Introduction to Pharmacology

Pharmacology is the study of how drugs and chemicals affect living organisms.
It's a multidisciplinary science that combines knowledge from biology, chemistry,
and physiology to understand how drugs work in the body.

Pharmacokinetics: Pharmacokinetics defines as the kinetics of drug absorption,

distribution, metabolism and excretion and their relationship with the
pharmacological, therapeutical and toxicological response in man and animals. In
short, it means what body does to the drug.

Pharmacodynamics: Pharmacodynamics is the study of the effects of drugs on

the body and the mechanisms of drug action and the relationships between drug
concentration and effect. Pharmacodynamics is often summarized as the study of
what a drug does to the body.

Bioavailability: The fraction of administered drug dose that enters the systemic
circulation and is available to produce drug effects.

Biopharmaceutics: Pharmaceuticals derived from biological sources (e.g .

proteins, gene sequence) and manufactured using biotechnology methods such as
recombinant DNA technology.

Controlled substance: Drug whose possession and distribution are restricted

because of its potential for abuse as determined by federal or state law. Controlled
substances are placed in schedules according to their abuse potential and effects if
abused.

Dosage form: Drug formulation (e.g_, capsule, tablet, solution).

Dose: Amount of a drug required for one application or administration.
Dosing schedule: How frequently a drug dose is administered (e.g.., "four times
a day")_
Drug: Substance used to diagnose, treat, cure, prevent, or mitigate disease in
humans or other animals. (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2012).

Drug delivery system: Dosage form or device designed to release a specific

amount of drug.
Enteral: Drug dosage form that is administered orally.

Legend drugs: Drugs that are required by state or federal law to be dispensed by
a prescription only. Prescriptions must be written for a legitimate medical condition
and issued by a practitioner authorized to prescribe.
Materia medica: Medicinal materials.

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs: Drugs that may be obtained without a

prescription
Parenteral: Drug dosage form that is administered by injection or infusion.
Pharmacognosy: Science dealing with the biological; biochemical features of
natural drugs and their constituents. It is the study of drugs of plant and animal
origins.

Pharmacology: Study of drugs and their interactions with living systems,

including chemical and physical properties, toxicology, and therapeutics

Pharmacotherapy: Use of drugs in the treatment of disease. Toxicology: Science

dealing with the study of poison.

History of Medicines and their use

Plants have been collected, cultivated, and harvested for their healing properties
and used in the treatment of illness for centuries. Contributors to the current
knowledge about drugs span the globe. Records dating as early as 3000 BC
document the pharmacological knowledge by the people of ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India, and China. Papyrus Ebers (1550 sc), which was found in Egypt
and describes more than 700 medical compounds and lists more than 811
prescriptions, is thought to be a copy clan ancient manuscript that dates to 3000
BC. More than 800 clay tablets have been unearthed describing more than 500
remedies in Mesopotamia. (Persian Gulf 2500 B c) and Emperor Shen Ming is
credited with writing the Pen new Ching (2750 sc) in which more than 1000
medicinal compounds are described and 11,000 prescription remedies are listed,
The Dravyaguna (2500 sc) is an ancient Aryuvcdic manuscript (India) of matria
medial (rnedicin.a1 materials) and includes sources, descriptions, criteria for
identification, properties, methods for preparation, and therapeutic uses of
hundreds of .mcclici nal herbs. Some of the medicinal compounds described in
these ancient manuscripts arc still used today for essentially the same purposes..
For example, castor oil and tincture °pH were described. in Papyrus Ebers,
Theophratus (300 Bc), the 'father ofpharmacology,” was a Greek physician known
for his accu¬rate observation of medicinal plants. By the first centur).,„ Dioscorides,
another Greek physician, described approximately 600 medicinal plants in De
Materia Medica. Alec,. belladonna, ergot, and opium are a few of the medicines
described in the manuscript that are still in use today.
Since the 20th century, research into medicines and the introduction of new drugs
and vaccines have grown exponentially. Anti-infective agents, the discovery of
insulin and its use for the treatment of diabetes, and antiretroviral drugs for the
treatment of HIV/AIDS have all been discovered since the 1930s. The Human
Genome Project, a study of human genes, has provided data useful in
understanding diseases that are caused by genetic defects or linked to heredity. The
study of genes has also enabled scientists to develop new genetically modified
drugs, such as human insulin. Bioengineering is the process used to produce
biopharmaceuticals.
Pharmacology Timeline
3000 BC: lmhotep. Egyptian gad of medicine
2750 BC: Emperor Shen Nung (China) is credited with writing the Pen Trsao Ching. More than
1000 medicinal c ompounds are describe d, and 11,000 prescription remedies are listed_
2500 BC: The Dravyaguna, an ancient Aryuvedic manuscript of medicinal materials, sources,
descriptions, criteria for identification, properties, methods for preparation_ and therapeutic
uses of hundreds of medicinal herbs : is written in India_
1550 BC: Papyrus Ebers : thought to be a copy of an ancient Egyptian manuscript that dates
back to 3000 c, descri.Des more than 700 medical compounds and lists more than 811
prescriptions.
1000 BC: Charaka described more than 2000 medicinal substances (including mercury com -
pounds, e.g., merthiolate), methods to improve palatability, and metrology (measurements
and dosages).
400 BC: H ippocrates, th e "father of medicine"
30D BS: Theophratus, the "father of botany." was a Greek physician known for his accurate
observation of medicinal plants.
AD 100: Dioscorides, the "father of pharmacology," a botanist and pharmacologist, authored
Dioscorides Herbal.
AD 120 to 200: Galen. the "father of ph arm acoth erapy," promoted Humoral theory, the dominant
theory of disease and treatment for more than 1500 years. This theory states that illness
is caused by an imbalance of "humors" and is treated with Simples, Composites. and
Entities.
AD 1000: Avicenna Ibn Sina, known as the "Persian Galen. - whose writings unified pharmaceutical
and medicinal knowledge of his time and whose teachings were accepted in the West until
the 17th century.
AD 1500s: Paracelsus. the "father of th e pharmaceutical revolution," promoted the concept that
disease is a chemical abnormality treated with chemicals. Introduced laudanum, a drug
derived from opium that deadens pain.
Indians of the Americas had pharmacological knowledge of up to 1200 plants. including:
West Indies: guaiacum (evergreen tree)
South America: cocaine (cocoa leaves), curare
Mexico: jalap (laxative)
Peru: quinine (cinchona)
Brazil balsam Tolu (expectorant)
AD 1700$: William Withering (United Kingdom) isolated digitalis from foxglove_
Edward Jenner (United Kingdom) developed the vaccine against cowpox. His research led to
the development of the smallpox vaccine_
Bern and Courtois (Fran cc) discovered iodine, used to treat goiter and to decrease mucus
(mu coI3,rtic).
Joseph Caventou and Pierre Pelletier (France) discovered quinine, which is used to treat
malaria.
Johannes Buchner (Germany) identified salicin from willow bark (ASA) and nicotine in tobacco
(niacin).
Emil von Behring (Germany) worked with antitoxins, resulting in diphtheria and tetanus vaccine.
Gregor Mendel (Austria), a famous scientist and monk : discovered the basis of genetics and
how genes are woven into heredity.
1800s: Frederich Serturner (Germany) extracted morphine from opium.
Louis Pasteur's experiments showing that microorganisms can cause disease and heat can ki I
them became the basis of "germ theory."
1900s: Frederick Banting and Charles Best (Canada) discovered that insulin lowers blood sugar
levels and can be used to treat diabetes.
Gerhardt Domagk (Germ any) introduced the sulfonamide Prontosil, the first antiinfective agent.
Alexander Fleming (United States) discovered penicillin, a chemical proc..uced by a fungus.
Beyer (United States) was instrumental in the development of thiazide diuretics, derivatives of
sulfonamides, and other drugs.
2000s: Pfizer (United States) was instrumental in developing linezolicl, a synthetic antibiotic
ill the oxazolidinone class_
Sanofi-Aventis (Europe) developed telithromycin, a semisynthetic erythromycin derivative.
Branches and scope of Pharmacology
Pharmacology is a fascinating and complex field that explores how drugs
interact with biological systems. It is divided into several branches, each
focusing on different aspects of drugs and their effects. There are 15
important branches of pharmacology. Each branch offers unique insights
and advancements that contribute to the development of safer and more
effective drugs.

Pharmacodynamics
The word Pharmacodynamics comes from the Greek words pharmakon meaning
drug and dynamikos meaning power. Pharmacodynamics is the study of
physiological or biological effects of drugs on the body. In simple,
pharmacodynamics is nothing but what drug does to the body. Sometimes it is
abbreviated as PD.
Pharmacokinetics
The word Pharmacokinetics comes from the Greek words pharmakon meaning drug
and kinetikos meaning motion. Pharmacokinetics is the study of how body reacts
to the drug. It includes absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drug.
Sometimes it is abbreviated as PK.
Therapeutics
Therapeutics is the branch of pharmacology which deals with the science of drugs
used for disease treatment. It includes the selection, doses and administration of
drugs.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is the branch of pharmacology which used the drugs for the
treatment of cancer. The medicines used in the chemotherapy works by killing the
cancer cell or prevent them to grow.
Toxicology
Toxicology is the branch of pharmacology which deals with the adverse effects of
drugs. It is useful to understand the risk of drugs and develop methods to control
the drug poisoning.
Clinical pharmacology
Clinical pharmacology deals with both pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics. It
is useful to enhance the efficacy of medicine and reduce the adverse effect.
Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is the study of development of new drug from natural resources. It
includes identification, isolation and extraction of active compound mainly from
plants and other natural resources.
Pharmacogenetics
Pharmacogenetics is the branch of pharmacology which studies, how genes affect
the action of body on drug. This branch helps to personalise the drug treatment.
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics is the broader application of genomic technology. To develop
new drug by further characterizing of old drug. This technology involves artificial
joining of DNA of one species to another.
Pharmacoeconomics
This branch of pharmacology deals with the cost of drugs. It includes drug
development, manufacturing and marketing.
Pharmacoepidemiology
Pharmacoepidemiology is the study of drug effects on large population. It includes
drug safety, efficacy and utilization on population.
Comparative pharmacology
Comparative pharmacology is the study of the effects of drugs on different species.
It mainly focuses on the how different species react to the drugs. It helps to develop
new drug.
Animal pharmacology
This is the branch of pharmacology which deals with the study of effects of drug on
animals. It helps to develop new safe and effective drugs on human.
Posology
Posology branch deals with the dosage calculations. The word posology derived
from two Greek words posos meaning how much and logos means study. Learn
more about posology.
Pharmacy
It is the study of the manufacturing formulation and quality control of drug.
Importance of branches of Pharmacology
The branches of pharmacology are crucial because they help us understand and
improve the way drugs interact with the human body. Here are some key reasons
why these branches are so important:
• Improved Drug Development: By understanding the different aspects of drug
action, researchers can develop more effective and safer medications.
• Personalized Medicine: Pharmacogenomics helps tailor treatments to
individual genetic profiles, leading to personalized and more effective
healthcare.
• Clinical Applications: Clinical pharmacology ensures that drugs are tested
and monitored properly, leading to better therapeutic outcomes and patient
safety.
• Preventing Harm: Toxicology helps identify and mitigate the harmful effects
of chemicals and drugs, reducing the risk of poisoning and adverse reactions.
• Better Disease Management: Neuropharmacology and cardiovascular
pharmacology focus on specific systems in the body, leading to targeted
treatments for conditions like mental health disorders and heart diseases.
• Public Health: Pharmacoepidemiology studies the effects of drugs on
populations, which informs public health policies and improves drug safety
on a larger scale.

Basic Principles of Pharmacokinetics

Many factors can influence the therapeutic efficacy of a drug, including
pharmacokinetics, which refers to the passage of drugs into the body, through it,
and out of the body.
Absorption: Describes how the drug moves from the site of administration to the
site of action.
Distribution: Describes the journey of the drug through the bloodstream to various
tissues of the body.
Metabolism: Describes the process that breaks down the drug.
Excretion: Describes the removal of the drug from the body.
Absorption
Absorption is the movement of a drug from its site of administration to the
bloodstream. The rate and extent of drug absorption depend on multiple factors,
such as:
• Route of administration
• The formulation and chemical properties of a drug
• Drug-food interactions
The administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, inhalation) of a drug influences
bioavailability, the fraction of the active form of a drug that enters the bloodstream
and successfully reaches its target site.
When a drug is given intravenously, absorption is not required, and bioavailability
is 100% because the active form of the medicine is delivered immediately to the
systemic circulation. However, orally administered medications have incomplete
absorption and result in less drug delivery to the site of action. For example, many
orally administered drugs are metabolized within the gut wall or the liver before
reaching the systemic circulation. This is referred to as first-pass metabolism, which
reduces drug absorption.
Distribution
The process of drug distribution is important because it can affect how much drug
ends up in the active sites, and thus drug efficacy and toxicity. A drug will move from
the absorption site to tissues around the body, such as brain tissue, fat, and muscle.
Many factors could influence this, such as blood flow, lipophilicity, molecular size,
and how the drug interacts with the components of blood, like plasma proteins.
For example, a drug like warfarin is highly protein-bound, which means only a small
percentage of the drug is free in the bloodstream to exert its therapeutic effects. If
a highly protein-bound drug is given in combination with warfarin, it could displace
warfarin from the protein-binding site and increase the amount that enters the
bloodstream.
Additionally, there are anatomical barriers found in certain organs like the blood-
brain barrier, preventing certain drugs from going into brain tissue. Drugs with
certain characteristics, like high lipophilicity, small size, and molecular weight will
be better able to cross the blood brain barrier.
Metabolism
Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes are responsible for the biotransformation or
metabolism of about 70-80% of all drugs in clinical use.
Generally, when a drug is metabolized through CYP450 enzymes, it results in
inactive metabolites, which have none of the original drug’s pharmacologic activity.
However, certain medications, like codeine, are inactive and become converted in
the body into a pharmacologically active drug. These are commonly referred to as
prodrugs.
Excretion
Elimination involves both the metabolism and the excretion of the drug through the
kidneys, and to a much smaller degree, into the bile.
Excretion into the urine through the kidneys is one of the most important
mechanisms of drug removal.

Basic Principles of Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics covers how drugs act on the body. Drugs can act
through receptor-mediated or non-receptor mediated pathways.
Receptor-mediated drugs act by binding to receptors, which then trigger
signal transduction pathways that result in a response.
Drug
In pharmacy, a drug is a chemical substance that produces a biological
effect when administered to a living organism.
Drug is define as a substance that is use for prevention, diagnosis,
treatment and cure of the disease in animals and humans.
What are drugs used for?
Treating diseases, Curing diseases, Preventing diseases, Diagnosing
diseases, and Promoting well-being.
How are drugs obtained?
• Traditionally, drugs were extracted from medicinal plants
• More recently, drugs have been obtained through organic synthesis

Medicine
Medicine is the formulated form of the drug having a definite dose and
dosage form which is used for prevention, diagnosis, control, and
treatment of disease.
Difference between Drug and Medicine
Sources of drugs
Classification Source Generic Name Use
Plant Foxglove Digitalis Heart failure (CHF)
Chinchona Quinine Malaria
Opium poppy Morphine Pain
Animal Thyroid gland Thyroid, USF' Hypothyroidism
Pancreas Pancreatin Digestive aid
Mineral Silver Silver sulfadiazine Burn s (anti-infectiv.e)
Gold Auranofin Arthritis
Synthetic Synthetic opioid Fentanyl Pain
Red azo dye Sulfonamides Infection
Bioengineering (recombinant Isolated DNA + Eschericilia cr Hepatitis B vaccine* Hepatitis B prevention
DNA technology) bacteria Human insulin' Diabetes mellitus

Drugs may come from natural or synthetic origins. Natural drugs may be
derived from plants (e.g., digitalis, quinine), animals (e.g., thyroid LISP,
pepsin), or minerals (e..g., silver nitrate). Some natural drugs are
administered in their crude form; however, most frequently, the chief
active ingredient(s) are extracted from the crude source.
Synthetic drugs may be a chemical modification of a natural drug or
manufactured entirely from chemical ingredients unrelated to the
Fentanyl is a synthetically manufactured analgesic that is more potent
than the natural drug, morphine (a naturally occurring analgesic derived
from the opium poppy). Drugs may also be produced via the process of
bioengineering. human insulin are examples of biopharmaceuticals.
Biological drugs, also known as biologics, are medicines that come from
living organisms or their products. They are used to treat, diagnose, or
prevent a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune diseases,
and genetic disorders.
How they work
• Biologics are proteins, sugars, nucleic acids, or living entities like
cells and tissues.
• They are made from living organisms, such as plants, animals, or
microorganisms.
• Biologics are often administered through injection or infusion.
• They work by blocking specific proteins or chemical pathways that
cause inflammation.
Examples of biological drugs
Vaccines, Growth factors, Immune modulators, Monoclonal antibodies,
Blood and blood components, and Allergenics.
Why they are different
• Biologics are more complex and larger than other drugs, which are
called "small molecule" drugs.
• They are more expensive to produce than regular drugs.
• They are regulated, tested, and controlled differently than other
medicines.

Prodrug
Prodrugs are some chemical substances which do not produce
pharmacological effects until they are chemically altered within the
body. Such chemical substances are called prodrugs. So basically,
prodrugs are inactive drugs which are converted to active drugs inside
the body by chemical alterations.
How prodrugs work
• Prodrugs are bioreversible, meaning they can be converted back
into the active drug.
• Prodrugs are designed to overcome problems with the parent drug,
such as poor absorption or rapid metabolism.
• Prodrugs can be used to improve the drug's solubility, chemical
stability, and organoleptic properties.
• Prodrugs can be used to reduce the drug's irritation and pain.

Examples of prodrugs and their active metabolites

Prodrug Active Drug

Protonsil Sulfanilamide

Levodopa Dopamine

Talampicillin Ampicillin

Cyclophosphamide Phosphoramide mustard

Diazepam Oxazepam

Azathioprine Mercaptopurine

Cortisone Hydrocortisone

Dipivefrin Adrenaline

Prednisone Prednisolone

Enalapril Enalaprilat
Placebo
Inert substances or treatment which is designed to have no therapeutics
value. It is dummy medicine containing no active substance. Patients who
respond to placebo are terms placebo responders.
Placebo effect is the psychological effect. The more a person believes
they are going to benefit from a treatment, the more likely it is that they
will experience a benefit.

OTC & Prescription drugs

OTC Drugs
Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines that can be purchased
without a prescription. They are used to treat minor health problems,
such as headaches, sore throats, and fevers.
What are OTC drugs used for?
• Pain
• Coughs and colds
• Diarrhea
• Constipation
• Acne
• Runny nose and sneezing
• Fungal infection
• Upset stomach
• Dry eyes
Prescription drugs
Prescription drugs are medications that a doctor or other licensed health
professional prescribes to a patient. Patients can only get prescription
drugs after receiving a written prescription from a licensed health
professional.
Why are prescription drugs regulated?
• Health professionals regulate prescription drugs to ensure they are
safe, effective, and high quality.
• Misuse of prescription drugs can lead to negative health outcomes.
Examples of prescription drugs are blood pressure tablets, cancer
medicine, strong painkillers, and antibiotics.
How do prescription drugs get to the patient?
• A doctor or other licensed health professional writes a prescription
for a patient.
• The prescription is given to a pharmacist.
• The pharmacist dispenses the prescription drug to the patient.
Drug Nomenclature
Drug nomenclature is the system of names used to identify drugs. Drugs
typically have three names:
Chemical name: The atomic formula of the drug. A chemical name
is given when a new chemical entity (NCE) is developed.
✓ It is the name given to drug in accordance with rules of
chemical nomenclature established by International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry.
 ✓ It is useful for chemists or technical personnel as it provides
the precise arrangement of atoms and atomic groups in the
molecule.

✓ It is not used to identify the drug in a clinical or

marketing situation.
• Generic name/ NON PROPRIETARY NAME

The official name assigned by the FDA.

It is a short name given to a drug that is not subject to proprietary
rights. The nonproprietary name should always be concise and
meaningful. This is used in discussion and textbooks.
There are two classes of non proprietary names;
1. Approved Name
2. Official Names
APPROVED NAME: This name is given to drug by bodies like United States Adopted
Name Council (USAN) and British Approved Name (BAN) soon after its introduction.
This name sometime referred to as generic name however this term is used to
designate a chemical or pharmacological class of drugs such as
Sulphonamide, Penicillin.
OFFICIAL NAME: It is the name approved by the National Pharmacopeia
Commission and included in the official book i.e. Pharmacopeia.
The official name must be identical with approved name.
PROPRIETARY NAME
It is the name given to a drug by the pharmaceutical firm which sell the drug.
Thus a single drug is sold under many proprietary names by different firms.
They are written with capital initial letter and are often further distinguished by
superscript R in circle®. Clinicians usually described drug by their
proprietary names.
EXAMPLE
Paracetamol
• CHEMICAL NAME: N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetamide.
NON-PROPRIETARY NAME:
Approved Name:
British Approved Name (BAN): paracetamol
United States Adopted Name (USAN): acetaminophen
Official Name: Acetaminophen
• PROPRIETARY NAME: Napa , Ace, Reset
Nomenclature is a system of names used in a particular field, such as
medicine, surgery, anatomy, and biochemistry.
Drugs classification
It is essential because it allows several thousand of drugs to be reduced to a
manageable number of group.
There is no uniform or homogenous system of classifying drugs that suits all
purposes.
Drugs are classified according to the convenience of the person discussing them.
Chemist, Pharmacologist, Pharmacist and Clinician.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
1. Chemical Nature
2. Source
3. Target organ/Site of Action
4. Mode of Action
5. Therapeutic Uses
6. Physiological system
7. Physical Effects
1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL NATURE
Chemical Nature of drug is discussed by a Chemist and based on chemical nature
we divide drugs into
• INORGANIC DRUGS
Metals and their Salts (Ferrous Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate, Magnesium Sulphate.
Non-Metals Includes Sulphur.
• ORGANIC DRUGS
Alkaloids (atropine, Morphine, Strychnine)
Glycosides (Digitoxin, Digoxin).
Proteins(Insuline, Oxytocin)
Esters, Amide, Alcohol, Glycerides.
2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCE
Sources of drugs are discussed by a Pharmacologist and Pharmacist
Natural Source
• Plants (Morphine, Atropine, Digitoxin)
Animals (Insulin, eCG)
• Micro organism (Penicillin)
•Mineral (Sodium Chloride)
Synthetic Source
(Sulphonamide, Procaine).
Semi-synthetic Source
• Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Doxycycline
Bio-synthetic Source
Recombinant Human erythropoietin.
3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TARGET ORGAN
Classification based on target organs are done by the Physicians.
• Drugs acting on CNS (Diazepam, Phenobarbitone).
• Drugs acting on Respiratory System (Bromhexaine).
• Drugs acting on CVS (Digitoxin, Digoxin).
• Drugs acting on GIT (Omeprazole, Sulphadimidine).
• Drugs acting on Urinary System (Magnesium Sulphate, Lasix
• Drugs acting on reproductive system (Oxytocin, Estrogen
4. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF ACTION
Classification based on mode of action is done by Physicians & Pharmacologists.
• Inhibitor of bacterial cell wall synthesis (penicillin)
• Inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis (Tetracycline)
• Calcium Channel blocker (Verapamil, nifedipine)
5. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THERAPEUTIC USE
Classification based on mode of action is done by Physicians & Pharmacologists.
Antimicrobials/Antibacterials (Penicillin, Streptomycin,
Quinolones, Macrolides).
Antihypertensive (Clonidine, hydralazine, Enalpril).
Antidiarrheals (Lopramide, Kaoline).
Antiemetics (Domperidone, Meclizine and Metoclopramide).
6. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
• Sympathomimetics (Adrenaline, Noradrenaline).
• Parasympathomimetic (Carbachol, Pilocarpine, Neostigmine).
• Neuromuscular blockers: Gallamine.
7. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHYSICAL EFFECTS
• Emollients (Lanolin, Vaseline)
Caustics (Silver nitrate)
• Demulcents (Zinc Oxide, Tannic Acid).

Drug Dosage Form