices. On the whole, Western-trained physicians appear unwilling to allow traditional

medicineand their practitioners included in the official system of medical care in Africa. For

instance, Ebomoyi (2009) found out that Nigerian medical students have reservation for the

integration of traditional medicineinto the mainstream of health care provision in the country.

This is an indication that not much is being done in medical schools to encourage the teaching of

traditional medicineas they keep unfolding in some parts of the world.

2.4. Information Sources of Traditional Medicine

The knowledge and practices related to the use of medicinal plants for the treaTraditional

Medicineent of human and animal diseases has been handed down from generation to generation

in different cultures worldwide. In recent years, the traditional uses of numerous medicinal plants

have been corroborated by scientific evidence (Bischoff, Vogl, Ivemeyer, Klarer, Meier,

Hamburger and Walkenhorst, 2007). The use of biological resources for medicinal purposes,

however, is not restricted to human disease treaTraditional Medicineent, being also widely

employed for treating diseases of livestock (Lans, Nancy, Gerhard, Grant, Karla, 2006). These

uses fall within the remit of ethno-veterinary medicine (EVM). The ethno-veterinary
pharmacopoeia often contains ingredients sourced from various locations within the environment

and may include plants, animals, and minerals (Bartha, Quave, Balogh, Papp, 2015).

In former times, the knowledge of medicinal plants was passed down orally from generation to

generation; however, in modern Western societies of Europe, traditional knowledge is in danger

of disappearing (Anyinam, 1995). Ethno-veterinary surveys, on the preparation and utilization of

herbal remedies have been conducted in Palestine, Latin America, Iran, Spain, Italy, Algeria,

Morocco, Southern Italy, Brazil, Pakistan, India, and Polish-Lithuanian-Belarusian borderland

(Pieroni, Howard, Volpato, and Santoro, 2004; Ali-Shtayeh and Jamous, 2016; Baharvand-

Ahmadi and Asadi-Samani, 2017; Akerreta, Calvo and Cavero, 2010; Benarba, Belabid, Righi,

Bekkar, Elouissi, Khaldi and Hamimed, 2015; Barkaoui, Katiri, Boubaker and Msanda, 2017; Di

Sanzo, De Martino, Mancini and De Feo, 2013; Piluzza, Virdis, Serralutzu and Bullitta, 2015;

Bullitta, Piluzza and Viegi, 2007; Sindhu, Ullah, Abbas, Iqbal and Hameed, 2012; Yadav, Rajput

and Mishra, 2016; Kujawska, Klepacki and Łuczaj, 2017; Martínez and Luján, 2011).

The recovery of traditional plant knowledge (TPK) linked to their medicinal use is one of the

most urgent and immediate issues needing attention, as confirmed by international researches.

The preservation of popular traditions can contribute not only to identify new uses of plant

species and to maintain ethno-biodiversity, but eventually to discover also novel biologically

active compounds to treat diseases (Menale, De Castro, Cascone and Muoio, 2016).