INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
Causes of Indian National Movement :-
The rise of national consciousness in India took place towards the latter half of the 19th century
only. Before that, there were struggles and battles against British colonialism but they were all
confined to smaller areas and in any case, did not encompass the whole of India. In fact, some
scholars at the time did not consider India to be a country. Though political union had occurred
in the past under great kings like Ashoka and Akbar and under the Marathas to an extent, they
were not permanent. However, cultural unity was always seen and foreign powers always
referred to the subcontinent as India or Hind as being one entity, despite being ruled by many
rulers.
It can be said that the national movement, with the political and social emancipation of the
people as its aim, arose in India in 1885, with the formation of the Indian National Congress.
Causes of the rise of the National Movement in India
Western education: Macaulay had instituted a western educational system in India with the
sole aim of creating a class of educated Indians who could serve their colonial masters in the
administration of the ‘natives’. This idea sort of backfired because it created a class of Indians
who became exposed to the liberal and radical thoughts of European writers who expounded
liberty, equality, democracy and rationality. Also, the English language united Indians from
various regions and religions.
Vernacular languages: The 19th century also saw the revival of vernacular languages. This
helped the propagation of the ideas of liberty and rational thought to the masses.
End of the old social order: British imperialism put an end to the old social order of the country.
This was resented by many Indians.
Socio-religious reform movements: Socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century
helped a great deal in the rise of nationalism in India. These movements sought to remove
superstition and societal evils prevalent then, and spread the word of unity, rational and
scientific thought, women empowerment and patriotism among the people. Notable reformers
were Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule and so on.
Economic policies of the British: The oppressive economic policies of the British led to
widespread poverty and indebtedness among the Indians especially farmers. Famines which led
to the deaths of lakhs were a regular occurrence. This led to a bitter sense of suppression and
sowed the seeds of a yearning for liberty from foreign rule.
Political unity: Under the British, most parts of India were put under a single political set-up.
The system of administration was consolidated and unified throughout all regions. This factor
led to the feeling of ‘oneness’ and nationhood among Indians.
Communications network: The British built a network of roads, railways, post and telegraph
systems in the country. This led to increased movements of people from one part of the country
to another and increased the flow of information. All this accelerated the rise of a national
movement in India.
Growth of the modern press: This period also saw the rise of the Indian press, both in English
and in the regional languages. This also was an important factor that helped in the
dissemination of information.
Lord Lytton’s policies: Lord Lytton was the Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880. In 1876, there
was a famine in south Indian which saw the deaths of almost 10 million people. His trading
policies were criticised for having aggravated the famine. Also, he conducted the grand Delhi
Durbar in 1877 spending huge amount of money at a time when people were dying of hunger.
Lytton also passed the Vernacular Press Act 1878 which authorised the government to
confiscate newspapers that printed ‘seditious material’. He also passed the Arms Act 1878 which
prohibited Indians from carrying weapons of any kind without licenses. The act excluded
Englishmen.
Legacy of the Revolt of 1857: After the Revolt of 1857 and its bitter crushing by the British,
there was deep racial tension between the British and the Indians.
Ilbert Bill controversy: In 1883, the Ilbert Bill was introduced which gave Indian judges the
power to hear cases against European, by the then Viceroy Lord Ripon and Sir Courtenay Ilbert,
the legal advisor to the Council of India. But there was a huge outcry against this bill from
Britishers in India and in Britain. Arguments made against this bill displayed the deep racial
prejudice the English had for Indians. This also exposed the true nature of British colonialism to
the educated Indians.
National movements outside the country: There were many national movements outside the
country that inspired the Indian nationalists like the French Revolution, the American War of
Independence and so on.
ROLE OF MAHATMA GANDHI IN THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE MOVEMENT
Mahatma Gandhi Movements: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) was born on
October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat. He earned a degree in law from England in 1891. Before
entering Indian politics in 1915, he was in South Africa from 1893 to 1914. In the course of his
struggle in South Africa, he developed his political philosophy based on non-violence and
Satyagraha to give a new direction to the mass movement.
The emergence of Mahatma Gandhi in Indian politics marked the beginning of a new phase in
the Indian national movement, the phase of mass movements.
Arrival of Gandhi in India
Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. His efforts were well known in South Africa,
not just among the educated but also among the common people. Following Gopal Krishna
Gokhale’s advice, he spent a year travelling across British India to understand the country’s real
conditions and connect with its people.
In February 1916, Gandhiji made his first major public appearance at the Banaras Hindu
University inauguration. In his speech, he criticized Indian nationalism as being elitist and not
reflective of the masses.
He expressed his desire to transform the nationalist movement into one that truly represented
the broader Indian population, including the rural poor and marginalized communities.
This marked the beginning of his efforts to make the freedom struggle more inclusive and
rooted in the everyday lives of ordinary Indians.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
Champaran Satyagraha was the first attempt at mobilising the Indian masses by Gandhi at the
invitation of Rajkumar Shukla in the context of the indigo peasants of Champaran. This
Gandhian Movement was the First Civil Disobedience in India.
It was primarily triggered by the oppressive ‘Tinkathia system’, under which peasants were
forced to cultivate indigo on 3/20th (15%) of their total land.
Gandhi intervened in the matter but was asked to leave the place by the authorities. However,
Gandhi refused to leave, thus disobeying the order.
Eventually, Gandhi was able to convince the government about the illness of the tinkathia
system and to look into the matter.
Government appointed a committee to go into the matter and nominated Gandhi as a member.
As a result, the tinkathia system was abolished, and in a compromise settlement, only 25 % of
the money taken by peasants was compensated.
Participants include Rajendra Prasad, Narhari Parekh, and J.B. Kripalani
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
Following the Champaran Satyagraha, the next step in mobilising the masses was the workers of
Ahmedabad’s urban centre. Ahmedabad Mill Strike was the result of a disagreement between
the textile workers and the mill owners that arose in March 1918 regarding the end of the
plague bonus. Mill owners paid bonuses of 75% of their salary to retain the workers during the
outbreak of the plague in 1917. But, after the end of the plague, workers were demanding an
increase of 50 % in wages while mill owners were advocating discontinuance of the bonus. As a
result, a deadlock was created. Gandhi intervened at the request of Anusuya Sarabhai and
undertook a fast unto death. As a result, owners agreed to the 35% wage hike.
This was the first movement where fasting, a means of self-suffering to create moral pressure,
was used by Gandhi as a political weapon in India.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
Kheda Satyagraha was the first instance of Non-Cooperation led by Gandhi in the Indian
National Movement. It took place in 1918 when, due to the failure of the monsoon, peasants in
the Kheda district faced severe distress and demanded revenue relief from the government in
light of crop failure and rising prices.
According to the government’s famine code, cultivators were entitled to total remission if crop
yield fell below 25% of the average. But the authorities rejected it. As a result, peasants turned
to Gandhi. Gandhi intervened on behalf of the poor peasants, advising them to withhold
payment and ‘fight unto death against such a spirit of vindictiveness and tyranny.’
The government ordered it to be restrained in the collection of revenues (collected only from
those ryots who could afford to pay) and not to confiscate lands. Gandhi decided to withdraw
from the struggle.
Satyagraha Against Rowlatt Act (1919)
Gandhi launched Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act, which was based on the recommendations
of a Sedition Committee formed in 1917 under Justice Sidney Rowlatt to suppress revolutionary
activities and investigate ‘seditious conspiracy’.
The committee’s proposals led to the Rowlatt Act (Anarchic and Revolutionary Offenses Act of
1919), passed by the Imperial Legislative Council, aiming to curtail civil liberties of the Indian
people.
The Rowlatt Act allowed political and revolutionary activists to be tried without judicial
proceedings or even imprisoned without trial for two years. It also suspended the right to
habeas corpus and the right to appeal. (Read more about Types of Writs)
Gandhiji called it the “Black Act” and launched the satyagraha against the Act. It involved
fasting, praying, disobeying laws, and risking arrest and imprisonment. The satyagraha brought
Gandhi to the center of the Indian national movement. Gandhi also organized Satyagraha
Sabha, his organization, to carry out the movement. However, due to the violence in some parts
of India, Gandhi had to call off the Satyagraha.
Gandhi’s ability to connect with the masses was demonstrated during this Satyagraha. Gandhian
ideology and methods for the freedom struggle (Non-violence and Satyagraha) were introduced
to the Indian masses.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1921-22)
Non-Cooperation Movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 as a response to the
horrific Jallianwala Bagh massacre, which occurred amidst widespread protests against the
repressive Rowlatt Act. In September 1920, the Congress held a special session in Calcutta and
resolved to accept Gandhi’s proposal of non-cooperation with the British government until
Khilafat and Punjab grievances were addressed and self-government was established. This
Gandhian movement was merged with the Khilafat movement, which demanded that the
Turkish Sultan or Khalifa retain control over the Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman
empire.
Methods: Non-cooperation movement included the boycott of schools, colleges, courts,
government offices, legislatures, and foreign goods and the return of government-conferred
titles and awards.
Withdrawal: Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the non-cooperation movement following the Chauri
Chaura incident on 5 February 1922, in which 23 police officers were killed. After the
withdrawal, he focused on the constructive programme of social reforms.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34)
Civil Disobedience Movement, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, was the second major mass
movement following the Non-Cooperation Movement and marked a significant step forward in
expanding the social base of India’s freedom struggle.
Gandhi declared at the Calcutta Congress in 1928 that the British must grant India dominion
status, or the country would erupt in a revolution for complete independence. The British paid
no attention to this. As a result, INC in its Lahore session (1929) demanded ‘Punra Swaraj’, and
decided to celebrate 26th January as ‘Independence Day’. It also declared that a civil
disobedience movement would be started under the leadership of Gandhi.
Gandhi announced the ‘Dandi March’ against the unjust tax on salt as part of the movement.
On April 6, 1930, he violated the salt regulations, thereby launching the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
Induced by Gandhi’s extraordinary endeavours at Dandi, defiance of the salt laws spread
throughout the country. However, it was halted for a period after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
When the movement was resumed after the failure of the Second Round Table conference, it
began to dwindle towards the end of 1932. It was officially withdrawn in May 1934.
Quit India Movement (1942)
Quit India Movement (August Kranti Movement) was the ‘third great wave’ of India’s struggle
for freedom, launched on August 8, 1942, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. This
Gandhian Movement was more of a rejection of British rule than a traditional Satyagraha, and it
influenced the unprecedented and tumultuous events that occurred in Indian history over the
next five years.
It was the result of Indian disillusionment with British rule, with the immediate causes being the
failure of the Cripps mission and the hardships caused by World War II.
On August 8, 1942, the All India Congress Committee met at Gowalia Tank in Bombay and
passed the famous Quit India Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi issued his ‘Do or Die’ call. It
demanded an end to British rule in India with immediate effect, the formation of a provisional
government after the war and the declaration of free India.
As a result, major leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested and imprisoned
without trial by British officials. However, the protests continued across the country with huge
mass participation.
Although it did not immediately achieve its goals, it contributed to the weakening of British rule
and paved the way for the independence of India.
