Contents

S. No. Topics Page No.

1 Early Medieval India-The Prominent Dynasties 3
2 New Chola Dynasty 7
3 History Of Kashmir 10
4 Arab Conquest Of Sind 10
5 Turkish Conquest Of India 10
6 Delhi Sultanate 13
7 Regional Kingdoms / Dynasties 21
8 Vijayanagar Empire 23
9 Bahmani Empire 29
10 Mughal Empire 32
11 Sur Empire 38
12 Indo-Islamic Culture: Bhakti and Sufi Movement 40
13 Indo-Islamic Architecture 49
14 Indo-Islamic Music 74
15 Indo-Islamic Painting 75
16 Indo- Islamic Literature 76
17 Maratha State And Confederacy 78

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 Early Medieval India (700 – 1200 A.D.)

In the early medieval period, kannauj gave rise to a tripartite

struggle between Gurjara-pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas
Important changes that took place during the period–
1. Pataliputra lost its importance and could never regain its prestige.
2. Kanauj, the capital city of Harsha assumed prominence for which wars started
amongst the Palas of Bengal, Pratihars of M.P and Rashtrakutas of Karnataka.
The prolonged warfare called tripartite struggle or triangular war finally led to

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 the decline of the three dynasties. However, the Rastrakutas survived for the
longest period in the struggle.
3. 700 – 1200 witnessed maximum decentralization of political authority. As
many as 1200 regional kingdoms were formed. It was called the ‘heyday of
Indian Feudalism’.
4. A new community called Rajputs emerged for the first time. According to
Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj and the author of Prithviraj Charitra
and Prithviraj Raso, the Rajputs were born out of the sacred fire at Mount Abu.
The four Rajput clans were Chauhans, Pratihars, Paramars and Solanki. These
together are called Agnikula Kshatriyas.
5. Colonel Todd, a British officer and historian wrote Annals of Rajputana. He
felt that Rajputs were foreigners.

The Prominent Dynasties

Rashtrakutas
They ruled Maharashtra and Karnataka. Their first capital city was Ellichpur
(Ellora) and the second capital city was Manyakatak (Malkhed). Dantidurga, the
founder of the dynasty constructed the famous Dasavatar temple at Ellora.
Krishna-I constructed the famous Kailashnath temple at Ellora. Druva was the
first great king of the dynasty and he was the first to conquer Kannauj by
defeating Pratiharas and Palas.
Govinda III was the 2nd Rashtrakuta ruler to occupy Kannauj. Amoghavarsha,
the greatest ruler of the Rashtrakutas, was the last patron of Jainism.
Rastrakutas perfected the Cave temple architecture by constructing other cave
temples like Indrasabha and Kotakailasa at Ellora. In their empire, the great
scholar in Mathematics, Mahavicharya wrote Ganita Sara Sangraha.
Pratihars
1. The Pratihars are also called Gurjar Pratihar dynasty. They ruled M.P. with
their capital city at Binnal. Nagabhata I was the founder of the dynasty. Mihir
Bhoj was the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
2. Sheikh Suleiman, an Arab merchant traveller, visited the court of Bhoja.
3. Rajashekhara who wrote Karpuramanjari and Kavyamimamsa, was the court
poet of Mahendrapala of the Pratihar dynasty.
4. Rajyapala was the last ruler of the dynasty and was killed by Vidyadhar of
Chandelas in 1018 for his cowardly act when Mahmud Ghazni attacked
Kalinjhar fort.
Palas
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Palas ruled West Bengal with their capital city at Monghyr. Gopala was the
founder of the dynasty and Dharmapala was the greatest ruler of the Pala dynasty,
the only Pala King to rule Kanauj with the title Uttarapatha Swamin (Lord of the
North). Mahipala was the last great king of the Palas. He was defeated by
Rajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty.
Senas
Founded by Samanta Sen, they ruled Bihar and Bengal. Ballala Sen introduced a
form of landed aristocracy called Kulinism. Lakshman Sen, the greatest and last
of the dynasty, founded the city Lakhanauti. Jaidev, the author of Gita Govinda
and Doyi the author of Pavanaduta were the court poets of Lakshman Sen.
Lakshman Sen was defeated by Bakhtiar Khijli in 1197.
Eastern Ganga dynasty
They ruled Kalinga with the capital at Tripuri. Narasimha Choda Gangadeva
constructed the famous Sun temple at Konark. Jajati Kesari constructed the
Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar. Ananth Choda Gangadeva built the Puri
Jagannath Temple.
Parmars
They ruled Southern Malwa with the capital city at Dhar (M.P.) Upendra was the
founder of the dynasty. Bhojaraj was the greatest of the Parmars, who also wrote
the famous Samarangana Sutradhara (which deals with architecture) and
Ayurveda Sarvasva (Everything on Ayurveda).
Chandelas
They ruled Bundelkhand with the capital city at Khajuraho. The dynasty was also
called Jejakabhukti dynasty (forest tribe with their family deity as Jejaka).
Vidyadhar was one of the greatest of all Indian kings. He offered the most
successful resistance to Mahmud Ghazni when Ghazni attacked Kalinjhar fort in
1018. The temples at Khajuraho and Mahotsavnagar were constructed by
Chandelas.
Solankis
They ruled Gujarat. The dynasty was founded by Mulraj andAnihilwad was their
capital city. In 1025 Mohd Ghazni attacked Somnath temple, the richest temple
in India in the Kathiawar district in Gujarat. He defeated Bhima I and looted the
temple. Bhima II and Mulraj II together defeated Mohd Ghori in the battle of Mt.
Abu in 1179. Gujrat was finally conquered by Alauddin Khilji in 1296.
Chauhans

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They ruled North Rajasthan and Haryana. They belonged to the Sakambari cult
(family deity of Chauhans). The dynasty was founded by Simharaj Chauhan.
Ajayraj Chauhan founded the city Ajmer. Prithviraj Chauhan was the greatest
ruler of the dynasty. He became popular as Rai Pithora. He married Samyukta,
daughter of Jaichandra against the wishes of Jaichandra. In 1191, Prithviraj
defeated Md. Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain. In the Second Battle of Tarain
in 1192, Mohd Ghori defeated Prithviraj with the help of Jaichandra.
Tomaras
They ruled Haryana and Delhi and founded the city of Delhi which was then
called Dillika. Mahipal Tomar was the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
Guhadwalas
They ruled South Rajasthan with the capital city at Nagada. Jaichandra was their
greatest ruler. In 1193 Ghori killed Jaichandra in the battle of Chandawar.

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New Chola Dynasty

Brihadeswara/Rajarajeswara temple built by Rajaraja Chola

It was founded by Vijayalaya Chola who was a feudatory of the Pallavas. Tanjore
or Thanjavur was their Capital city. Aditya Chola was the first great king, who
also defeated the last of the Pallavas, Aparajitavarma. Parantaka I issued the
famous Uttaramerur inscription that talks about the village administration under
the Cholas.
The Rastrakuta and Chola dynastic wars began during his times. Krishna II of the
Rashtrakutas was defeated by Parantaka in the Battle of Pullalur in 919. Krishna
III of Rashtrakutas defeated and killed Parantaka in the Battle of Tukkonam in
939.
Rajaraja Chola
Rajaraja Chola was the greatest of the Chola rulers He defeated Pandyas, Cheras,
Banas, Kadambas and Western Gangas. Vimaladitya of the Eastern Chalukyas
became the son-in-law of Rajaraja Chola. He attacked Ceylon, destroyed the
capital city Anuradhapura and annexed Northern Ceylon. Rajaraja Chola held
titles such as Chola martanda, Shivapadasekhara, Mummadicholadeva and
Madurai Konda.
Reforms
1. He was the first to introduce the system of auditing the village accounts. He
was not a lawmaker but a guardian of the law. It was a State with the least

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 bureaucracy. However, it was a very democratic state. Autonomy was given
to village assemblies and the local self-government was given importance.
2. He started the practice of appointing crown princes or Yuvaraj as the head of
either revenue or military departments.
3. He was the first to issue Tamil inscriptions with detailed dynastic history.
4. He constructed the famous Brihadeswara or Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore,
the biggest temple in India.
Rajendra Chola
1. He defeated Mahipala of Bengal and took the title Gangaikonda (Conqueror
of Ganges) and constructed the city Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
2. He completely annexed Ceylon, destroyed the capital city of Suvarnadwipa
(Indonesia) called Kadaram and took the title Kadramkonda. The main reason
behind the naval expeditions of the Cholas was to exercise monopoly in trade
with China.
3. He was also known as Panditachola.
4. Adi Rajendra was the last king of the Chola dynasty who was defeated by the
Pandyas.
Chola Chalukya Dynasty (Later Cholas)
1. Kulottanga Chola was the greatest of the dynasty. He sent a delegation of 72
merchants to China. He was a staunch follower of Saivism and persecuted
Ramanujacharya, a great Vaishnava saint (the one who propounded Visista-
Advaita).
2. He founded Kulottunga Cholapuram (modern Visakhapatnam). He introduced
a gold coin in his name called Kulottangamada.
Chola Administration
The unique aspect of the administration was the absolute autonomy granted to the
village assemblies. Cholas were called founding fathers of local self-
governments. Perundrum was the Secretariat under the Cholas, headed by
Olainayakam (Chief Secretary).
Village Administration was constituted by:
1. Ur – a common village settlement for all castes.
2. Agrahara – village settlement of Brahmins.
3. Brahmadeya – villages around the temples.
4. Nagara – settlements of merchants.

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The Sabha was the Legislative Assembly. Elections were held for the village
executive committees electing at least 30 members by means of a lottery system.
The Executive Committee was answerable to the Sabha and would be in office
for three years. The most important function of the executive committee was
water distribution.
The Uttaramerur inscription talks about election code- Candidates aged between
35yrs – 70yrs, educated, men of integrity and morals, first-time contestants and
regular taxpayers were eligible to contest elections. Disqualifications included
criminal background, men with immoral character and sons of Devadasis.
Women were not allowed to contest elections.
Chola Society
1. The Sanskritisation process began with Cholas. Attempts were made by the
lower castes to imitate upper caste customs, language and traditions to
enhance their social status thus leading to upward mobility. This theory was
first put forth by M.N. Srinivas, the renowned sociologist in his text social
change in Modern India.
2. Devadasi system (temple dancing girls) also started during this period.
3. The custom of Veerargal continued which referred to the class of warriors
sacrificing their lives for the sake of the king.
Chola Economy-
They had prosperous trade with Persia on the West Coast and China on the East
Coast. The prominent guilds under the Cholas were Manigramam (the guild of
weavers), Nanadasi (the mobile merchants) and Telekai (the guild of oil
merchants). Veedhi was the settlement of weavers. The gold coin Varaha was in
large circulation.
Chola Culture –
The Dravidian style of temple architecture reached its perfection under the
Cholas. The best example is the Brihadeswara temple or Rajarajeswaram at
Tanjore. The Chola craftsmen excelled in the art of making bronze images of
Nataraja. The image of Nataraja actually belonged to the Chidambaram temple.
Kamban translated Ramayana into Tamil and Jayamgondar wrote
Kalingattuparani that describes the conquest of Kalinga by Kulottanga Chola.

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 History Of Kashmir
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini is the first systematically written historical text in Indian
history. It deals with the five dynasties that ruled Kashmir.
1. Lalitha Aditya Muktapada – The greatest of the Karkotaka dynasty (1st
dynasty to rule Kashmir). He constructed the famous Martanda temple in
Srinagar and promoted trade between Kashmir and China.
2. Avantivarma, the most popular king in the history of Kashmir promoted many
irrigation systems. With the help of his minister Suia, he constructed a dam
across the Vitasta river (Jhelum). He belonged to the Utpala dynasty.
3. Diddadevi, the only woman ruler in the history of Kashmir, was the wife of
Kshama Gupta and belonged to the Poorvagupta dynasty.

Arab Conquest Of Sind (712)

It was Caliph Walid who declared ‘Jihad’ on Sind on the complaint of Al-Hazaz,
the Sultan of Persia. Dahir, the king of Sind, was a Brahmin and the majority of
the people were Buddhists. Mohd bin Qasim led the Arab army, destroyed the
golden city Multan and killed Dahir.
Results:
1. The interaction between Hinduism and Islam led to the emergence of Sufism
in Islam and the Bhakti movement in Hinduism.
2. The Arabs translated Ganitha Shastra, Charak Samhita into Arabic languages
and also adopted the popular play, Shatranj.
3. Jizya, a religious tax on all non-muslims in the Islamic state was levied for the
first time in Sind. However, Women, children, slaves and Brahmins were
exempted from paying this tax.

Turkish Conquest Of India

Mohammed Ghazni (998 – 1030 A.D.)
His actual name was Abu Qasim and he belonged to the Yamini dynasty that
ruled Ghazni in Afghanistan. He attacked India as many as 17 times during the
winter seasons. He defeated Jaipal of Kashmir, Daud of Sind, Rajyapala of
Pratihars and Bhima-I of Solankis. In 1025, he looted the Somnath temple which
was the richest in India. The Jats of Haryana always created problems for Ghazni
while on his journey back.

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The Arab historian- Al-Beruni, visited India along with him. Al-beruni stayed
at Varanasi and learnt Sanskrit for 10 years. He wrote the most authoritative
source on early medieval India called Kitab-ul-hind.
Alberuni observed that-
1. India's Priestly classes were self-centred, deceptive, arrogant and indifferent.
2. The caste system was responsible for the defeat of Indians.
3. Indians had no sense of history, strategies of warfare and no innovativeness.
He also wrote Jawahir-ul-Jawahir on mineralogy and Qanun-i-Masudi that dealt
with astronomy.
Firdausi, an Indian, was invited by Ghazni to write his biography. Shahnameh
written by Pirdausi is called the Odyssey of Persian literature. Ghazni was
impressed by the Sanskrit language and issued Silver coins with Sanskrit verses.
Mohammad Ghori-
His actual name was Moizuddin, the Sultan of Ghori in Afghanistan. His titles
were Jahan-i-Soaz (one who sets the world on fire). He was also known as
Budshikhan (Idol Breaker). His main objective was to make Islam popular in
India. He was very much troubled by a tribe called Khokaras. He appointed Aibak
as his representative in India.

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Foreigners in India: Al Biruni
Al-Biruni (born Sept. 4, 973 CE, Khwarezm,
Khorasan [now in Uzbekistan]—died c.
1052, Ghazna [now Ghazni, Afg.), Muslim
astronomer, mathematician, ethnographer,
anthropologist, historian, and geographer.
Al-Biruni lived during a period of unusual
political turmoil in the eastern Islamic world.
He served more than six different princes, all
of whom were known for their bellicose
activities and a good number of whom met
their ends in violent deaths. Nevertheless, he
managed to become the most original
polymath the Islamic world had ever known.

Al Biruni is considered as the

father of Indology.

After a period in which al-Biruni undertook extensive travels—or rather

escaped from wars, and a constant search for patrons—the entire domain of
the Samanids fell under the brutal reign of Mahmud, son of Sebuktigin.
Mahmud took Ghazna as his capital in 998 and demanded that both al-Biruni
and Avicenna join his court. Avicenna managed to escape, but al-Biruni did
not, and he worked in Ghazna until the end of his life when he was not
accompanying Mahmud on his campaigns into northern India. Even though
al-Biruni was possibly the unwilling guest of a merciless warrior, he still made
use of the occasion to pen the acute observations about India that would earn
him fame as an ethnographer, anthropologist, and eloquent historian of Indian
science.

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Delhi Sultanate (1206 – 1526 A.D.)

Five dynasties of Sultanate:

S. No. Dynasty Rule
1 Slave Dynasty 1206 – 1290
2 Khilji Dynasty 1290 – 1320
3 Tughlaq Dynasty 1320 – 1414
4 Sayyid Dynasty 1414 – 1451
5 Lodhi Dynasty 1451 – 1526
The Tughlaqs ruled for the longest and Khilji for the shortest period. The Slave
dynasty had the maximum number of sultans (10) and the Lodhis had the least
(3).

Slave Dynasty
It was founded by Qutubuddin Aibak. Aibak was also known as Lakh Baksh and
Akshar Baksh for his patronage given to poets. He died in Lahore while playing
Chogm (polo).
Aram Shan, son of Aibak was the first Sultan deposed by the Sardars (military
commanders). Iltutmish or Altamash, son-in-law of Aibak, is considered the real
founder of the Slave dynasty.

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His reforms included:
1. Introduction of Silver coins called Tankas and Copper coins called Jittals for
the first time.
2. An association of 40 nobles called Chihalgani was created by Iltutmish for the
first time.
3. He was also the first to introduce a Land Assignment System called Iqtadari.
4. Iltutmish was the first to introduce the principle of hereditary succession.
5. He was the first to construct Sarais in Delhi.
It was during his time that the Mongols invaded India for the first time under the
leadership of Chengiz Khan.
Razia Sultana
She was the only woman ruler in the history of Delhi. She promoted an
Abyssinian slave Yakub to the highest rank Amir-i-Alore i.e. the Chief
Commander of Cavalry. This was not at all appreciated by the nobility. She was
killed by the Court officers while returning back from Bhatinda along with
Altunia, her cousin.
Minaz-us-Shiraz wrote the famous Tabaqath-i-Nasiri on the administration of
Nasiruddin (1245-65) who had taken over the throne after Razia.
Ghiasuddin Balban (1265– 1286)
1. He was the greatest ruler of the Slave dynasty and his actual name was Ulugh
Khan. He was first to introduce the theory of the divine origin of kingship,
declaring the Sultan as the Shadow of God (Zil-i-Ilahi).
2. He abolished Chihalgani, the association of 40 nobles that constituted the most
important part of the nobility and was crucial to any decision making.
3. He also reorganised the Iqta system for the first time in order to curb the power
of nobles and created a separate department Diwan-i-Araz for military
administration. He introduced the royal customs: Sijda and Paibos i.e.,
prostration, kissing the fingers/hand of Sultan and touching his feet.
4. The Persian New Year festival, Navaroz, was introduced for the first time. His
eldest son Prince Mohammed died in the fight against Mongols and Balban
died of shock.
Kaiqubad (1286-1290)
He was the grandson of Balban and the last ruler of the Slave dynasty.
Interestingly he was the first Sultan to come to power when his father Bugra Khan
was alive. Bugra Khan was the second son of Balban and the Governor of Bengal.
He was deposed by Jalaluddin Khilji as he was incompetent and paralytic.

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 Khilji Dynasty
It was founded by Jalaluddin Khilji (1290 –1295), the most democratic of all
Delhi Sultans. Mongols invaded India under the leadership of Ulagu. Jalal
defeated Mongols and converted them into Islam. The converted Mongols were
called Naya Musalmans.
Allaudin Khilji, the first son-in-law of Jalaluddin, went to Devagiri and defeated
Ramachandra Deva of the Yadava dynasty. It was the first victory of the Muslims
in the South (1295 A.D.)
Allaudin Khilji (1295-1315)
He was the greatest of the Delhi Sultans. His ambition was either to conquer the
world like Alexander or to found a new religion like Prophet Mohammed. He
took the title Sikander-i-Sahani (second Alexander).
Khilji Imperialism
1. In 1296, Rana Karnadeva of Gujarat was defeated. Alauddin captured his wife
Kamala Devi and Malik Kafur who was later made the Chief Commander of
Alauddin.
2. In 1299, Rana Hammir Dev of Ranthambore was defeated.
3. In 1303, Alauddin attacked Mewar and defeated Rana Ratan Singh. According
to Malik Mohammad Jayasi who wrote Padmavath, Rani Padmini, the wife of
Rana Ratan Singh was the main attraction for Alauddin which led to the attack.
4. In 1305, he defeated Rana Mahalakdev of Malwa and became the emperor of
Hindustan. Expeditions in South India were conducted by Malik Kafur. In
1309, he defeated Ramachandra Deva of Devagiri for the second time.
5. In 1310, Pratap Rudra Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal was defeated.
6. In the second expedition that started in 1312, Malik Kafur defeated Veera
Ballala III of the Hoysala dynasty of Dwarasamudra.
7. In 1313, he interfered in the civil war between Sundara Pandya and
Veerapandiya, made Sundara the king of Madurai and installed a victory pillar
at Rameswaram.
However his empire was only upto Malwa. The southern states were tributary
ones. The sultanate empire expanded maximum under Mohammed Bin
Tughlaq.
Reforms -
To curb the nobility, Alauddin banned marriages amongst the noble families;
consumption of liquor and appointed Muhtasibs to keep an eye on the activities
of the nobles. Muhtasibs was actually the Royal Censor Officer to uphold the
Koran but Alauddin used them as spies to check the power of the nobility.

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▣ Military Reforms -
He was the first Sultan to commission a permanent standing army. He abolished
the Inamdar system and paid salaries in cash. Each soldier was paid 238 Tankas
per annum. The system of paying salary in terms of cash is called Itlaq system.
To avoid duplication, he introduced the Dagh system (branding the horses). He
was the first to start the service registers called Chehras.
▣ Market Reforms-
The main purpose of controlling market prices was to maintain the permanent
standing army. His price regulation policy was one of the wonders in the world
history.
Alauddin appointed a controller of markets called Shahana-i-Mandi and also
spies to oversee the implementation of the price list. They were called Braids.
Price regulation was followed in and around Delhi only.
▣ Revenue reforms -
1. He stopped the Iqta system.
2. Abolished hereditary revenue officers at the village level called Chaudhuris,
Khots, Muqaddams and Patwaris.
3. He introduced a crop estimation method and a method for assessing the
revenue called the Kankuth system (Grain estimation system). Of all the kings
in Indian history, he charged the highest land tax (50 % of the gross produce).
However, it was the East India Company that charged the highest land tax of
55% in the entire Indian history.
4. He was the first Sultan to sanction emergency loans called Taccavi and
founded a separate department called Diwan-i-Mustakhraj for the purpose of
collecting revenue arrears.
▣ Religious Reforms -
He was the first Sultan to separate religion from state and refused to pay
allegiance to the Caliph.
Malik Kafur created a reign of terror after killing Khizr Khan and Shahabuddin
(first Sultan born to a Hindu mother Kamala Devi). Qutubuddin Mubarak Khilji,
the last of the Khiljis took the title Caliph. He was killed by his Wazir,
Nassiruddin Khusrau who came to power with the title Khusrau Shah. Khusrau
was a Hindu converted to Islam and he ordered installing idols in the mosque. He
was killed by Ghiazuddin Tughlaq.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414 A.D.)

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This dynasty was founded by Ghiyazuddin Tuglaq or Ghazi Malik. He also
founded the city of Tughlaqabad. He was the first Sultan to introduce a postal
system by employing horse couriers. He was stamped to death by an elephant.
It was Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya who gave the prophecy “the Sultan would not
reach Delhi”.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325– 1351)
His actual name was Jauna Khan and he was the most enlightened of all the Delhi
sultans. He was a prolific scholar in Persian and Arabic languages, maths, natural
sciences, theology and an excellent lexicographer. It was a lack of practical sense
of judgement and his various measures that made the Sultan a failure.
His controversial reforms were -
a. Increased land tax by 40% in the Ganga Yamuna Doab. It was the first act that
made the Sultan unpopular.
b. Shifted the capital city from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devgiri) so that he could
rule over Deccan in a better way. He left Delhi for two years and lived in a
camp called Swarga-Dwara as Delhi was ravaged by a form of plague at that
time. According to the contemporary historian, Ziauddin Barani, the real
intention of the Sultan was to punish the people of Delhi.
c. Tughlaq introduced a token currency of copper coins, but the Copper coins
actually contained bronze which was minted at Tripuri in Kalinga. The effect
of the copper currency on the economy was hyperinflation and it again proved
disastrous.
d. The last act that made the Sultan unpopular was his attempt to conquer
Khorasan in Central Asia. This led to huge losses to the treasury and weakened
the economy of the empire to a great extent.
His other reforms were as follows:
1. He sanctioned Sandbar loans to the cultivators for expansion of Agriculture
and founded a separate department for agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi.
2. He was the first Sultan to openly celebrate Hindu festivals like Holi and to go
to the temples. He held the Jain scholar Janaprabha Suri in great respect.
3. In 1341, Ibn-Batuta, a traveller from Morocco visited the court of Tughlaq.
He was made the Qazi of Delhi. He wrote Kitab-i-Rihla.
4. He was the first Sultan to conduct census in the city of Delhi. The Sultanate
Empire expanded to its maximum extent during his reign. Nevertheless, it also
started disintegrating. He died in 1351 while going to Thatta in Sindh.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351 – 1389)
He was the second Sultan born to a Hindu mother and also the second Sultan to
come to power when his father was alive.
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1. He abolished all the additional taxes called Abwabs and collected only four -
a. Khams – A tax on the spoils of the war i.e., 1/5th.
b. Kharaz – Land Tax paid by the Muslims. Land tax paid by the non Muslims
was Ushr.Generally Kharaz was half of Ushr.
c. Zakat – Charity tax collected for the maintenance of educational institutes
called Madrasas (2 – 2.5%) on individual income per annum.
d. Jizya – Religious tax on non-muslims (token tax). Feroz collected Jizya
even from Brahmins.
2. He constructed four major irrigation systems or canals between river Yamuna
and river Sutlej and collected an irrigation tax called Haqi Shirb (1/10th of the
produce).
3. He constructed the city Jaunpur in memory of his cousin Jauna on the banks
of river Gomti and also the other cities Ferozepur, Firozabad, Fatehpur and
Fatehabad.
4. He beautified the city of Delhi with 1200 gardens.
5. He founded a department called Diwan-i-Bandagan for the welfare of the
slaves. He was the first Sultan to construct public hospitals called Dar-ul-
shafa.
6. Diwan-i-Khairat was the employment bureau created by Feroz for providing
employment to the Muslim youth and to perform free-of-cost marriages.
7. He also revived the Iqta system and introduced the hereditary succession in
the army.
8. He wrote his autobiography called Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.
9. Ziauddin Barani and Shams Shiraz Afif, the two court historians of Firoz
wrote two different textbooks with the same title called Tarikh-i-Firozshahi.
Mohammed Shah Tughlaq was the last of the Tughlaq dynasty. Timur, the king
of Persia attacked Delhi in 1398 and the Sultan Md. Shah Tughlaq took shelter in
Gujarat. The independent kingdoms of Jaunpur, Malwa and Gujarat were founded
during his period in 1398. Timur appointed Khizra Khan as his representative.
The power of the Sultan was confined between Delhi to Palam under Md. Shah
(Alam to Palam).

Sayyid Dynasty – (1414– 1451 A.D.)

1. This dynasty was founded by Khizra Khan. They claimed descendancy from
Prophet Mohd.

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2. Mubarak Shah was the greatest king of the dynasty. His court poet Yahyabin
Ahamad Sirhindi wrote Tahrikh-i-Mubarakshahi regarding the day to day
administration under Mubarak Shah.
3. Alauddin Alam Shah, the last of the dynasty was deposed by Bahlul Lodi.

Lodi Dynasty – (1451– 1526 A.D.)

It was founded by Bahlul Lodi. Lodis belonged to Afghan race. Sikandar Lodi,
the greatest of the Lodi dynasty founded the city of Agra. Like Alauddin Khilji,
he also tried to control market prices. He persecuted Kabir for preaching Hindu-
Muslim unity.
Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of the dynasty. Alam Khan, Daulat Khan Lodi and
Rana Sanga were the enemies of Ibrahim Lodi. In 1524, they invited Babar to
wage a war against Ibrahim. In the First Battle of Panipat (April 21, 1526), Babar
killed Ibrahim Lodi and brought an end to the Delhi Sultanate.
The main reason for Babur's lightning victory was artillery forces. However, he
was not the first to use them. Even before Babur, Portuguese used artillery forces
in Deccan under Vijaynagar empire.

Sultanate Administration
Sultan was assisted by four departments:
1. Diwan-i-Wazirat was the Finance Dept headed by a Wazir. He was assisted
by Mustafi-i-Mumalik (Auditor-General) and Mushrif-i-Mumalik
(Accountant General).
2. Diwan-i-Araz was the Military Dept., created by Balban and headed by
Araz-i-Mumalik (Chief Commander).
3. Diwan-i-Insha was the Dept. of Correspondence headed by Dabir-i-Mumalik
(Chief Correspondent).
4. Diwan-i-Risalat was the department for religious affairs, endowments and in
some cases external affairs. It was headed by a Chief Qazi.

Provincial administration -
1. Empire was divided into provinces called ‘Sarkars’ which were governed by
Naib and Wali.

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2. Sarkars were divided into districts called Shiqs ruled by Shiqdar.
3. Shiqs were further divided into groups of villages called Parganas, headed by
Amil. Generally a group of 84 or 100 villages constituted a Pargana
(Chaurasi).
4. The village was the lowest unit administered by hereditary Hindu officers
known as Khots, Muqaddams, Chaudhuris and Patwaris. The first and the
last were village accountants, second and third were the heads of the
villages.
5. Terms relating to revenue administration -

Bigha Unit of land less than 1 acre

Biswa 1/20th of a Bigha

Hasil Actual crop/turnover or net crop with a person after

expenses

Jamadami Assessed revenue

Kankhuth Crop estimation method introduced by Alauddin

Khilji

Bhooli Crop sharing method

Judicial Administration -
The Department of Judiciary called Qazi-ul-Qazat was headed by Sadr-us-Sudur
(Chief Justice). Qazis dealt with civil cases while the Criminal cases were dealt
with by Mufti, Miradi and Saeed. Hindus had their own laws and separate Courts.

20
 Regional Kingdoms / Dynasties
Ilyas Shahi Dynasty of Bengal
It was founded by Shamsuddin Iliyas and its capital city was Pondua. Allauddin
Hussain Shah, the greatest of the dynasty, conquered Kamarupa i.e Assam. He
was thoroughly influenced by Chaitanya Prabhu and regarded himself as an
incarnation of Lord Krishna. He took the titles Jagatbhushan and Nripatitilak. He
appointed Maladar Basu to translate Bhagwat into Bengali. Nusrat Shah got
Mahabharat and Ramayan translated. Akbar conquered Bengal in 1576 by killing
the Governor Dawood Khan of Bengal.
Jaunpur
It became independent in 1398 under the leadership of Malik Sawar Kwaja Jahan.
He took the title Shah-us-Sharq (the king of the East). Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was
the greatest of the dynasty. Barbak Shah, the son of Bahlul Lodi conquered
Jaunpur back. Jaunpur was the main center for Indo Islamic culture. Sultan
Hussain Shah Sharqi conducted the first conference on Hindustani Music and was
the first to introduce Khayal. A form of Hindustani music.
Malwa
It was founded by Zafar Khan. Mandu (M.P.) was the capital city. Md. Khilji II
was the greatest ruler of the dynasty. He constructed a Keerti Stambha (victory
pillar) at Mandu, in the memory of his victories against Rana Kumbha of Mewar
and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Baz Bahadur, the last of the dynasty, was defeated
by Akbar in 1564.
Gujarat
It was ruled by the Bahadurshahi dynasty, founded by Zafar Khan in 1398. He
took the title Bahadur Shah. Mohd Shah Begarha or Mohd Shah I, the greatest of
the dynasty, constructed the cities of Mohammadabad and Mustafabad. He was
the first Indian to challenge the Portuguese but was defeated in the Battle of Diu
by the first Portuguese Governor, Fransisco de Almeida in 1509. He was the
Sultan with unusual habits. Udayan, his court poet, wrote Rajavinoda, a
biography on Mohd Shah. Ahmed Shah I founded Ahmedabad. Akbar conquered
Gujarat in 1572 A.D.
Rajputana: Mewar
It was ruled by the Sisodia dynasty founded by Rana Hammirdev. The victory
pillar at Chittor was built by Rana Khumba in memory of the victory against
Mohd Khilji II of Malwa and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Rana Sangram Singh or
Rana Sanga, the greatest of the dynasty was defeated by Babar in the Battle of
Khanwa in 1527. However, Ranas continued there fight against the Mughals
under the leadership of Udai Singh, Pratap Singh and Amar Singh. Pratap Singh

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was defeated in the battle of Haldighati (1576) by Raja Man Singh. However
Akbar could not conquer Mewar in his lifetime. Finally in 1615 Khurram
(Shahjahan) defeated Rana Amar Singh and brought Mewar under the control of
Mughals.
Marwar
It was ruled by the Gehlot dynasty founded by Chunda. King Jodha founded
Jodhpur. Rana Maldeo, the powerful ruler of the dynasty, was defeated by Sher
Shah in the Battle of Kalinjar in 1545.
Kashmir
It was ruled by the Shahmirza dynasty. During the times of Sikander Shah, for
the first time, Hindus were outnumbered by the Muslims. He founded a separate
department Sheikh-ul-Islam to promote Islam and banned the custom of Sati.
Zain-ul-Abidin’s actual name was Shahi Khan, who was popular as “Akbar of
Kashmir.” He renovated Hindu temples, banned cow slaughter, allowed Sati and
got Mahabharat translated into Persian. He appointed Srinara and Jonadeva to
continue the work of Rajatarangini. He also constructed the Wular Lake and
Jainalanka in Kashmir.

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Vijayanagar Empire (133-1565 A.D.)

Vittalaswami temple complex

It was founded at the instance of Swami Vidyaranya on the banks of River
Tungabhadra. Hampi was the capital city of the empire. It was ruled by 4
dynasties -

S. No. Dynasty Rule

1 Sangama 1336 – 1485
2 Saluva 1485– 1505
3 Tuluva 1505– 1570
4 Aravidu 1570– 1643
Sangama Dynasty
1. Hariharara and Bukka were the court commanders of Prataparudra of
Warangal (Kakatiya dynasty). At the foundation of the empire, they were in
the court of Veera Ballala of the Hoysala dynasty.
2. Harihara became the 1st ruler of the dynasty. He was defeated by Allahuddin
Hassan of the Bahmani Empire. The main cause for the frequent wars between
Bahmanis and Vijayanagar empire was the control over Raichur Doab, the
land between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
3. Bukka was the second king and sent a delegation of merchants to China. His
daughter-in-law Gangadevi wrote Maduravijayam (the conquest of Madura by
her husband Veerakamparaya).

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4. Devaraya I constructed a dam on river Tungabhadra at Hampi. According to
the Persian chronicler Perista, he was defeated by Tajuddin Feroz, the
Bahmani Sultan in the Battle of Mudgal, fought for the sake of Nahal who was
a beautiful daughter of a blacksmith of Raichur.
5. Devaraya II, the greatest ruler of the dynasty was the 1st Vijayanagar king to
conquer Ceylon. He employed Muslims to train the Vijayanagar cavalry. He
also constructed a mosque for Muslims at Hampi.
6. The Italian traveller Niccolo Conti and Persian ambassador Abdur Razak
visited Hampi.
7. Praudadevaraya wrote the famous Mahanataka Sudhanidhi, a text on music.
His literary assembly was called Mutyala Sala (Palace of Pearls).
Saluva Dynasty
It was founded by Saluva Narasimha. He was the chief patron of Annamacharya
who had composed the maximum number of Kirtans in World literature (14000
Kirtans compiled in 29 Volumes).
Tuluva Dynasty
1. It was founded by Tuluva Narasanayaka.
2. Sri Krishnadevaraya, second son of Narasa was the greatest in the whole
history of the South.
a. In 1509, he defeated Adil Shah of Bijapur and took the title of
Yavanarajasthapanacharya.
b. In 1510, he entered into a treaty with the Portuguese Governor
Albuquerque. Portuguese agreed to supply horses and saltpetre from Persia
and to train Vijayanagar artillery. In return, Krishnadevaraya promised to
shift Goa from the control of Sultan of Bijapur to the Portuguese.
c. In 1511, he defeated Prataparudra Gajapati of Kalinga, destroyed the
capital city Cuttack, married his daughter Annapurna and installed victory
pillars at Simhachalam and Partner.
Battle of Talikota Or Rakasi – Tangadi (1565)
It ended the glory of Vijayanagar Empire. It was a battle between the forces of
Vijayanagar commanded by Aliya Rama Raya and the Bahmani confederacy
commanded by Hussain Shah of Ahmad Nagar. The main cause of the war was
Aliya’s foreign policy of Divide and Rule. Except for Berar, all the other four
states of the confederacy participated. Sadashiv Raya was the king of Hampi
during the war.
Robert Sewell wrote The Forgotten Empire.

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Araveeti Dynasty
It was founded by Tirumalaraya, the brother of Aliya Ranaraya. Venkatapati Raya
II, the greatest of the dynasty. He defied Akbar and shifted the capital city from
Chandragiri to Vellore. He also constructed a church for the Portuguese at
Vellore. In 1643 the dynasty ended when Mir Jumla, the PM of Golconda
(Hyderabad) occupied Vellore.

Vijayanagar Administration
1. Rayasam was the Secretariat which was headed by Chief Secretary
Mahanayakacharya.
2. The ‘Nayaka’ system was the system of civil servants. The Nayakas
discharged civil and military functions on behalf of the emperor and in return
were given lands called Amarams. The system was not hereditary, purely
based on merit. The system actually started with the Kakatiyas of Warangal.
3. At the village level, a system of 12 village functionaries was introduced called
Ayagars. They were given rent-free lands called Mirasi (for their own
subsistence). Athavana was the revenue department which was headed by
Mahakaranikam (Finance Minister). Kandachera was the military department
headed by Chief Commander Maha Nayaka. Kavaliga was a police officer
who was in charge of internal security.
4. Empire was divided into provinces called Mandalams, Pranths and Durgas.
Village was the lowest unit. Bandaruvadas were the villages under the direct
control of the King.
Vijayanagar Society
Fernao Nuniz, a Portuguese traveller gives a detailed account of Vijayanagar
society and gives a graphic description of Sati and talks about prostitution. He
refers to a tax called Seethasunkam on brothel houses. Krishnadevaraya abolished
the system called Kanyasulkam i.e., the system of purchasing brides. According
to Nuniz, the tax on brothel houses constituted third major source of revenue to
the state out of which the salaries of the police officers were paid.
Vijayanagar Economy
1. Bhatkal on the West Coast and Masola or Machilipatnam on the East Coast
(A.P.) were the two important ports. Horses were imported from Persia.
Amuktamalyada, a text written by Krishnadevaraya talks about horse trade.
Motupalli, popular port under Kakatiyas also played an important role in the
external trade.
2. Kalamkari textiles (printed cloth) were exported from Masola. Srikalahasthi
was the other centre.

25
3. Golconda and Vajrakarur were famous for the diamond industry.
4. The popular guilds were Panchamavaru (association of five craftsmen) and
Kaikollas (guild of weavers).
5. The land tax that was the major source of revenue called Sist. Nuniz tells us
that it was 9/10th of the produce.
Vijayanagar Culture
The Vijayanagar style of architecture is characterized by:
1. Kalyana Mandapas which were the marriage halls within the temple complex.
2. Ammangudi referred to the temple for the consort of the lord. Both were built
within the temple complex.
3. Krishnadevaraya constructed the Hazar Rama temple in Hampi with 1000
Ramayan sculptures.
4. Padma Mahal that was constructed by him in Hampi is the best example of
Indo-Islamic architecture.
Art and Music
The Carnatic music tradition developed during this age. Swami Vidyaranya wrote
Sangeetha Sara. Mahanataka Sudhanidhi written by Praudadevaraya also deals
with music. The trio of Carnatic music – Muthuswamy Dikshitar, Shyamashastri
and Thygaraj belonged to the court of Tanjore.
Dance
Bharatanatyam, the most popular dance form was introduced by Bharata Muni.
He wrote Natyashastra which consists of the detailed exposition of Bharatnatyam.
The other popular dance forms were –Kuchipudi, introduced by Siddendra Yogi;
Perininatyam (the tribal dance form of Kakatiyas); Yakshaganam (the dance form
with the themes exclusively derived from Bhagavatam).
Literature
1. Vijayanagar is considered the golden age of Telugu and Kannada literature.
Astadiggajas meaning the eight great scholars/literary giants were present in
the court of Krishnadevaraya.
2. Allasani Peddana wrote Manucharitra (The birth of Manu). He was called the
‘Father of Prabandha Yugam’.
3. The literary assembly of Krishnadevaraya was called Bhuvanavijayam. He
was a great scholar in Sanskrit and wrote the popular texts called Madalasa
Charitra, Ushaparinayam, StayaVadhuParinayam, Jambavatiparinayam and
Sakalakathasaram (the essence of all stories).

26
4. Amuktamalyada, written by Krishnadevaraya in Telugu is rated as one of the
Panchamahakavyas (five great literary works of Telugu literature). He was
also called Andhrabhoja for his literary contribution to Telugu literature.

Golconda Diamonds: Kohinoor

Authors William Dalrymple and Anita Anand’s ‘Kohinoor: The Story of

the World’s Most Infamous Diamond’ was published in December 2016,
giving the fascinating new insights into the place where it was mined, its
travel from the Mughal court to Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s durbar in
Punjab to the Crown of the Queen of England.

It originally belonged to the Kakatiya dynasty rulers. It changed hands

many times, due to wars. It is believed to have been processed by Gwalior
Kings, Mughal emperors (like Babur, Shah Jahan, Aurangazeb), Persian
ruler Nader Shah, Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani, Sikh emperor
Ranjit Singh, etc, among various Indian and Persian rulers.

27
Biography Zone: Krishnadevaraya
Krishnadevaraya was an emperor
of the Vijayanagara Empire who
reigned from 1509–1529. He was
the third ruler of the Tuluva
Dynasty and is considered to be its
greatest ruler. He possessed the
largest empire in India after the
decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
Presiding over the empire at its
zenith, he is regarded as an icon by
many Indians. Krishnadevaraya
earned the titles Kannada Rajya
Rama Ramana (Lord of the
Kannada empire), Andhra Bhoja
(Bhoja for Telugu Literature) and
Mooru Rayara Ganda (King of
Three Kings).
He became the dominant ruler of
the peninsula of India by defeating the Sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani
Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and was one of the most powerful Hindu
rulers in India. Indeed, when the Mughal Emperor Babur was taking stock of the
potentates of north India, Krishnadevaraya was rated the most powerful and had
the most extensive empire in the subcontinent.
Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz also visited the
Vijayanagara Empire during his reign. Travelogues indicate that the king was not
only an able administrator but also an excellent general, leading from the front in
battle and even attending to the wounded. The South Indian poet Muku Timmana
praised him as the destroyer of the Turkics. Krishnadevaraya benefited from the
able Prime Minister Timmarusu, who was regarded by the emperor as a father
figure and was responsible for his coronation.
The rule of Krishna Devaraya was an age of prolific literature in many languages,
although it is also known as a Golden Age of Kannada Literature. Many Telugu,
Kannada, Sanskrit, and Tamil poets enjoyed the patronage of the emperor.
The rule of Krishna Devaraya is also known as the Golden Age of Telugu
Literature. Eight Telugu poets were regarded as eight pillars of his literary
assembly and known as Ashtadiggajas. Krishna Devaraya himself composed an
epic Telugu poem Amuktamalyada.
Krishna Devaraya was also an accomplished scholar of Sanskrit and wrote
Madalasa Charita, Satyavedu Parinaya and Rasamanjari and Jambavati Kalyana.

28
 Bahmani Empire
It was founded by the chief tax collectors called Saddam Amils who revolted
against Mohd bin Tughlaq at Devagiri in 1346 under the leadership of Zafar
Khan. He took the title Sultan Alauddin Hassan Bahman Gangu. Their first
capital city was Gulbarga and the second capital city was Bidar. Ahmed Shah I,
shifted the capital city to Bidar. Azari, the Persian poet, wrote Bahmannamah in
the court of Ahmed Shah.
Mohammad Gawan
He was the most popular Prime Minister of Mohd Shah III of the Bahmani
Empire. He expanded the empire and divided it into 8 tarafs (administrative units)
instead of four as in earlier times. He founded a Madarasa at Bidar on the model
of the Samarkand University of Iran with a library having 2000 books. His
revenue reforms even inspired Raja Todar Mal. Gawan was executed at
Kondapalli in 1498.
Bahmani Confederacy included 5 States:
Bijapur - It was ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty. Founded by Adil Shah, it was
the biggest and the most powerful State in the confederacy. Ibrahim Adil Shah
was the greatest ruler, called Jagatguru for his secular outlook. Aurangzeb
conquered Bijapur first in 1656 and later again in 1686.
Bidar – It was ruled by the Baridshahi dynasty founded by Kasim Barid.
Berar - It was ruled by the Imadshahi Dynasty founded by Futullah Imad-ul-
Mulk. It was the smallest and the weakest of the confederacy.
Ahmednagar- It was ruled by the Nizamshahi dynasty founded by Nizam Khan.
Rani Chand Bibi was the most popular woman ruler. She was defeated by Abul
Fazl sent by Akbar in 1600. It was the first state conquered by Mughals in the
South among the confederacy. Malik Ambar was the most popular diwan of
Ahmednagar. He was the first to introduce guerilla warfare in the South. He was
the first to introduce a Council of Eight Ministers called Ashtapradhan.
Golconda - It was ruled by the Qutub Shahi dynasty. It was founded by Quli
Qutub Shah. Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah was the first great king and participated in
the Talikota Battle. Mohd Quli Qutub Shah was the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
He constructed the famous Charminar and Mecca mosque in the city
Bhagyanagar (founded in memory of Bhagmati, a Hindu woman). Aurangzeb
conquered Golconda in 1687 by defeating Abul Hasan Tanisha.

29
Chronology of Deccan Polity
In the 14th century, the Muslim
Bahmani Sultanate and the smaller
Sultanate of Khandesh ruled much of
the northern Deccan, while the
southern part was controlled by the
Hindu Vijayanagara Empire.

The Bahmani Sultanate disintegrated

in the late 15th century, breaking up
into the Sultanates of Ahmadnagar,
Berar, Bidar, Bijapur (the Adil Shahi
Dynasty) and Golconda (the Qutb
Shahi Dynasty).

30
 In 1510, the Portuguese conquered
Goa from Bijapur. In the late 16th
century, Berar was absorbed by
Ahmednagar. In 1601, Khandesh was
absorbed by the Mughal Empire.

By 1619, Vijayanagara had lost much

territory to Golconda and Bijapur;
Bidar was absorbed by Bijapur.
Ahmadnagar was absorbed by the
Mughal Empire in 1636. In 1646,
Vijayanagara disintegrated; it was
succeeded by the Sultanate of Mysore
and the Nayakdoms of Tanjore and
Madurai.
The military campaigns of Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb into Southern
India failed to establish a lasting
Mughal rule but succeeded in
terminating the Sultanates of Bijapur
(1686) and Golconda (1687).

31
Mughal Empire (1526– 1857 A.D.)

Babur
His actual name was Zahiruddin Mohammed, son of Omar Sheikh Mirza, the king
of Farghana in Afghanistan. His ambition was to conquer Samarkand, the seat of
Timur. In 1527, Babur defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Kanwa. In the Battle
of Chanderi (1528), Babur defeated Medini Rai. In the Battle of Gogra in 1529,
Babur defeated Mohd Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi and conquered Bengal.
Babur wrote his memoirs in the Turkish language. It was called Tuzak-i-Babari

32
or Babarnamah. It was translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan, son of
Bairam Khan and into english by Madam Bevridge.
Humayun (1530– 1555)
Humayun means ‘the most fortunate’. In 1537, he conquered Gujarat. His arch-
enemy was Sher Shah. Humayun defeated Sher Shah Suri in the Battle of Chunar
in 1539. Sher Shah defeated Humayun for the first time in the Battle of Chausa
in 1540 and for the second time in the Battle of Bilgram (1540). The Mughals lost
Delhi in the Battle of Bilgram for the first time. In 1542, Humayun took shelter
in the court of Rana Prasad of Amarkot. Humayun defeated Sikandar Shah of the
Suri dynasty in the Battle of Sirhind in 1555 and got back Delhi. He fell from his
personal library at Dinpanah and died.
Akbar (1556 – 1605)
The Second Battle of Panipat (October 1556) was fought between Akbar and
Hemu. Hemu took the title ‘Raja Vikramajeet’. Akbar was declared the Emperor
of Hindustan at Kalanoor in Sind without being crowned by his Tutor Bairam
Khan. The Mughals got back Delhi in the Second Battle of Panipat by killing
Hemu. Up to 1562, the government was called ‘Purdah Government’ as Maham
Anga Begum, the first wife of Humayun, Hamida Banu Begum and Bairam khan
managed the administration.
⭓ Akbar’s Conquests
🚩 In 1562, Rani Durgavati of Gondwana was defeated.
🚩 In 1564, Baz Bahadur of Malwa was defeated.
🚩 In 1570, Dawood Khan of Bengal was killed.
🚩 In 1572, Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat was defeated.
🚩 In 1585, Akbar conquered Kashmir defeating Md. Padshah.
🚩 In 1600, Rani Chand Bibi of Ahmednagar was defeated by Abul Fazl who
was sent by Akbar. This was the last conquest of Akbar.
⭓ Akbar’s Rajput Policy
In 1567, Akbar defeated Rana Udaya Singh of Mewar. The famous Battle of
Haldighati was fought in 1576 between Maharana Pratap and Raja Man Singh
who was sent by Akbar. The Sisodias of Mewar continued to defy the Mughals
up to 1615. The only State that remained unconquered by Akbar was Mewar.
⭓ Akbar’s Religious Policy
🚩 In 1562, Akbar banned forced conversion.
🚩 In 1563, the pilgrim tax on Hindus was abolished.

33
🚩 In 1564, Jizia was abolished.
🚩 In 1575, Akbar constructed Ibadatkhana at Fatehpur Sikri for religious
discourses and discussions to be conducted every Thursday.
🚩 Akbar invited Father Monsuratte and Father Aquinois to speak on Christianity,
Pt. Purushottam on Hinduism, Jainasena Suri on Jainism and Raza on Parsi
religion.
🚩 In 1579, he issued his famous Decree Of Infallibility called Mahazir or
Mahzarnama. It was drafted by Sheikh Mubarak. With the decree, Akbar
became Mir-i-Adil (Chief Interpreter of Koran).
🚩 In 1582, Akbar founded a new faith called Din-i-Ilahi. It was also called
Tauhid-i-Ilahi meaning Universal Faith. Its main theme : Sul-i-Kul interpreted
as ‘peace and harmony’, was introduced for the first time by Abdul Latif, the
teacher of Akbar. Din-i-Ilahi was openly criticized by Raja Bhagwan Das.
Jahangir (1605 – 1628)
His nickname was Sheikhu Baba. He hung the ‘bell of justice’ at the Agra Fort.
He executed his son Khusrau and also the Fifth Sikh Guru Arjun Dev for
supporting Khusrau. Mehr-un-nisa begum was given the title 'Noorjahan’ and she
became popular as Padshah Begum. She founded her own group called ‘Junta’
consisting of herself, her father Mirza Ghiaz Beg (Itimad-ud-Daulah) and her
brother Asaf Khan.
⭓ Khurram
1. Khurram (Shahjahan) made Rana Amar Singh of Mewar accept Mughal
suzerainty in 1615.
2. In 1616, Khurram conquered Ahmadnagar and was given the title
‘Shahjahan’.
3. In 1622, Persians occupied Kandahar and the Mughals lost Kandahar forever.
4. Jahangir died at Lahore and was buried at Shahdara near Lahore.
Shahjahan (1628 – 1658)
In 1629, Gujarat and Deccan famine resulted in the loss of men and material.
In 1630, Portuguese in Hooghly revolted and were driven away from Hoogly by
Kasim Khan, the Governor of Bengal. In 1631, Mumtaz died.
⭓ Civil War
1. It was fought between Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shahjahan and
Aurangzeb, the third son. Begum Jahanara supported Dara and Roshanara
supported Aurangzeb. The secular Dara followed the Qadri Sufi Order and

34
 translated Upanishads into Persian whereas Aurangzeb followed the
Naqshbandi order.
2. Aurangzeb and his alliance with the younger brother Murad defeated the
imperial armies commanded by Dara and Raja Jaswant Singh in the Battles of
Dharmat and Samugarh in 1658. Shahjahan was imprisoned on the charges of
misusing public money. He died in 1665.
3. Aurangzeb defeated Dara for the third time in the Battle of Deorai, performed
coronation twice and came to power with the title ‘Alamgir’ meaning ‘King
of the world’.
Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707)
1. After coming to power, Aurangzeb brought about many changes. He abolished
the ‘Kalimas’ (inscribing Quranic verses on coins). Mohtasib, the royal censor
officer was entrusted with the responsibility of enforcing Koran.
2. The customs duties were fixed at 2.5% for Muslims and 5% for Hindus.
3. In 1669, he ordered for the destruction of temples. The Kashi Vishwanath
Temple and Keshavraj Temple at Mathura were the prominent ones destroyed.
In 1679, Jizia was reimposed.
4. He abolished both vocal and instrumental music. He removed court
astrologers and historians; he also banned the celebration of Diwali and
Persian Navroz festivals.
⭓ Revolts -
1. The Bundelas were the first to revolt against Mughal land revenue policy
under the leadership of Chhatrasal.
2. Satnamis, a peasant tribe of Haryana also revolted against the revenue policy.
3. The Jats revolted under the leadership of Gokul for the first time and later
continued the revolt under the leadership of Churamal and Badan Singh. They
founded an independent empire called Bharatpur.
4. The Ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in 1679. The Sikhs revolted
under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh.
5. The Rajput rebellion: In 1679, Raja Jaswant Singh died without a successor.
Aurangzeb refused to accept his declared son, Raja Ajit Singh as the ruler of
Marwar. Rajputs revolted under the leadership of Raja Durga Das. Prince
Akbar sent by Aurangzeb revolted against Aurangzeb and finally took shelter
in the court of Sambhaji, son of Shivaji. In 1681, Aurangzeb left Agra, came
down to Deccan and remained in Deccan till his death.
⭓ Other expeditions -
🚩 In 1686, he conquered Bijapur.

35
🚩 In 1687, he conquered Golconda.
🚩 In 1689, he killed Sambhaji.
🚩 In 1700, he defeated Rajaram, second son of Shivaji but he failed to suppress
the Maratha movement.
🚩 He died in 1707 at Ahmednagar and was buried at Aurangabad.
Anglo- Mughal relations under Aurangzeb-
In 1690, Aurangzeb declared war on English and captured their settlements. In
1690, he conferred a ‘Farman’ on the English East Indian Company with certain
terms and conditions.
Mughal Administration
⭓ Sources
1. Ain-i-Akbari written by Abul Fazal deals with Akbar’s administration.
2. Akbarnama, also written by Abul Fazal deals with Akbar’s administration.
3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh by Mullah Badauni deals with Akbar’s religious
policy, a critique.
4. Iqbalnamah Jahangiri written by Mutamad Khan deals with Jahangir’s
administration.
5. Padshahnamah written by Abdul Hamid Lahori deals with Shahjahan’s
administration.
6. Muntakab-ul-Lubab by Khafi Khan deals with the administration of
Aurangzeb.
⭓ Central Government Administration –
1. Diwan was the Finance Minister assisted by Mir-i-mal (Royal Exchequer) and
Mir-i-Taan (in charge of Crown lands called Khalisa lands).
2. Mir Bakshi (Chief Commander)
3. Mir Saman (in charge of the Royal Palace)
4. Mir-i-Tuzak (in charge of Royal Ceremonies)
5. Mir-i-Dakchowki (Postmaster)
6. Waqia-Navis (Royal Correspondent)
7. Harkhara (Royal Spy)
8. Mohtasib (Censor Officer)
⭓ Provincial Administration
The empire was divided into provinces called Subas, each of which was headed
by Subedaar/Sipahsalar from the times of Akbar. Subas were further divided into
districts called Sarkars, headed by Fauzdar and assisted by a revenue officer

36
called Poddar and a Qazi for judicial administration. Kotwal was the officer-in-
charge of the city administration. Paraganah was the group of villages,
administered by Amil (Chief Revenue Officer). At the village level, the Hindu
aristocracy continued as before.
⭓ Revenue Administration
1. Akbar initially followed Sher Shah’s revenue systems, particularly the Zabt
System.
2. Raja Todar Mal was made the Revenue Minister of Akbar and was known as
‘Diwan-i-Ashraf’. Todar Mal introduced ‘Bandobast’, a revenue assessment
system and classified land into four categories: Polaj (best tract), Parauti
(second best), Chacher (third grade) and Banjar (least fertile). On the basis of
the average production for the last 10 years, the category of land was decided
and accordingly, the tax was levied.
3. Dastur-ul-Amal was the price list for every area’s agricultural commodities.
Akbar appointed supervisors for revenue collection called Karoris at
Paraganah level. Qunangos prepared the pricelists.
⭓ Military Administration
The Mansabdari system was the unique administrative system under the Mughals.
Though introduced by Babur, it was perfected by Akbar. The Mansabdars were
the civil servants selected on merit. They discharged civil, military and judicial
functions on behalf of the State/Emperor and were given lands called Jagirs. The
highest rank in Mansabdari of above 5000 was conferred by Akbar on Raja Man
Singh and Azizuddin Kuka (7,000 Sawars).
1. Mir-i-Atish was in-charge of artillery.
2. Mir-i-Bahari was in-charge of the Navy.
3. Mir-i-Askan was in-charge of the military offences.
⭓ Judicial Administration
The Department of Judiciary called Qazi-ul-Qazat was headed by a Chief Justice
known as Sadr-us-Sudur. He disposed of justice on behalf of the king.
Dharamshala, the rest house for beggars was set up in different parts of the
empire.

37
Sur Empire
⭓ Sher Shah
His actual name was Farid. He was the Jagirdar of Sasaram, Khawaspur and
Tanda and was given the title Sher Shah by Bahar Khan Lohani who was the ruler
of Bihar. He founded the Sur dynasty in Delhi after defeating Humayun in The
battle of Kanauj or Bilgram (1540).
⭓ His reforms:
1. He introduced a new revenue system called ‘Zabt System’ which became the
basis of Raja Todar Mal system of revenue collection.
2. He was the first to introduce the Ryotwari System.
3. He developed communication systems like GT Road from Sonargaon to
Rohtasgarh, Agra to Jodhpur, Jodhpur to Sasaram and Lahore to Multan.
4. He introduced the most standard Silver rupee called Rupiya which was
accepted even by the Britishers.
5. He constructed Purana Qila in Delhi and his own tomb in Sasaram, the only
tomb surrounded by water.
6. Abbas Khan Sherwani wrote Tarikh-i-Shershahi on Sher Shah’s
administration.
7. He died in the Battle of Kalinjar in 1545 after defeating Rana Maldev.

38
Biography Zone: Sher Shah Suri
Shershah Suri
Sher Shah of Sur, original name Farid
Khan, (born 1486, Sasaram [India]—died
May 22, 1545, Kalinjar), emperor of north
India (1540–45) in the Islamic Sur
(Afghan) dynasty of 1540–57 who
organized a long-lived bureaucracy
responsible to the ruler and created a
carefully calculated revenue system. For
the first time during the Islamic conquest
the relationship between the people and
the ruler was systematized, with little
oppression or corruption.
One of the eight sons of Hasan Khan, a
horse breeder, Farid rebelled against his
father and left home to enlist as a soldier
in the service of Jamal Khan, the governor
of Jaunpur. He later worked for the
Mughal king of Bihar, who rewarded him for bravery with the title of Sher Khan.
After he defeated a Bengal army, he took over the rule of Bihar. In early 1539, he
conquered Bengal and, through clever deception, the Rohtas stronghold
southwest of Bengal. At the Battle of Chausa on June 26, 1539, he defeated the
Mughal emperor Humayun and assumed the royal title of Farid al-Din Sher Shah.
In May 1540 at Kannauj he again defeated Humayunn; he had driven his foes
from Bengal, Bihar, Hindustan, and the Punjab and also suppressed the Baluch
chiefs on the northwestern frontier. Intent on expanding the sultanate of Delhi, he
captured Gwalior and Malwa but was killed during the siege of Kalinjar.
One of the great Muslim rulers of India, Sher Shah rose from the rank of private
to become emperor, efficiently administered the army and tax collections, and
built roads, rest houses, and wells for his people. He was generally tolerant of
non-Muslims, except in his massacre of Hindus after the surrender of Raisen. His
tomb at Sasaram is one of the most magnificent in India.

39
Indo – Islamic Culture

Abdur Rahim Khankhana, famous Muslim poet who was one of the
Navaratnas (nine-gems) in the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar, was a
friend of Tulsidas.

40
Bhakti Movement
The movement emerged in response to the challenges posed by Islam. It
developed under two different schools of thought-
1. Nirguna Bhakti which believed in formless worship. It was introduced first by
Adi Shankara and later followed by Kabir, Guru Nanak, Malak Das, Dadu
Dayal, Birban and Ghora.
2. Sagunabhakti believed in the worship of form. It believed that God is the
highest manifestation of everything perfect. It was championed by the
Vaishnava philosophers like Ramanuja, Nimbaraka, Madhva, Vallabha,
Meera Bai, Chaitanya, Tulsidas, Surdas and Sundharadas.

⭓ Adi Shankara / Shankaracharya

He was born at Kaladi in Kerala and became a saint at the age of five. He was the
disciple of Govindacharya. He wrote commentaries on Brahma Sutras. His
popular works were Vivekachudamani, Saundaryalahari, Bhaja Govindam,
Shivanandalahari and Yogataravali. He founded the philosophy Advaitasiddhant.
To preach and protect the Sanatan dharma, he founded Ashramas/Mathas at
Sringeri in Karnataka, Dwaraka in Gujarat, Puri and Badrinath. He died at the age
of 32. The followers of Shankara were called Smarthas.

⭓ Ramanujacharya [1060-1118 A.D.]

He was born at Sriperumbudur. He was the disciple of Yamuna Muni and
Vedprakash. He founded the philosophy called Vishishtadvaita and preached
Vaishnavism. He was banished from Sriperumbudur by Kulottanga Chola. He
wrote Sri Bashya and was the head of Srirangam Vaishnava Math.

⭓ Nimbarka
He was the disciple of Ramanuja. He was the first to introduce Radha Madhav
Cult which was centred on the worship of Radha and Madhav. He founded the
philosophy called Dvaita Advaita also called as Bhed and Abhedanuvada. He
composed Dasasloki

⭓ Madhvacharya [1238-1317 A.D.]

He was born in Udupi. He was the first to compose commentaries on Brahma
Sutras in the Kannada language. He founded the philosophy called Dwita
Siddhanta.

⭓ Vallabhacharya [1479-1531 A.D.]

His other name was Achinitabhadra. He was the first to preach and promote
Krishna bhakti on the basis of Maha Bhagwat Puran. He founded the philosophy

41
Shuddhadvaita which believed in the absolute union. He prescribed Pushtimarg
as the means for salvation (extreme devotion to God).He also founded a school
called Rudrasampradaya

⭓ Ramanand [1300- 1380 A.D.]

He was the most popular Bhakti reformer from Uttar Pradesh. He was the first to
preach Ramabhakti and the first to preach in Hindi. Also, he was the first reformer
to accept disciples from the lower castes. His disciples were Dhana (a Jat farmer);
Sena (a Barber); Ravi Das (a Cobbler), Kabir (Weaver), Sadhana (a butcher),
Narahari (Goldsmith) and Pipa (a rajput king). He composed Ananda Bhasya.

⭓ Kabir Das [1448-1518 A.D.]

Born at Varanasi, he was the most popular Bhakti reformer. He was the first
reformer to preach Universal Religion and Hindu-Muslim unity. He was the most
important disciple of Ramanandand also accepted a Sufi Saint, Pir Taqvi as his
Guru. He was persecuted by Sikander Lodi for preaching Hindu-Muslim unity.
The sayings of Kabir are popular as Dohas. Bijaks were the compiled works of
Dohas.They were composed in the language Bhojpuri. The followers of Kabir
were called Kabir Panthis.

⭓ Guru Nanak [1469-1538 A.D.]

Born at Talwandi, he was influenced by Kabir. ‘Sach Akhand’ (Ultimate Truth)
was the main theme of his teachings. Nanak preached Universal Brotherhood and
Monotheism. The followers of Nanaks are called ‘Sikhs’.

⭓ Meera Bai [ 1498-1546 A.D]

The most popular woman Bhakti reformer, Meera, was born in Kudki in
Rajasthan. She belonged to the family of Sisodias and was the wife of Rana
Bhojraj. She was the first to introduce Giridhara Gopala Cult of Brindavan and
also the first to introduce Bhajans in Bhakti movement. She composed them in
Brajbhasha. Her verses have been included in Adi Granth. She was influenced by
Vallabhacharya.

⭓ Chaitanya [ 1436-1534 A.D.]

He was the most popular Bhakti reformer from Bengal. He was born at Nabadwip
(Nadia). He was the disciple of Keshav Bhakti. His other names were Gouranga
and Vishwambar. He was the first to preach Vaishnavism in Bengal and Orissa.
Puri was the main centre of his activities and he was first to introduce Kirtans in
Bhakti movement. His form of Vaishnaivism became popular as Gudiya [Use of
song and dance along with instruments. He wrote Siksastakm in Sanskrit.

42
⭓ Tulsidas [1532-1623 A.D.]
He was a contemporary of Akbar and he wrote the all-time great Ramcharitmanas
in the language Awadhi, hindi version of Ramayana.

⭓ Surdas [1478-1580 A.D.]

He preached Krishna Bhakti and wrote Sursagar and Sursaravali.

⭓ Sundardas [1596-1689 A.D.]

He wrote Sundara Vilasam that deals with Six Indian philosophical systems.

⭓ Dadu Dayal [1544-1605 A.D.]

Born in the community of weavers at Ahmedabad, he preached Nirgunabhakti.
His teachings were compiled in the form of Dadu Dayaram Ki Bani.

⭓ Birbhan
Born at Karnal in Haryana in the community of farmers, he preached
Nirgunabhakti and emphasized on Satyam or Truth. His followers were called
Satnamis. Pothi is the sacred text of Satnamis.

⭓ Shankar Dev [1449-1568 A.D.]

He was the first to preach
Vaishnavism in
Brahmaputra Valley
(Assam). He was the founder
of Ekasarana Dharma or
Movement [Neo Vaishnavite
movement]
His most famous work is
Kirtana Ghosha.
Narsi Mehta [1409-1488
A.D.]
He was a Gujarati poet and
belonged to Vaishnavite
sect. His most famous
Bhajan “Vaishnava Jana To
“inspired Mahatama Gandhi.
Guru Ghasidas [1756-1836
A.D.]
He founded Satnami community in Chattisgarh. He condemned caste system and
idol worship.
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Maratha Bhakti Reform Movement
The main theme of the movement was Maratha-dharma, which essentially
meant the protection of Maratha culture. Its ultimate aim was to secure an
independent state for the Marathas called Swaraj.

⭓ Dnyaneshwar - [Jnanadev] [ 1275-1296 A.D.]

The first and earliest of Maratha reformer, wrote a commentary on Bhagavad Gita
called Gnaneswari, popular as Maratha Bhagavad Gita and also called Bhavardha
Deepika.He was a follower of Nath yogi tradition. He founded Varkari Sect,the
worshippers of Vittal Swamy.
Muktabai
Sister of Dnyaneshwar wrote 41 Abhangas [Devotional songs]

⭓ Namdev
He was a tailor by profession (was earlier a dacoit). He emphasized on cultural
unity of the Marathas by introducing a tradition called Mahapurusha Sampradaya
(worshipping the great saints). He is one of the 50 holi men whose verses have
been included by Guru Nanak.

⭓ Eknath [1533- 1599 A.D.]

He was the first Maratha reformer to emphasize on the Marathi language.His
famous work is Eknathi Bhagavata

⭓ Tukaram Bhakth [ 1608-1650 A.D.]

He was the greatest Marathi bhakti reformer, who made the popular Vittoba Cult
(worshipping Vittalaswami of Pandharpur). He composed devotional songs on
Vittalaswami called Abhangs. He was contemporary of Shivaji Maharaj.

⭓ Guru Ramdas [1608-1681 A.D.]

As the Guru of Shivaji, he inspired Shivaji to found Swaraj. The messages of
Guru Ramdas were compiled in the form of the text called Dasabodha.
Balgangadhar Tilak drew inspiration from his work. Ramdas founded Dharkari
sect combining spiritual life with worldly life.

⭓ Ghora
A pot-maker by profession, he preached monotheism.

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Sufi Movement

Ajmer Sharif: Dargah of Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti

(The word Suf meant wool which implied simplicity). Sufism can be defined as
Islamic mysticism. Its main theme was Wahadat-ul-Wajud (Unity of God). It
developed first in Iraq. The first Sufi saint was Begum Rabia of Basra in Iraq.
Sufi orders were called Silsilas. The maximum number of orders were founded
in Afghanistan which spread to India.
The Sufi orders were divided into Beshara (Those who were not bound by it) and
Bashara (Who followed Islamic law). In Sufism the link between the teacher (Pir)
under disciples (Murids) was vital.

🔳 Silsilas
▣ Chisti
It was founded by Sheikh Abdul Chisti. It was introduced in India by Sheikh
Moinuddin Chisti. His dargah is at Ajmer. Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki was the
chief disciple of Moinuddin. Iltutmish dedicated Qutub Minar to Bakhtiar Kaki.
Baba Farid-ud-din ShakarGanj was quite popular. His outlook was so broad that
some of his verses are quoted in Adi Granth of the Sikhs.
Sheikh Nizamuddin was the most popular Sufi saint in India. He mastered Yogic
practices, that he was called Sidh or Perfect. He became popular as Mahboob-i-
illahi. Amir Khusro, the greatest musician and literary giant was the disciple of
Sheikh Nizamuddin.

45
Sheikh Salim Chisti was the last great saint of the Chisti order. He was held in
great respect by Akbar.
Khanqah were hermitages of Chisti saints outside the city.
▣ Suhrawardi
It was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and introduced in India by
Bahauddin. It was the richest order and very soon became unpopular. The most
well known saints of the order were Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi & Hamid-
ud-din Nagori.
▣ Pirdausia
It was the only Sufi order which was founded and developed within India.
Founded by Sharafuddin, it was confined to Bihar. He composed Maktubat and
Malfuzat literature (it dealt with the lives and teachings of Sufi Saints).
▣ Qadri
This most secular order was founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadri Jilani of Baghdad.
Shah Nizamtullah the first Qadri to come to India.Dara Shikoh, son of Shahjahan,
followed this order.
▣ Naqshbandi
It was founded by Sheikh Baqi Billah.Sheikh Ahmad Sir Hindi of this order
influenced Aurangzeb, and it was a highly conservative order. Aurangzeb
followed this order.
Other Orders:
1. Mahdavi order was founded by Mohammed Madhi of Jaunpur.
2. Raushaniya order was founded by Buwazid Ansari of Jalendhar.
3. Shattaria order founded by Abdulla Shattari.
Impact of Sufism:
1. The humanistic approach of Sufis inspired Arabic philosophers Ibn-i-Arabi.
He founded the concept Tauhid-i-wazudi (Unity of Being). It became the basis
for Akbar’s Tauhid-i-illahi.
2. Sufis accepted Hindi language. Malik Mohammed Jayasi wrote Padmavat, the
story of Rani Padmini. Abul hamid Bilgrami wrote Haqiq-i-Hind. In which he
explained the legendary figures Radha & Krishna, Murali & Gopi etc.

46
Critical Appraisal of Bhakti and Sufi Movement
Both movements were quite powerful ones dealing with every aspect of human
life. As such they influenced changes in every sphere.
The drawbacks of both the movements were:
1. They sought solution witihin the framework of religion. In other words, they
asked for relief and not a solution.
2. Though they preached tolerance they could not overcome sectarian rivalries.
Shaiva and Vaishnava in Hinduism and Shia-Sunni conflict in Islam continued
to persist.
3. Devotion to God and urge to spiritual perfection definitely made the medieval
society turn indifferent for the development of sciences, technology and
materialistic progress. It was an established fact that after Bhakti and Sufi
movements in medieval India the progress of materialistic development
definitely got affected.
However, inspite of above drawbacks both had significant achievements to their
credit:- In social sphere, both generated consciousness inspiring lower-caste
movements. Most of the reformers came from the lower sections of the society.
In economic front both the movements inculcated a sense of dignity of labour
removing the idea condemned profession or Neechavrithi. Secondly, Bhakti
Movement opposed economic exploitation of agricultural labour by Vaishnava
landlords in Karnataka during Lingayat Movement of Basaveshwar.
In the realm of polity particularly Bhakti Movement inspired the formation of
new kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire and Swaraj of Shivaji Maharaj. The
Sufi Movement on its part liberated the stigma attached to the Islamic State that
it belonged only to muslims. Both were responsible for inspiring great monarchs
of medieval times like Md. Bin Tughlaq, Akbar, Alauddin Hussain of Bengal,
Ibrahim Shah, Jagadguru of Bijapur, Jain-ul-Abdeen (Akbar of Kashmir).
In cultural sphere the profound impact is felt in the development of local
languages. Braja Basha developed by Vallabha and Meera, Bhiojpuri by Kabir
Das, Awadhi by Tulsidas, Mythali by Vidhyapathi and Chandidas, Bengali by
Chaitnya Prabhu, Assami by Shankar Dev, Maratha reformers for Marathi, Tamil
Shaiva saints called Nayanars and Vaishnava saints Alvars were all responsible
for the development of Tamil language.
The Hindustani and Carnatic music traditions were influenced by and perfected.
Meera Bai introduced Bhajans, Chaitanya Prabhu Kirthans and great Amir
Khusro under the influence of Sufism introduced Sama (congregational music)
and devotional music Qawali. The Carnatic music in its form and content is
devotional, the essence of Bhakti Movement.

47
Both Bhakti and Sufi Movements influenced the Classical Dance with the idea of
Devotion. Both the movements left behind them a permanent legacy in the form
of a composite culture which is still followed in India.
Comparative Study between the two:
Similarities:
1. Both accepted the idea ‘Guru’ a must.
2. Both Movements followed common man’s language.
3. Both accepted popular means like music, dance in preaching out to the common
man.
4. Both accepted scriptures as the basis.
Differences:
1. Sufism- more universal in the form of content when compared to Bhakti.
2. The concept Saguna Bhakti is totally absent in Sufism.
3. The Bhakti reformers moved as one amongst the society whereas Sufis
preferred to live a secluded life away from the society.
4. In Sufism, a deviation from the scriptures has taken place dividing the
movement into Bashara (followers of the scriptures) and Beshara (non-
followers of scriptures). This tendency is not seen in Bhakti movement.

48
 INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Jahaz Mahal Mandu

The Islamic style is called Dome and Arch method. The native Hindu style that
was prevalent during that time is called Slab and Beam method. The other aspects
of Islamic style were huge buildings with lofty gateways and wide entrances. The
Muslims also introduced floral designs. They borrowed decorative elements like
Kalisa, Swastika and Lotus from the Hindus. Hindus adopted the domes and
arches.
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorised into the
Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal,
and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style
(Bijapur, Golconda). These categories help in understanding better the
specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in immutable slots.
Deccani styles are also included in the Regional/provincial category.
🔳 Imperial Architecture
It is witnessed in Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The architecture reflects the
personal taste and interest of the Sultan and Mughal Badshah.

⭓ Slave Dynasty:
Qutubuddin Aibak constructed Quwat-ul-Islam mosque, the first pure Islamic
construction and Adhai-din-ka-Jhopra (made by destroying a monastery). It was
the place where he gave darshan at Ajmer. He laid the foundation for Qutub Minar
to commemorate the victory of Islam on Indian soil. He could complete only the
first two storeys. The remainder was completed by Iltutmish and dedicated to
Bakhtiar Kaki. In Qutub Minar, black limestone with Sanskrit verses in praise of
Lord Vishnu is found at the base. Balban constructed Lal Mahal in Delhi.

49
⭓ Khilji Dynasty
The simple Islamic style became decorative and grand under Alauddin Khilji. He
constructed Alai Darwaza, an entrance to Qutub Minar; Hauz-i-Alai; Jamat
Khana Masjid and also a city called Siri in Delhi (this was the first time Delhi
was expanded). Alai Darwaza contains a dome which for the first time was built
on scientific lines. It was also the earliest dome built in pure Islamic style. In the
construction of the darwaja Alauddin Khilji borrowed a new technique called
“Horse shoe Arch” from Persia.
⭓ Tughlaq Dynasty
Under Tughlaqs, for the first time, thick sloping walls were built called Batter
(for protection against extreme weather and for strength). They made extensive
use of cheaply available grey sandstones.
Ghiazuddin Tughlaq constructed the city of Tughlaqabad. His tomb in
Tughlaqabad is the first tomb built in pure Islamic style. It marked a new trend in
Architecture to have a good skyline, the building was built on a high platform.
Md.Bin Tughlaq built Swargadwari on the banks of river Ganga and stayed there
for two and half years, when Delhi was affected by Cholera.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq constructed five cities (Firozpur, Firozbad, Fathehpur,
Fatehbad & Jaunpur in memory of cousin Jauna- Mo. Bin Tuglaq) apart from
Feroz Shah Kotla, the tomb of his finance minister Telangana and Hauz-i-Khas
in Delhi. He beautified the city Delhi with 1200 Gardens. In all his buildings the
decorative device found is The Lotus.
⭓ Lodhi Dynasty
Significant changes in architecture took place under the Lodis. They were the first
to construct structures on grafted platforms. They were the first to construct
double domed structures, angular and octagonal structures and structures in
Garden setting (e.g. Lodi Gardens in Delhi). Balconies & Kiosks of Rajasthan
and Gujrati styles are also used. Many of these features were adopted by the
Mughals and the Culmination is used to be found in The Taj Mahal built by
Shahjaha. The best example of Lodi architecture is the Jamat Khana Masjid
constructed by Sikandar Lodi in Agra.

50
 Temple Architecture
The origin of Indian temple goes back to the pre-Christian era and its evolution
into a monument of great architectural merit is marked by conscious efforts on
the part of several ruling dynasties, making it an institution of enduring
importance in the social, political and economic integration of the subcontinent.
The practice of creating sanctuaries for the images probably goes back to the
second century B.C. Several Deva-Gvrihas (houses of Gods) of pre-Christian
times have been found. Built in perishable materials, they provided little scope
for the application of principles of architecture as an art.
Though the Gupta period marks the beginning of Structural temple architecture,
the process actually started from the IKSHVAKU dynasty. They were the first to
build the temples for Pushpabadra Swamy, Astabhuja Swamy, Karthikeya,
Navagraha and Harithi (the goddess for protecting children) at Nagarjuna Konda
in Telangana State during 2nd century A.D.
The Temple Styles: The AGAMA SHASTRA described the major temple styles
as Nagara, Dravida and Vasara of which the prime position assigned to the Nagara
style.
NAGARA STYLE: Nagara style of temple architecture, under the patronage of
imperial Guptas Nagara Style of temple architecture developed in North India
with certain characteristic features-
a) The temples were built on a raised platform in square or rectangular shape.
b) The walls of the temples converge gradually inwards. These temples are
characterized by a flat roof.
c) The main building in known as GARBHAGRIHA, Sanctum Sanctorum is a
small room, generally a cubicle which houses the principle deity of the temple.
(1) In the Garbhagriha on the seat called pita, the idols of the God and Goddess
are placed.
(2) The ambulatory passage way called Pradakshinapath is ambulatory
passage around the Garbhagriha.
(3) Outside Garbhagriha images of Goddess Ganga and Yamuna are placed.
d) On Garbhagriha a mountain like spire called SHIKHARA is built. Its shapes
vary from pyramidal to curvilinear. It is curvilinear tower Shikhara the
essential characteristic feature of the Nagara Style.
The Shikaras are of three types- 1) Shikaras with square at the base and the
walls curve inward to a point on the top called Latina or Rekha-prasad, 2)
Shikaras with a broader base, short in height than the Latina. They slope
upwards on a straight line called phamsana, 3) Shikaras with rectangular base
with the roof rising into valuated chambers called valabhi.

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e) At the top of the temple the spherical or square structure is built called
Amalaka, on the top of Amalaka Kalash is placed.
f) At the entrance of the temple a portico or a hall called MANDAPA is built for
the gathering of the devotees.
g) The Mandapa is connected to the main temple by a narrow passage called
ANTARALA.
h) Inside the Temple, wall was divided vertical planes called Rathas. They were
used as different planes to make narrative sculptures. These temples were
called TRIRATHA, PANCHARATHA, SAPTARATHA and NAVARATHA
Temples.
i) Generally, temples in this style were built in PANCHAYATAN STYLE which
consisted of UPALAYAS or subsidiary shrines with respect to principle
shrine.
j) Generally, temples were built without water tanks inside the Complex and
boundary walls or Gateways outside.
Generally, temples were built by using stones, without any metal or mortar.
However, the Bhittari temple was built entirely in bricks.
I (A) The Gupta Temple Architecture: the Guptas were the first to construct
temples in North India in early Nagara style. It all started with square sanctum
and pillared portico. Gradual progression started from flat roofed temples in the
initial stages to the sculptured Sikharas in later stages. It was under five different
stages;
In the first stage, temples were built on low platforms, square in shape with flat
roof and portico developed on shallow pillars. A classic example for this Temple
No. 17 Sanchi.
In the second stage improvements were made over the first stage with some
important additions like- platforms upraised and two storied temples.
The most important development being ambulatory passageway around the
sanctum sanctorum or Garbhagriha. Parvati temple at Nachana Kuthara in M.P is
the best example for this stage.
The third stage- in this stage, the two major developments were: Sikharas though
small in size appeared in the place of the flat roof for the first time. Secondly,
Panchayatan Style of Constructing temples started, under which four subsidiary
shines along with the temple of the principle deity are found. The subsidiary
shrines face each other on either side of the mandap. Example for this stage-
Dashavatar Temple at Deograh in U.P.
In the fourth stage, temples remained just the same, except that the main shrine
becoming more rectangular like Ter temple at Sholapur.

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In the fifth stage circular temples with shallow rectangular projections appeared,
like that of Maniyar Math, Rajgir.
The other important temples are:
1. Shiva Temple- Bhumra
2. Vishnu temple- Tighwa
3. Lakhamana temple- Sirpur
The Bhitargaon temple near Kanpur in U.P was entirely made of Bricks.
The Regional styles of Nagara School: till about 6th century the style of temple
architecture remained quite similar both in north as well as in the south. Later,
each began to evolve in its own direction.
In Northern India, certain regional variations and ramifications appeared in the
formal development of the style, though they did not alter its basic characteristics;
I (B) ORISSA: Of all the regional styles of the Nagara school ORISSA is the
most remarkable- rightly described as exhibiting the Nagara Style in “its greatest
purity”. It was under the Ganga dynasty, Somavamshi & Shilodbava dynasties
the style of architecture flourished. Essential Aspects-
1) the temples are built in square complex.
2) the Shikaras are known as REKHADEULS- vertical roofs which suddenly
curve inwards sharply.
3) the mandapa in this style is JAGMOHAN, NATYA MANDAP and
BHOGAMANDAPAs. In front of it a NATA MANDAPA or Hall of Dance and
Music and BHOGAMANDAPA or hall of offerings are found.
4) the Exterior walls were lavishly decorated with intricate carvings, but interior
walls were plain.
5) like Dravidian Style temples are surrounded by boundary walls.
The three main centers of the style are Bhuvaneshwar, Puri and Konark.
At Bhuvaneshwar- the Parashurameshwar temple built by Madhav Raja of
Shilodbava dynasty represents an advanced stage of the Gupta Style. The
Mukteshvar temple stands for a mature expression of the Nagara Style in Orissa,
regarded as Gem of Orissan architecture. It was built by Yayati 1. The Lingaraja
temple built around 1000 A.D, most marvelous temple marking the culmination
of architectural activities. It was built by Jajati Keshari.
In Rajarani temple Jagamohana and Vimana are admirably combined to express
perfection. It was called so because of Erotic carvings of couples and the type of
sand stones Red & Yellow used called Raja Rani.
The Brahmeshwar temple is panchayatana. Ananta Vasudev temple is the other
temple worth mentioning.

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The Jagannath temple at Puri is the other temple which comes close to the
grandeur and dignity of the Lingaraja temple started by Choda Gangadeva &
finished by Ananga Choda.
However, Sun temple at Konarka built by Narasimhadeva excels Lingaraja
temple in its conception and the perfection of its finish called “Black Pagoda” as
the first rays of the sun enter the garbagriha through the sea facing Pagoda. Grand
and impressive even its ruin, it represents fulfillment and finality of the Orian
architectural movement.
II) KHAJURAHO School: in central part of India. The Chendela rulers
developed a distinct style of temple architecture with Khajuraho and Mohotsav
Nagar as its main centres.
Its essential characteristic features-
1) temples built on high platforms and belong to both Hindu and Jain religious.
2) they were made of sandstone, generally faxing North and East.
3) Temples had three chambers- Garbagriha, Mandapa and Ardha-mandapa.
4) Unlike the Odisha school, both interior and exterior walls were lavishly
decorated with carvings.
5) Panchayatan Style was followed. Even the subsidiary shrines had Rekha-
Prasad Shikharas- creating an impression of Mountain range.
6) The temples are adorned with the sculptures with the theme Erotic Art- or
Kamakala.
The Prominent temples are Kandariya Mahadeva, Devi Jagadamba, Baladevo,
Parsavanatha, Lakshmana and Visvanatha temples. The Kandariya Mahadeva
temple represents the perfection of architectural movement central India. Floral
and human of sculptures add to its beauty considerably. It is the largest, tallest
and most beautiful of all the temples at Khajuraho built by Raja Dhandadeva.
III) Solanki School: It was during the times of the Solanki rulers of Gujrat and
Rajasthan that Nagara style in Western India took a precise form-
Unique feature of the style is presence of step-tank called Surya-Kund within the
temple complex. The steps of the tank are full of small temples with wooden
carvings.
Variety of materials were being used in building the temples including Sandstone,
black basalt and soft marble particularly white marble of Rajasthan has been put
to admirable use.
Most of the temples are East facing and built in such way that the sun rays fall
directly into the central shrine during equinoxes.
The Jain temples at Dilwara, Mount Abu particularly that of built by Bhima-I,
temples built by Vimala and Tejpala and the Rudramal temples built by

54
Siddhiraja are classic expels of the style, particularly, the MODHERA sun
temple- Gujarat built by Bhima-I stands class apart.
VI) The Paramara School- Another variety of Nagara Style developed under
the patronage of parmaras with its main centers Malwa and Khandesh.
The unique aspect of the style is SIKHARA is Ornamented with four narrow
bands running from the base to the summit.
The finest is Neelakanteshvar temple at Udayapur M.P built by Udayaditya also
called as Udayesvara temple. The Ambaranath temple in Thane district
Maharashtra is another good example of the type.
II. Dravida Style: the nucleus of the Dravida temple is the storeyed form of the
Gupta temple and the rock cut rathas of Mahabalipuram. In this rathas one may
recognize the origin of the twin fundamental features of the Dravida style Vimana
and Gopuram.
The essential characteristics features are:
1) the temples built in square complex with high boundary walls.
2) the lofty entrance gate ways are GOPURAMS.
3) the spire in the form of a stepped pyramid that rises up linearly rather carved
called VIMANA.
4) one unique aspect is the Upalayas of the subsidiary shrines do not have
Vimanas, unlike in Nagara architecture. We see only one VIMANA.
5) the other unique aspects being WATERTANKS, YAGNASALAS (meant for
performing rituals) are part of the temples.
6) the hall facing the presiding deity called Mukha Mantapa connected to
Garbagriha by a narrow passage called Antarala.
7) the entrance of Garbagriha had Dwarapalas and Yakhas.
8) PANCHAYATAN tradition is also followed with temple for presiding deity
and four subsidiary shrines called UPALAYAS.
9) in subsequent stages of development, we also find MANTAPAS of different
types like RANGA MANTAPAS, KALYANA MANDAPAS, BHOGA
MANTAPAS and NATYA MANTAPS added.
II. (A) DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE UNDER PALLAVAS: the temples
developed under pallavas reflected the stylistic taste of the individual rulers and
the architecture developed under four stages-
1st Stage started with Mahendravarman. The Mahendravarman group of temples
are basically rock-cut. Example- Bairava Konda cave temple and Ananteshvara
temple at Undavalli cave temple both in A.P. These were known as Mandapas
unlike the Nagara style in which they are meant only to be assembly halls.

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2nd Stage called Narasimha Group Comprises monolithic temples or Rathas at
Mahabalipuram each of which hewn out of a single rock boulder. The rathas
popularly called seven pagodas are actually eight in number. They are
Dharmaraja, Bhima, Arjuna, Sahadeva, Draupadi, Ganesh, Pidari and
Valaiyankuttai of them, Dharmaraja the biggest and Draupadi smallest. The
Dharmaraja ratha must have provided the basis for Dravidian temple architecture.
3rd Rajasimha Group (Other name Narsimhavarman II)- with this the real
structural temples started in the place of rock-cut temples. The shore temple at
Mahabalipuram, Ishvara and Mukunda temples ad the Kailasanath temple at
Kanchi the shore temple dedicated to Martanda. Kailasanath temple at Kanchi
represents the most mature phase of this style.
4th Nandivarman Group of temples- most of them are very small, but are more
ornate resembles the Chola architecture. The classic example for the style is
magnificent Vaikuntaperumal temple built by Nandivarman at Kanchi.
The other temples of the same group are Muktesvara and Matangesvara temples
at Kanchi, Vadamalisvara at Orgadam (T.N) and the Parasurameshvar temple at
Gudimallam near Renigunta (A.P).
II (B) The Chola Architecture: The temple architecture, particularly Dravida
style reached the pinnacle of its glory under the Cholas. Large number of early
Chola temples built in Pudukkotai district gives us the idea of the growth of
Dravida style from Pallavas to the Chola times. Most important among them is
VIJAYALA CHOLESWARA temple at NARTHAMALAI. It was built by
Satyan Palayalli, the subordinate ruler of Mutturaiars.
The main feature of the Chola temple is VIMANA which was later eclipsed by
the richly ornamented GOPURAM.
Secondly, Chola temple had become the center of social and cultural life of South
India particularly in rural areas. The village assembly invariably held its meetings
in the temple Mandapa.
The Brihadeesvara or Rajarajeswara temple at Tanjore built in 1009 A.D by
Rajaraja I marks the best example of the style. Apart from being the tallest (216
feet) of all the medieval temples, it is a master piece of the South Indian
architecture.
The temple of GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM built by RAJENDRA I was
meant to excel Brihadeesvara temple in every conceivable way. It is larger in
plan, though not as tall as the previous one.
The AIRAVATESVARA temple at Darasuram in Tanjore distinct was built by
Rajya chola II and KAMPAHARESHVARA temple at Tribhuvanam built by
Kulottanga III represent the last stage of the grand Chola style.

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II (C) HOYASALA STYLE: it developed in Karnataka with its main centers
Belur, Halebid and Sringeri.
Its Characteristics features are:
1) the temple itself appears to be the work of a sculptor and not of builder, as
such called Sculptors architecture.
2) The ground plan star shaped or polygonal within which the entire temple
accommodated. The star shaped plan provided more wall space for sculptures
than a rectangular plan.
3) The temples were built on a raised platform called Jagati.
4) The wide, squat pillars is the most curious aspect of the style.
5) Great emphasis was laid on the decoration of the temple with sculptures and
intricately carved designs in both the interior and exterior walls. The temples
exhibit arraying display of sculptural exuberance.
6) Building material used was soft soap stone.
The most well-known examples of the style are KESAVA temple at Somnathpur,
CHENNA KESAVA and VIJAYANARAYANA temples at Belur and
HOYASALESVARA temple at Halebid all buily by Vishnu Vardhana.
II (D) NAYAKA STYLE: this style of architecture developed by the Nayakas
of Madurai, Jinji Tanjore and Mysore.
The utmost unique aspect of the style is the art of building GOPURAMS reached
its highest stage in this style. The MEENAKSHI temple Madurai has the tallest
GOPURAM in the world.
Secondly, PRAKARAMS (Huge corridors) in the Portico around
GARBHAGRIHA with roofed ambulatory passage ways.
Apart from the grand Madurai Meenakshi temple built by King Kulasekara
Pandya, the Chidambaram temple built by Rajendra chola and Rameshvaram
temples also come under the same style.
II (E) VIJAYANAGARA SCHOOL: the Vijayanagara empire (1336-1565)
with capital city Humpi became a major center for a distinct style called
VIJAYANAGARA.
Its unique aspects:
1) It was a mixed style, combining the regional styles of Chola, Hoyasala,
Kakatiya and Pandya. The towering GOPURAMS of Cholas, temples built on
elevated platforms as found under Hoyasala style. Extensive use of stone
pillars with beautifully carved designs like that of Kakatiyas and huge
Vimanas of Pandyas all found their way into this style.

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2) However, it did have its own unique features- Extensive construction
Mandapas- Kalyana mandapas, UJJALA MANDAPAS, NATYA
MANDAPAS and VASANTOSTAV MANDAPAS were built.
3) Along with the Mandapas, Amman Gudis, the temples were the consorts of
the God with in the main complex.
4) RAJA GOPURAMS or Kings Towers in memory of the visit of the emperors
built.
5) The temples pillars with most commonly found animal-horse.
6) The impact of Islamic architecture is also found.
The classic examples of the style Vittalswamy and Hazar Rama and Krishna
Swamy temples in Hampi built by Krishnadevara. With the first reached a high
point in florid magnificence. The TADAPATRI and PARVATHI temple at
Chidambaram, VARADARAJA and EKAMBARANATHA temples at
Kanchipuram are the other good examples.
PADMA MAHAL built by Krishnadevaraya at Humpi is a classic example for
Indo-Islamic architecture.
Part of the architecture Secular Constructions like BAZARS, Elephant stable
(Humpi) prisons and palaces were built. Krishnadevaraya built the town
NAGAPURAM (Hospet) in memory of his mother Nagamba.
(III) VESARA STYLE: Also known as Deccan and Chalukyan style had its
beginnings under Western Chalukyas with its main centers AIHOLE, BADAMI
and PATTADAKAL.
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES:
1) It is a mixed style of Nagara and Dravida styles. The influence of Nagara style
is in curvilinear shikhara and square base of the temple. The influence of
Dravida style is in design of Vimana and Intrinsic carvings and sculptures.
2) Some of the temples were built in circular shape.
3) In the construction of temple huge stone slabs were aligned without any mortar
or cement in between.
4) Open ambulatory passage way, pillars and doorways decorated with intrinsic
carvings.
(a) The VESARA style under Chalukyas developed under two different stages:
the first stage represented by temples at AIHOLE and BADAMI.
In Aihole, LADH KHAN temple one of the oldest took its name after a pious
Muslim who stayed there. It was dedicated to Shiva.
(b) Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist Chaitya to a
Bramhanical temple.

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(c) The Jain temple of Meguti shows progress in the erection of structural temples,
but is unfinished. Built by Ravi Kirti, the temple has the famous AIHOLE
inscription which talks about the greatness of Pulakesin II. In Badami, the
MELAGITTI SIVALAYA is finely proportioned and magnificently located
temple.
The second stage is represented by temples at PATTADAKAL of the ten, four in
Nagara and six in the Dravida Style, a tendency to make the style mixed is found
here. A Jain temple is also found here-
a) The Papanath temple is the most notable. It reveals the attempts to combine
Nagara and Dravida styles. It was built by Vijayaditya. Satyasreya.
b) The VIRUPAKSHA temple built by Lokamahadevi one of the Queens of
Vikramaditya II is a direct imitation of Kailasanath temple, Kanchi, as such
it is more Dravidian in appearance.
The DODDABASAPPA temple at DAMBAL also comes under the same school.
It was built by Ajjayya Nayaka, actually called Ajjayeswara Temple built in 1124
AD.

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 TANDAVA & LASYA DANCES
Tandava nritya is a divine dance performed by the Lord Shiva. Shiva’s Tandava
is described as a vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of creation,
preservation and dissolution of Universe. While the Rudra Tandava depicts his
violent nature, first as the creator and later as the destroyer of the universe, the
Ananda Tandava depicts him as enjoying.
In the Hindu texts, atleast seven types of Tandava are found : Ananda Tandava,
Tripura Tandava, Sandhya Tandava,, Samhara Tandava, Kali (Kalika) Tandava,
Uma Tandava and Gauri Tandava. However, some people believe that there are
16 types of Tandava.
The Hindu scriptures narrate various occasions when Shiva or other Gods have
performed the Tandava. When Sati (first wife of Shiva, who was reborn as
Parvati) jumped into the Agni Kunda (sacrificial fire) in Daksha’s Yajna and gave
up her life, Shiva is said to have performed the Rudra Tandava to express his grief
and anger. The Shivapradosha stotra says when Shiva performs the Sandhya
Tandava, the other Gods like Brahma, Vishnu, Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Indra play
musical instruments and sing Shiva’s praises. Ganesha, the son of Shiva, is
depicted as Ashtabhuja tandavas nritya murtis (Eight armed form of Ganesha
dancing the Tandava) in temple sculptures. The Bhagavata Purana talks of
Krishna dancing his Tandava on the head of the serpent Kaliya. According to
Jain traditions, Indra is said to have performed the Tandava in honour of Rishabha
(Jain tirthankar) on the latter’s birth.
The dance performed by Shiva’s wife Parvati in response to Shiva’s Tandava is
known as Lasya, in which the movements are gentle, graceful and sometimes
erotic. Some scholars consider Lasya to be the feminine version of Tandava.
Lasya has 2 kinds, Jarita Lasya and Yauvaka Lasya.
ART AND CULTURE: The traditional form has remained that actors who are
young Brahmacharis will join a group led by the Swami of that group. The music
remains the typical Dhrupada style of the Vraja Acharyas who penned the songs
they heard to the accompaniment of Sitar and Pakhawaj and the songs are sung
in Vraja Language, a parent to modern Hindi.
The dance takes place at night to show us that the union with Paramatma is
beyond time and space. Night here represents the inscendental nature of the union
of a jeeva atma with Paramatma.
FOLK DANCES IN INDIA: Folk dance is a form of dance developed by a group
of people that reflects the traditional life of the people certain country or region.
The terms “ethnic” and “traditional” are used when it is required to emphasize
the cultural roots of a folk dance. In this sense, nearly all folk dances are ethnic
ones. Not all ethnic dances are folk dances.

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Dances performed at social functions by people with little or no professional
training, open to traditionally based music.
Dances not generally designed for public performance or the stage, though they
may later be arranged and set for stage performances.
Execution dominated by an inherited tradition rather than innovation (though folk
traditions change over time).

Mughal Architecture
With the advent of Mughals the grand Persian style entered India characterized
by huge constructions in square complexes, surrounded by line of Arches called
Arcades, couplets, inside the building well extended balconies, and on the top
portion of the building Kiosks (Chhatris), turret with crowning & parapet. We
also find a highly decorative style of inscribing holy versus (Calligraphy) on the
walls, Arabesque, a decorative style of continuous stem originating from leaves
which splits regularly producing a series of stems which split further or may
reintegrate with the main stem. Geometrical designs, a new technique called
Pietra Dura & a style of building structures with gardening around divided into
four square blocks called Charbagh style & constant water flowing systems for
religious and decorative purposes are the other aspects.
Babur was responsible for Noor-ul-Afshan gardens & Arambagh gardens in Agra.
Babur’s tomb was built at Kabul in Afghanistan.
Humayun built Din Panha & his personal library called Sher Mahal. Humayun’s
tomb in Delhi was constructed by his wife Salima Begum. It was the first structure
in India reflecting the Grand Persian Style under the Mughals. It comes very close
to Taj in all the regards except white marble & minarets.

⭓ Akbar
Akbar was the real founder of Mughal architecture. His attempt was to synthesize
the native style with the grand Islamic styles. Particularly in his Mahal
construction, Akbar was influenced by Buddhist Stupas. In Agra, he completed
the fortification of the Red fort. Inside the Red fort he constructed Akbari Mahal,
Jahangiri Mahal and Birbal Mahal. Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas in Agra were
also built by him.
Fatehpur Sikri was actually a Jain settlement. However, Akbar constructed the
Moti Masjid and the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti inside the complex. Ibadat
Khana are the hall of prayer was built in 1575. The secular constructions here
were Buland Darwaza constructed in 1572 to mark his victory against Gujarat. In
the construction, Akbar used a new technique called Half-Dome Portal borrowed
from Persia. It became a constant feature of Mughal buildings later. Jodha Bai

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Palace, Mariam Mahal and Panch Mahal were the other structures. In the
construction Jodha Bai Palace he was influenced by Rajput style and in the Panch
Mahal buddhist Sthupas.

⭓ Jahangir
Jahangir constructed the tomb of his father Akbar at Sikandra near Agra. He was
responsible for Shalimar Bagh Gardens in Kashmir. Noorjahan constructed the
tomb of Abdur Rahim Khan, son of Bairam Khan in Delhi; the tomb of Itimad-
ud-Daulah (her father) in Agra and the tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara near Lahore.
A new technique called Petra Dura (inlaid mosaic work) was introduced for the
first time under Jahangir and was used in Itamad-ud-Daula’s tomb for the first
time. The tomb of Itamad-ud-Daula was also the basis for Taj Mahal.

⭓ Shahjahan
Shahjahan’s reign was the Golden age in Mughal architecture. He was called
Engineer and the Architect for his technical perfection. In Agra inside the Red
Fort he constructed Khas Mahal, Sheesh Mahal, Angoori Bagh, Machehi Mahal,
Mausambari and also built Moti Masjid for the sake of his daughter Jaha Nara.
Taj Mahal, built from 1631 to 1653, took 22 years to complete. Till then Mumtaz
Mahal’s coffin was kept in Burhanpur where she was born. It is the only pure
white marble building constructed with an estimated cost of 3 crore Dams. Ustad
Isa Khan, the chief architect of Shahjahan had drawn the plan of Taj. A Venician
engineer, Zerimono Veranneo was also consulted. The most beautiful part of the
Taj is the bulbus dome.
In Delhi, Shahjahan constructed the Red Fort and within the fort, Diwan-i-Khas,
Diwan-i-Aam and Rang mahal were built. Amir khusrao’s popular quote “The
most beautiful place in the Universe is this, is this and it is this” found inscribed
on the walls of Diwan-i-khas. Rang Mahal is best known for its floral design.
The Jama Masjid, the biggest mosque of India was also built by him in Delhi in
Red sandstone.

⭓ Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb was highly conservative and never encouraged Art & Architecture.
The grand Mughal Architecture declined during his times. However, his second
son Mohammed Azam Shah built Biwi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad in memory of
his mother Rabia-ud-Durrani, wife of Aurangazeb. It is called Mini Taj Mahal as
it is a poor imitation of Taj.

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🔳 Regional / Provincial Architecture: - It refers to the architecture
that developed in different provinces where the Muslims founded the regional
kingdoms. It is in this style, we find more the local traditions incorporated into
the Islamic style.

⭓ Jaunpur:
The Jaunpur School of architecture was developed by the Sharqi dynasty. Its
unique aspect was the absence of minarets. The Ataladevi Masjid, constructed by
Ibrahim Shah Sharqi is the best example. Lal darwaja masjid built by Rajye Biwi
queen of Mohammed Shah Sharqi was dedicated to the Sufi saint Syyid Ali
Qutubuddin.

⭓ Bengal
In Bengal, the Iliyaz Shahi style developed within the capital city Pondua. Its
unique aspect was that minarets were smaller than the main structure. Sikander
Shah constructed Adina Masjid at Pondua, the biggest mosque in North-East,
constructed on the model of the Great Damascus Masjid (Syria).
The other importance structures are:
1. Eklakhi Mausoleum built in Pondua in 1425 by Sultan Jalluddin Mohammed
Shah, Qutub Shahi Masjid built by Mohammed Al Khaleedi in 1582 named
after The great Sufi saint Qutub Alam, Sona Barah Masjid which literally
means Large Golden Mosque built by Sultan Nusrat Shah in 1526 in Gaur
with 12 gates, Kadam Rasool Masjid in gaur built by the same sultan in 1530
has the footprints of Prophet Mohhamed on stones & Gumti Darwaja built by
Alluddin Husain Shah in 1512. The Chika Mosque built in 1475 by Sultan
Yusuf Shah at Gaur called so as it used to shelter Large number of Bats.
Mandu (M.P): - The Khilji’s of Mandu developed their own distinct style
with its main centre Mandu, the capital city. Dilawar Khan’s Mosque is the
earliest Indo-Islamic construction at Mandu with the ceillings in Hindu style.
Hushang Shah’s Tomb was also influenced by Hindu style regarded as India’s
first marble structure. Jahaj Mahal or Ship palace was built by Sultan
Ghiyazuddin Khilji. Hindola Mahal, a singing palace built by Hushamg Shah
around 1425, Baj Bahadur and his queen Roopmati palaces are the structures
worth mentioning.
Gujrat: Bahadur Shahi style of Architecture flourished in Gujrat with its main
centres Ahmedabad & Champaner. It was characterised by incorporating the local
Rajput traditions and the beautiful Jali work.
Ahmad Shah built his tomb & Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad. Mohammed Shah
Begra built Nagina Mosque or Pearl Mosque & Laila Gumbaz ki Masjid at
Champaner. Rani Sipiri palace in Ahmedabad built by Rani Sipri herself, (Hindu

63
wife of Mohammed Shah Begra) in 1514 is known for wonderful jali work
(Ornamental pattern constructed through the use of Calligraphy and Geometry).
Kasmir: - The regional dynasties of Kashmir Karkotaka & Utpala developed
their own style. It was influenced by Gandhara, Chinese and the Guptan Styles.
The Martanda temple at Anantnag built by Lalitaditya Muktapada and
Avatisvamin temple at Avantipora built by King Awanti Varman of Utpala
dynasty are the classic examples for the early style.
In medieval times under the influence of Muslim rule the architecre witnessed
change. A blend of Islamic and native Kashimiri styles had taken place. Absence
of domes and cloistrs is seen, instead multi-level sloping roofs and talls spires are
built.
The Jama masjid in Srinagar is a classic example of the style without dome. In
the Aali masjid in Srinagar, one of the largest mosque in Kasmir valley is also
characterized by absence of dome. The Pari Mahal built by Dara Shikoh is a other
structure worth mentioning.
⭓ Bahmani
In the Bahmani style of architecture flourished in Deccan, Red Sandstone was
extensively used. Very huge domes were built. Minarets were part of the
structure. Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur was built in 1660, by Mohammed Adil Shah II
is the world’s second-biggest dome (The first being The Dome of Vatican City).
Ibrahim Rauza was the mausoleum for Ibrahim Adil Shah and it shows the style
at its best.
The grand Qutub Shahi style of Golconda flourished in the present Hyderabad
with its Magnificent structures, Charminar & Mecca Masjid built by sultan
Mohammed Quili.

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Medieval India Painting: -
The Miniature paintings of Early Medieval India can be divided into two
prominent schools.
1. The Pala School of Art flourished in Bengal. It was basically the Buddhist
art of the school Vajrayana. The paintings were drawn on palm leaves or
Vellam paper. The prominent painters of the school were Dhimman &
Vitapala.
2. The Apabhramsa School of Art: It flourished in Gujrat and Mewar region
of Rajasthan. It was essentially Jain in theme, however later came under the
influence of Vaishnavism. The paintings were drawn on both Palm leaves &
paper.
The colours used were Red, Yellow and Ochre and each had symbolic meaning.
The human figures were depicted with fish shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose and
a double chin.
The classic examples of the art or Kalpasutra and Kalakachara Katha.
During The Delhi Sultanath times, Paintings was not encouraged much due to
conservative outlook of the Sultans. Firoz Shah Tuglaq got the Mural paintings
of his palace erased. However, illustrated manuscripts were developed during this
period like Nimat Nama, which deals with Cookery, which was compiled during
the times of Nasir Shah of Mandu. It also reflex the synthesis of the native and
persian styles. Another style called Lodi Khuladar also developed during this
period.
The Mughal Painting Tradition
With the advent of the mughals, the grand persian painting tradition entered India.
The marked changes were a shift from depicting the glory of God to the personal
glory of the King. Secondly, themes centred around court, palace life, hunting
scenes and historical events.
The Other characteristic features:
1. It was an exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and European traditions.
2. Extensive drawing of miniature paintings with precise measurements.
3. Use of brilliant colours like Peacock blue, Gold & Red.
4. The painters created a living tradition of painting which continued to work in
different parts of the country long after the glory of the Mughals disappeared.
5. Painters excelled in portraiture paintings.
6. It is highly aristocratic without any reference to the life of common man.
The beginnings of the Mughals painting tradition started with Humayun’s
interactions with the great Persian painters Mir Syyid Ali & Abdus Samad. With

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them started the persian influence on the Mughal paintings and the tradition of
compiling albums started. The earliest Mughal illustrated manuscript, Dastan-i-
Amir Hamza.Began under Humayun in 1550 and took 25 years for completion.
The series consist of 14 volumes.
The real founder of the Mughal school of painting was Akbar. He founded a
separate artistic studio called Tasvir Khana were painters were employed and
developed their own styles. For Akbar “Painting is the means to realize the God”
1. He encouraged more Murals & Frescoes. Under Akbar painting became more
a craft than a fine art. Two or more than two artist worked together - One
drawing the sketch (Tarrah) another painting (Ami) third one portrait
(Chirnuma) and the forth figure drawing (Sural).
2. The persian painters joined the court were Khorasan Quli & Farukka Beg.
However majority of the painters were the Hindus, who included Lal,
Basawan, Daswanth, Mukund and Kesu.
3. The spiritual works illustrated were the translated version of Mahabharat
called Razm Namah which contained 169 full page illustrations. The
celebrated painter Baswan was mentioned in 12 of the illustrations. The other
works include Persian version of Ramayan, Yoga Vasistha & a prose treatise
by Jami on sufi saints.
4. The Indians themes, scenes and landscapes helped to free the school from
Persian influence. Secondly, The Indian colours Peacock blue and Red began
to be used. Thirdly, above all the some what flat effect of the persian style
began to be replaced by roundness of the Indian brush, giving the picture of a
three dimensional effect.
5. The historical manuscripts illustrated were Akbar-Namah, Darab-Namah,
Shah-Namah, Babur-Namah, Anvar-i-Suhaili and Ghulistan of Sadi (Moral
tales).
6. By 1595, the Mughal paintings revealed the Western Influence- modeling of
three dimensional figures by means of shading and the new technique of “
Fore Shortening” introduced by the Portugese. Fore Shortening was used for
driving the effect with regarding either a distance or the size.
Western influence may be seen in the fables another favorite topic of Akbar.
The Tuti Namah (The parrot's tales) by Zia Naqshabi show each each bird and
animal with detailed realism. This portrayal of animals reached its perfection
under Jahangir.
7. The notable contribution to the Indian art by Akbar was, he encouraged the
paintings of realistic portraits. On Akbar’s orders, the portraits of all important
personages of the court were drawn. This tradition later exerted great influence
on the Rajput school of paintings.

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Under Jahangir the Mughal painting has seen its climax. He himself a good artist
and had the rare ability to distinguished the work of each artist in a picture.
1. During his times Muraqqas (Albums) were compiled. The idea of decorated
borders came from Persia in 1570 but reached its perfection under Jahangir.
Arabesque or floral and animal motives around the borders, all richly
interspersed with gold frame appeared for the first time.
2. He was naturalist by nature, preferred paintings of flora and fauna i.e birds,
animals, trees and flowers. In portrait paintings also he emphasized on
naturalism. The classic examples, the miniature painting of Zebra and animal
Fable called “Ayar-i-Danish”.
3. The Mughal painter learned the technique of drawing straight face and the art
of drawing portature, both became perfect under Jahangir.
4. The European influence manifested itself more and more. The colours became
softer and less enamel like, found more in naturalistic representation of
landscapes.
The renowned painters of his times included Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant,
Manohar, Gowardhan and Ustad Mansur. Mansur the greatest painter, an expert
in drawing birds and animals exuberating life and rigour. As his paintings come
close to Raphel of Renaissance times, he was called The Raphel of The east.
During Shah Jahan’s times, though the patronage continued, paintings lacked
both the dynamic energy of Akbar's time and the keen love for nature shown by
Jahangir.
1. A new technique called Siyahi Qalam was introduced. Literally it meant black
pen. It was a technique of drawing fine delicate lines tinted with washes of
pale colours and gold.
2. Shah Jahan avoided use of Charcoal, instead encouraged the artists to draw
and sketch using a pencil.
One of the best known Mughal miniatures “Emperor Shah Jahan on Peacock
throne” was drawn during his times.
During the times of Aurangzeb, paintings lost its patronage. The Mughal court
painters scattered and settled in different parts of India. As a result the regionals
styles like Basholi School in Kashmir, Kangra school in Himanchal pradesh and
Rajput School in Rajasthan developed.

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Regional Styles: -
Though the Mughal school of painting dominated the medieval times, regional
styles developed in different parts of India with the native Indian roots with strong
liking for colourful paintings as opposed to the naturalistic Mughal style.
1. The Rajasthani Or Rajput school of Paintings:- These paintings developed
on the basis of Indian traditions. They were inspired by Epics, Puranas, Love
poems & Indian folklore. They were drawn on the walls of palaces, inner
chambers of forts and Havellis. The surface of the painting is divided into
several compartments of different colours in order to separate one scene from
the other.
On the basis of the centres of the painting developed, the school was further
subdivided into different sub styles.
1. Malwa:- The use of contrasting colours is an important characteristic
feature of Malwa school. The refinement of drawing is due to the influence
of the Mughal painting. Malwa paintings show a fondness for flat
compositions.
2. Mewar:- The main centres of this style were Udaipur, Nathwada &
Chavand. They are also known as Ragamala paintings. They are pictorial
representations of musical moods. They portray the life of Krishna and
Gopis. Bright and brilliant Red, Orange, Green and Blue colors have been
profusely used. The females are relatively smaller than males in these
paintings.
The early Mewar painting was dominated by Tales connected to person
Sahibdin. The other unique aspect being Tamasha painting, showing court
ceremonies.
3. Bondi School: - The Mughal influence is exceptionally strong on this
school and it also has close affinities with The Deccan school of painting.
It has rich and glowing colours, the Sun is shown in golden colour. Human
figures are with slim bodies, faces were rounded with pointed nose.
4. Kota School: - It is quite similar to Bondi school. The themes are portraits
of Princesses, Court & hunting scenes. The hilly jungles render a unique
charm to these paintings. The special feature was stout bodies, shining
faces with bulging eyes.
5. Amber-Jaipur School: - It started in Amber later shifted to Jaipur. It has
large number of portraits of the rulers of the Jaipur. Generally, the theme
is the life of Lord Krishna.
The Amber school is also called the Dhundar school & the earliest evidence
comes from the wall paintings of Bairat. The school reached its zenith
during the times of Sawai Pratap Singh in the 18th century.

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 6. Marwar School: - It remained uninfluenced by The Mughal style. The
style includes bold expressions and fish eyes in human faces. It shows tall
masculine figures wearing pointed caps. It has seen its highest stage under
Raja Man Singh who commissioned extensive series of paintings including
Shiva Purana, Natacharitra & Panchatantra.
7. Bikaner School: - Of all the Rajasthani schools, it bears maximum
resemblance to the Mughal school. The reason being close relations
between The Raja of Bikaner and the Mughals. The theme was portraits,
Bhagwat purana and Krishnaleelas. The human figures were shown with
tight lips, eyes half open, small chin and thin wrist.
8. Kishangarh School:- It flourished under Raja Sawant Singh, the theme
was Radha & Krishna. The renowned painter was Nihal Chand who
mastered the art of depicting Radha and Krishna. The paintings were of
large size. Bani-Thani, a famous painting comes under this school.
2. The Pahari school of Paintings :- The style of painting developed in the Sub
Himalayan states of the Mughal empire which included Jammu, Himanchal &
Punjab and Garhwal in Uttrakhand. It evolved under two groups:
1. The Jammu or Dogra School called Northern series.
2. Basholi and Kangra School of the southern series.
The school had both the Rajasthani and Mughal traditions. The themes
included poetry of Bhakti saints, Lord Krishna childhoods & colourful
depiction of the seasons. The two great painter of the school were Nainsukh
& Manaku.
1. Basholi School: - Of Jammu & Kashmir developed under the patronage of
Raja Kripal (1678 - 1693). The style is characterized by bold lines and
strong glowing colours. The unique aspect being use of strong &
contrasting colours, geometrical patrons & monochrome background. The
most famous painter of the school was Devidas who was known for
depiction of Radha Krishna.
2. Guler School of Himachal: - Is the early stage of Kangra school,
developed under Raja Dalip Singh (1695-1741). It consists of the portraits
of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota painted by Master Nainsukh.
3. Kangra School: - It developed in Kangra during the times of Raja
Gowardhan Singh in 1774 as a result of the settlement of the Mughal
painters. The school reached its zenith under the patronage of Raja Sansar
Chand.
The popular subjects were Gita Govind, Bhagwat Purana and the story of
Naldamyanti. Another popular groups of painting is “Twelve Months”, in
which the artist tried to bring the effect of twelve months on human
emotions.

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 4. Kulli-Mandi School Himachal: - It was basically a local tradition,
characterized by bold drawings and the use of dark and dull colours. It also
depicts the typical features of women.
Folk Paintings: -
1. Madhubani Paintings, (Bihar) :- They are traditionally undertaken on the
mud walls of huts. Of late they are done on cloth, hand made paper or canvas.
It uses three dimensional images. The colours used are derived from the plants.
The themes include nature and methodological events. Generally, no space is
left empty in these paintings as the gaps are filled with the paintings of flowers,
animals, birds and even geometrical designs. The figures are symbolic, for
example fish depicts good luck and fertility.
2. Phad; Scroll paintings of Bhilwada Rajasthan: - The term Phad is derived
from sanskrit word Patt which means cloth. It can be drawn either on a large
or smaller piece of cloth. The unique aspect is characters face each other with
no space is left out without figures. Generally, colours are derived from the
vegetable. The most popular Phad is of 15 to 30 feet long with the local deities
Devnarayan ji & Babuji depicted.
3. Warli paintings: - It is the tribal art created by the Adivasis of the Sayadhari
range. It depicts the daily life activities such as Fishing, Hunting, Festival
Dancing and so on. The use of circles, triangles and square shapes is mainly
found in these paintings. The unique feature is human shape, which is depicted
through one circle and two triangles. These shapes are inspired from nature,
circle symbolically standing for Sun or Moon, Triangle for trees or mountains
and the squares for land.
4. Pattachitra: - The traditional painting of Orissa which means paintings drawn
on Patta, Canvas or Cloth. It is a combination of classical and folk elements.
No pencil or charcoal is used to draw the outlines. Once the lines are drawn,
the painting is given a coating of Lacquer to give it a glossy finish. The
Pattachitra on palm leaves is known as Talapattachitra. The themes are derived
from Vaishanava cult.
5. Patua Art: - The traditional art of Bengal, in which the painters depict Mangal
kavyas or auspicious stories of Gods and Goddesses. Traditionally they are
painted on cloth with main center Midnapore.
6. Paitkar Painting: - The tradition belonged to the tribes of Jharkhand,
depicting the story of Ma Mansa, the tribal Goddesses. The common theme of
the paintings is life after death.
7. Thangka: - The traditional painting of North Eastern states with the themes
of Buddhism. Paintings are drawn on cotton canvas with paints made of
vegetable and mineral dyes. The colours symbolically represent different
qualities such as red for intensive passion, gold for life, white for serenity,

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 black for anger, and yellow for compassion. Painting is framed in Silk
brocade.
8. Manjusha Painting: - The art form belongs to Bhagalpur region of Bihar also
known as Angika Art. As snake motifs are often found, it is also called snake
paintings. Paintings are generally drawn on boxes of Jute and Paper.
9. Pithora Paintings: - The tribal art of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Often
found animals depicted are Horses and Elephants. Paintings drawn on the
walls of houses are said to bring peace and prosperity.
10.Saura Paintings of Orissa: - They are essentially mural paintings for
ritualistic purpose. They are dedicated to Idital, the main deity of Sauras. The
human shapes are geometric and stick-like, influencing modern fashion
designing, called Saura designs.

Independent Paintings: -
They were undertaken by common people in the absence of patronage of either
the aristocrats or the state.
1. Kalighat paintings: - They are the short lived water coloured paintings,
produced by the artists in Calcutta. Generally, the theme is Goddesses Kali.
However, of late the paintings are depicting social sentiments.
2. Kolam: - It is a free hand drawing with a symmetrical and geometrical designs
generally drawn by women in South India during important festivals and
events in women's life such as birth and marriage.
3. Kalamkari Paintings (A.P): - It literally means the pen work. Kalam meant
Pen & Kari, work. It main centres Srikalahasti & Machilipatnam in Andhra
Pradesh. The work mainly consists of Hindu mythology. It was primarily used
for Temple festivals. Colours were derived from vegetables and minerals.
Different colours were used for Gods and Demons. Blue for God, red and
green for Demons and Evils. Yellow is used for female figures and ornaments.

Deccan School of Painting: -

It broadly denotes the miniature paintings of Bahamani kingdoms of the deccan,
particularly Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar.
It was initially the result of the diffusion of Northern tradition of the Pre-Mughal
paintings of Malwa and the Southern tradition of Vijaynagar School of Painting.
In the beginning it developed independently from the Mughal School, with the
firm establishment of Mughal Empire in the South. It came under the influence
of the Mughal Style.

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Main Features: -
1. Paintings are rich and brilliant in colour composition and are different from
those of the North. The fundamental difference being, the Deccani painters
were less interested in realism than the Mughals.
2. The Deccani speciality is “Composite Animal “a large animal made up of
many smaller images or other animals. A composite Buraq and an Elephant
are the best illustrated paintings of this type.
3. The African Influence is also seen, reflecting the composite culture of the
Deccan. The portraits of Malik Amber of Ahmednagar and Ikhlas Khan of
Bijapur are worth mentioning.
Bijapur School: - It was patronised by Ali Adil Shah-I [ 1558-1580 A.D] and
his successor Ibrahim Shah -II [ 1580- 1627 A.D]. Important works are Najum -
Al -Ulum [Stars of Science] which has as many as 400 miniatures.
Maximum number of miniature paintings were produced during the times of
Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah -II. He himself an accomplished painter, poet and a
musician. The influence of Lepakshi Temple murals is also seen particularly in
the depiction of Women.

Golconda School: - It developed under Qutub Shahis. The first important

work belonged to the times of Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah. The theme was
dancing girls entertaining the nobles. Notable paintings include “Lady with Mina
bird” and “Lady smoking hookah”.
Hyderabadi style was an extended one of Qutub Shahis, well developed by the
Asaf Jahi dynasty. The typical characteristic feature is the rich colours, deccan
facial types and costumes. The painting worth mentioning is “Princess in the
company of Maids”.

Ahmednagar School of Painting: - It started with Hussain Nizam Shah.

The important illustrated manuscript is “Tarif - I- Hussain Shahi”.

Other South Indian Schools of Pantings

Tanjore School of Painting: - Developed from the times of the Nayakas of
Tanjore, it reached its zenith under Sarfoji Maharaj. The dense composition,
surface richness and vibrant colours distinguish the Tanjore Paintings from the
other types. They are mostly drawn on glass and board. The unique aspect being,
brilliant colour pattern and liberal use of Gold Leaf.
Generally, the theme is the Hindu Mythology particularly that of child Krishna
and his various pranks. The deity is found with almond shaped eyes and well-
rounded body.
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Mysore Paintings: - The tradition started with Maharajas of Mysore and
continued during the British times. The Paintings are drawn to inspire feelings of
devotion and humility in the viewer. Painters individual skill in giving expression
to various emotions is of permanent importance in this style. The other unique
aspect is one figure predominates all other figures in size and colour. The main
theme is Hindu Mythology. Material used is Jesso Paste, a mixture of zinc oxide
and Arabic gum.

Travancore School: - A distinctive style of painting developed in Travancore

under Raja Ravi Varma. He belonged to the court of Raja Martanda Varma of
Travancore. Called father of modern Indian painting Ravi Varma combined the
south Indian painting with Western techniques of colour and style. Known for his
brilliant brush strokes he was called the Raphel of the East. His masterpieces
include, The Lady in The Moon Light and Mother India. He got nationwide
recognition for depicting the themes of Ramayana, particularly the one titled
“Ravana kidnapping Sita”.

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Indo-Islamic Music

Miniature: Akbar and Tansen Visit Haridas - Guru of Tansen

⭓ The Muslims introduced instruments like Rahab, Shehnai and Sarangi. They
borrowed Mridangam and Nadaswaram from the Hindus. Gunyat-al-Munya
is the earliest text on Hindustani Music. Hindustani developed under four
forms of music - Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumri and Tappa.
⭓ Amir Khusrau called the ‘Parrot of India’ was the greatest musician of his
times, introduced new ragas – Sanam, Ghora and Aiman. Instruments like
Sitar and Tabla were also introduced by him. Qawwali, the devotional form of
music also started with Amir Khusrau.
⭓ Feroz Shah Tughlaq got the text Rajdarpan, which dealt with native music
traditions translated into Persian. Sultan Hussain Shah of Jaunpur was the first
to introduce Khayal. Baz Bahadur, the king of Malwa and his queen Roopmati
were experts in Hindustani music.
⭓ According to Abul Fazal, there were 27 great musicians in the court of Akbar,
the greatest being Mian Tansen. He was an expert in Ragas Deepak, Darbari
and Meghamallar. He belonged to the Gwalior Gharana, a disciple of Haridas.
⭓ Akbar was an expert in playing Nagara (drums). Of all the Mughals, Jahangir
composed the maximum number of songs. Shahjahan was the best-known
singer and was an expert in Dhrupad. Jagannath Pandit Roy was the greatest
singer in the court of Shahjahan. His son Lal Khan was given the title
‘Gunasagar’ by Shahjahan. Aurangzeb banned music but was an
accomplished Veena player.
⭓ Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was responsible for the composition of
Mankutuhal, the text that deals with all the nodes of Hindustani music.

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Indo-Islamic Painting

A Painting by Ustad Mansur painter in the court of the Jahangir. He is

also known as ‘Raphael Of The East’.
It started under Humayun. The great Persian Painters in his court were Mir Sayyid
Ali and Abdus Samad. They were responsible for the text on Mughal painting
Daftar-i-Hamza or Hamzanama, which contained 1200 paintings. The Mughal
painters used green, blue and gold colours for outlines. The themes of the
paintings were either Court proceedings or palace life. Humayun encouraged
more miniatures.
Akbar was the real founder of the Mughal School of painting. For him, ‘painting
was the means to realize God’. Khorasan Quli and Farukka Beg were the great
Persian painters. Lal, Basavan, Daswant and Mukund were the Hindu painters. A
new technique called “For Shortening” was introduced (influenced by
Renaissance) during Akbar’s time. Akbar encouraged more frescoes and mural
paintings.

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During the reign of Jahangir, the painting received maximum patronage. His
mastery in painting was such that he could name the painter on seeing the
painting. Ustad Mansoor was the greatest painter in the court of Jahangir, popular
as the ‘Raphael of the East’. He was good at drawing birds, animals and natural
objects. He was invited by the Persian emperor. The two developments under
Jahangir were that the life-size portraits were drawn for the first time and the
technique of drawing the straight face was introduced for the first time.

Indo-Islamic Literature
1. The Arab historians were the first to introduce the tradition of writing
chronicles, autobiographies and regional history. Ardhakathanaka, written by
Banarsi, a Jain monk, was the first autobiography by an Indian. Hasan Nizami
wrote Taj-ul-Mahatir, a text on slave dynasty. Isami wrote Futuf-us-Salatin, a
text on Bahmani Sultans.
2. Amir Khusrau was the greatest literary giant of his times. He introduced a new
literary style called Sabaqath-i-Hind by mixing Persian with Hindavi
(classical Hindi). He wrote the famous Miftah-ul-Futah on the conquests of
Alauddin Khilji, Futuh-us-Khazain (on Khiljis coming to power),
Tughlaqnama and a collection of five short stories called Khamsa. The story
Laila-Majnu is one of the five short stories. In the text called Lucifer, while
describing the beauty of Kashmir, he observed that “the most beautiful place
in the Universe is Kashmir”.
3. Gulbadan Begum, sister of Humayun wrote Humayunnama. Akbar got
Mahabharata translated into Persian and called it Razamnama.

Biographies of Mughal kings

Biography Writer Language
Baburnama Babur Turkish
Humayun Nama Gulbadan Begum Persian
Akbar Nama Abul Fazl Persian
Jahangir Nama Jahangir Persian
Shahjahan Nama (also Abdul Hamid Lahori Persian
known as Padshah
Nama)
Alamgir Nama Mirza Muhammad Persian
(Aurangzeb) Kazim

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 Library: Ain-i-Akbari

Ain is the third and last part of larger work Akbarnama

The first volume of Akbarnama deals with the birth of Akbar, the history of
Timur's family and the reigns of Babur and Humayun and the Suri sultans of
Delhi. Volume one of Akbarnama encompasses Akbar's birth and his
upbringings.
The second volume describes the detailed history of the reign of Akbar till 1602
and records the events during Akbar's reign. It also deals with how Bairam Khan
and Akbar won the battle of Panipat against Hemu, an Indian warrior.
The third volume, called the Ain-i-Akbari, describes the administrative system
of the Empire as well as containing the famous Account of the Hindu Sciences.
It also deals with Akbar's household, army, the revenues and the geography of
the empire. It also produces rich details about the traditions and culture of the
people living in India. It is famous for its rich statistical details about things as
diverse as crop yields, prices, wages and revenues. In this section, he expounds
the major beliefs of the six major Hindu philosophical schools of thought, and
those of the Jains, Buddhists, and Nāstikas. He also gives several Indian
accounts of geography, cosmography, and some titbits on Indian aesthetic
thought. Most of this information is derived from Sanskrit texts and knowledge
systems. Abul Fazl admits that he did not know Sanskrit and it is thought that
he accessed this information through intermediaries, likely Jains who were
favoured at Akbar's court.

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Maratha State and Confederacy

Biography of Shivaji
Shivaji (1627 – 1680) was born at Shivnir in 1627. His parents were Shahji
Bhonsle (Sisodia) and Jijabai. Dadaji Khondev was the tutor of Shivaji and
Samarth Ramdas, his Guru. At the age of 19, Shivaji became the Jagirdar of Pune.
He conquered the forts of Bijapur – Torna, Kondana, Mahuli and Mahud;
constructed the fort Raigarh near Torna which became his capital city.
Chandrakant More, the head of the Muvali tribes, was his close friend. The Sultan
of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji. Krishnaji Bhaskar was the mediator
between the two. Shivaji killed Afzal Khan at Pratapgarh. He defeated the

78
Mughal armies sent by Aurangzeb under the leadership of Shasita Khan in 1663.
In 1664, he attacked Surat, the richest city in 17th Century India. In 1665, Shivaji
was defeated by Raja Jai Singh sent by Aurangzeb and was forced to sign the
Treaty of Purandar. As per the treaty, Shivaji surrendered 22 Mughal forts (out
of 35 that he had captured).
Sambhaji, son of Shivaji became the Mughal Mansabdar. Both Shivaji and
Sambhaji were to pay a personal visit to the Emperor. In 1666, both Shivaji and
Sambhuji visited Agra but they were imprisoned. They escaped from Agra jail
and returned to the Maratha State via Mathura, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna,
Bhubaneshwar and Telangana. In 1670, Shivaji attacked Surat for the second
time. Surat lost its importance and Bombay rose to prominence.
In 1674, Shivaji declared the formation of Swaraj, performed his coronation and
took the titles ‘Chatrapati’ and Haindava Dharmoddarak. A priest named
Gagabhatt officiated the ceremony. Lohan Nischal Puri, another priest conferred
the status of Kshatriya upon Shivaji.
In 1675, Shivaji conquered Zinzi, Tiruvannamalai and Vellore forts with the
cooperation from the Sultan of Golconda, Abul Hasan Tanisha. In 1680, Shivaji
died of cancer.
Shivaji’s Administration:
Shivaji was influenced by the famous Wazir of Ahmednagar Malik Ambar in his
administration. There were 27 departments at the Central level. Chatrapati was
assisted by a Council of 8 ministers called Ashtapradhan-

S. No. Minster Department

1 Peshwa Prime Minister

2 Amatya Finance Minister, also known as Majumdar.

3 Mantri Chronicler; also known as Waqa-i-Navis.

4 Senapati Chief Commander; also known as Sari-Naubath.

5 Sachiva For internal affairs. He was also known as

Shrunavis.

6 Suman In-charge of external affairs and also known as

Dabir.

7 Pandit Rao In-charge of ceremonies, education and religious

affairs, also known as Danadakshya.

8 Nyayadhish In-charge of law.

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The last two were exempted from participating in wars. Swaraj was divided into
– Pranth (provinces), Tarafs, Paraganahs and Gramas (Gaoms).
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION-
Kathi was the yardstick for measuring the land, first introduced by Malik Ambar.
Shivaji first introduced the Ryotwari System and later replaced it with the
Jagirdari system.
The land tax in Swaraj was initially 30% but later made 40%. The two
controversial taxes collected by Shivaji were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. Both
were collected from the Marathas and Non Marathas outside Swaraj. However,
Chauth was exclusively from the Maratha states under the control of Mughals or
the Sultan of Bijapur. Sardeshmukhi was from the territories where the influence
of Marathas was felt and their authority acknowledged. Chauth was 1/4th of the
land tax whereas Sardeshmukhi was 1/10th of the individual income per annum.
The nature of the two taxes was not clear. However Chauth can said to be the tax
collected by Shivaji for not attacking on his own, whereas Sardeshmukhi was
collected by Shivaji for protecting from the third party.
Military Administration
There were two types of armies:
1. Berzis – Standing or permanent army.
2. Shiledars – Mercenaries.
The military officers were Nayak (10), Hawaldar (50), Jamadar (250), Hazari
(1000) and Panchhazari (5000). Khafi Khan, a Mughal historian says that Shivaji
commanded 200 warships stationed at Colaba. Shivaji suppressed the pirates
called Zinziras and Angrias in the Konkan Coast with his navy.
Shivaji’s Welfare Measures-
Secularism was the declared State policy. Forced conversions were banned
throughout the empire. Child-marriages and money lending by Marwari money
lenders were also banned.
Sambhaji (1680 – 1689)
He was the first son of Shivaji. He gave shelter to Prince Akbar, who had revolted
against Aurangzeb. He was captured at Sangameshwar bank of river Ravdi in
1689 and killed by Mukarab Khan on 11th March 1689, one day before
Gudipadwa, New Year festival. Yesubai, wife and Sahu son of Samba Ji were
sent away to Agra as prisoners.
Rajaram (1689 – 1700)
For eight years, he took shelter in Zinzi. For the first time, he introduced a new
office called Pratinidhi (representative). The council of 8 ministers called

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Astapradhans became Navpradhans. He was killed by Aurangzeb in 1700 and
was buried at Satara.
Tarabai (1700 – 1714)
She was the wife of Rajaram and the most popular woman leader of the Marathas.
In 1707 A.D., Sahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I. Sahu
defeated Tarabai in the Battle of Khed (1707) with the support of Danaji Jadav
and Balaji Vishwanath. The Maratha State was divided into two parts. Sahu
became Chhatrapati at Satara and Tarabai remained powerful at Kolhapur.

Age Of The Peshwas (1713 – 1818)

Balaji Vishwanath (1713 – 1720)
An accountant in the Court of Danaji Jadav, he was given the title ‘Senakarta’ by
Sahu and was made Peshwa in 1713. The office of Peshwa was made hereditary
on the request of Balaji Vishwanath. In 1719, Balaji struck a treaty with Sayyid
Brothers called The Delhi Treaty. Under the treaty, the Marathas on behalf of the
Mughals were to maintain law and order in Deccan and for that, they would
collect Chauth in 6 Mughal subahs in Deccan.
Yesubai, the mother of Sahu, was released from Agra jail under the treaty.
The First Peshwa founded the Maratha Confederacy of 5 states with himself as
the Head of the Confederacy. The 5 States were –

S. No. Maratha Clan Capital

1 Peshwa Pune

2 Bhonsle Nagpur

3 Scindias Gwalior

4 Holkars Indore

5 Gaekwads Baroda

The Peshwa also revived the Saranjama System. Under the system, Jagirs were
granted to the powerful Maratha families called Mokkasas (Mokkasadars).
Bajirao I (1720 – 1740)
He became the Peshwa at the age of 19. He was the founder of the idea ‘Hindupad
Padshahi’ (Hindus to rule India) and further declared that it was his ambition to

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see the Maratha Empire spread upto Attok in Sind. The Peshwa defeated the
Nizam of Hyderabad twice in 1728 and in 1738. He forced him to sign
Mungishgaom and Durulsarai treaties. In 1739, the Peshwa defeated the
Portuguese and occupied their settlements, Salesette and Bassain.
In 1739, when Nadir Shah, the king of Persia attacked Delhi, the Mughal Emperor
Md. Shah requested for the services of Bajirao I. The Peshwa, on his own,
occupied Malwa and Bundelkhand. He was called second Shivaji for his expertise
in Guerilla warfare. An excellent painter, he was connected with Mastani episode.
He defeated Sambhaji II of Kolhapur and united the Maratha State.
Balaji Bajirao (1740– 1761)
He became Peshwa at the age of 18. His actual name was Nana Sahib. Raghunath
Rao Bhonsle of Nagpur conquered Carnatic, Mysore, crossed river Mahanadi,
defeated Alvardi Khan (the ruler of Bengal) and collected Chauth from all
defeated States.

Third Battle Of Panipat: Jan 14, 1761

It was fought between Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali of Persia. Abdali
attacked India for the first time in 1757 A.D. The Mughal Emperor, Alamgir II,
requested for the help of the Marathas. The Maratha leaders who participated
in the Battle were Dhanaji Gaikwad, Malhar Rao Holkar, Jankoji Scindia,
Vishwas Rao (Son of Peshwa) and Sadashiv Rao Bahu (cousin of Peshwa).
Bahu was the supreme commander. Malhar Rao Holkar withdrew from the
participation. Ibrahim Gardi was the Commander of Maratha artillery forces.
The main cause for the defeat of Marathas was the lack of support from the
Sikhs and Jats. The English were the ones who benefited most from the third
battle of Panipat. The Peshwa died of shock. He was called the founder of the
greater Maratha empire.
However, the battle had not decided the question who should rule india.

Madhav Rao (1761– 1771)

He was the last great Peshwa, popular for his administrative reforms. The death
of Peshwa Madhav Rao was felt more disastrous than the Third Battle of Panipat
as per Joseph Mastyne.
Narayan Rao
Narayan Rao was murdered by Raghunath Rao Bhonsle (Raghuba).
Madhav Narayan
The posthumous son of Narayan Rao was declared Sixth Peshwa by Nana
Phadnavis.

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Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy
First Anglo Maratha War (1779– 1782 A.D.)
In 1775, Raghuba signed the Surat Treaty with General Goddard of Bombay. In
1776, Nana signed the Purandar Treaty with Governor-General Warren Hastings,
promising to give Salsette if the English maintained neutrality. In 1779, the
Bombay Government under Goddard declared war on the Pune Government of
Peshwa. Nana was supported by Mahdaji Scindia. They defeated General
Goddard and forced him to sign the Wedgaon Convention in 1779, by which the
English lost all their settlements. The war ended with the Salbai Treaty in 1782.
Warren Hastings agreed to recognize Madhav Narayan as Peshwa. Raghuba was
deposed. As promised, Marathas surrendered Salsette and agreed to support the
English in the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
Second Anglo Maratha War (1803 – 1805 A.D.)
After the First Anglo Maratha war, Marathas succeeded in gaining their lost
power and prestige. It was Mahdaji Scindia that escorted the Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam II from Ayodhya to Delhi.
Nana Phadnavis supported the English in the Anglo-Mysore Wars. In 1798,
Peshwa Madhav Narayan died. Bajirao II, grandson of Raghuba was made the
Peshwa. In 1800 Nana Phadnavis, the last great statesman in the history of
Marathas died. Peshwa Bajirao II, with the support of Scindia, got the brother of
Jaswant Rao Holkar murdered. Holkar retaliated by defeating the Peshwa and by
looting Pune. In 1802, the Peshwa signed a treaty with Lord Wellesley called
Bessain Treaty, requesting the help of the English. In 1803, Bhonsle and Scindia
declared war on Peshwa. Bhonsle was defeated by Arthur Wellsley, brother of
Governor-General Lord Wellesley and signed the Subsidiary Alliance System.
Scindia was defeated by Lord Lake. Lake entered Delhi and imprisoned Mughal
Emperor, Shah Alam II. However, Lake was defeated by Jaswant Rao Holkar. In
the second expedition, Lake defeated Holkar. Holkar took shelter in the court of
Raja Ranjit Singh and was the last to sign the Subsidiary Alliance System.
Third Anglo Maratha War (1818)
Peshwa Bajirao II got the ambassador of Gaekwads, Gangadhar Shashtri
murdered by Triambakji Dengle. Peshwa refused to hand over Trimbak to the
English and declared war. He was defeated in the Battles of Kirki, Asti and
Koregaon.
Results of the Anglo-Maratha War
The Maratha confederacy got dissolved. A State called Satara was created and
Pratap Singh, a distant relative of Shivaji was made King of Satara.
The last Peshwa, Bajirao II was granted a pension of 6 lacs per annum and was
deported to Bethur near Kanpur.

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 INDIAN MUSIC
Indian music is an accumulated heritage of centuries. Musical instruments like
seven holed flutes, varieties of drums found in Terracotta figures and the bronze
image of dancing girl testify the presence of music from Indus valley times.
It is believed that sage Narada introduced music and the sound Nada Bramha
itself represents the divinity. The Samaveda has all the seven notes of the Raga
Kharaharapriya. For that matter, the science of music called Gandharvaveda
is the Uparveda of Samaveda.
During the later vedic period, a form of music called Samgana was prevalent
which involved chanting of verses to musical patterns. Various forms of music
like Jatigan was also evolved to narrate the epics.
The first reference to music was made by Panini in his Astadyayei. Bharathas’
Natya Shastra is the first elaborate work on Indian music. Another important
work was Brihaddesi written by Matanga, in which raga was defined for the first
time. Sangeetha Makaranda written by Narada refers to ninety three ragas and
classifies them into masculine and feminine species. Saranga Dheva, in his
Sangeetha Ratnakara defined 264 ragas, including Dravidian and North Indian
ones. Swaramela Kalanidhi of Ramamatya of Ramaraya of vijayanagar empire
and Chaturdandi Prakasika of Venkatamakhin deal with primarily with ragas.
The Indian music with ritualistic folk traditions amalgamated and under the
influence of Persian tradition developed into two unique styles- Hindustani in
the North and Carnatic in the the South. Though both the traditions started to
diverge around 14th century, their roots stem from Bharathas’ Natya Shastra.

Anatomy of Indian Music

The main components of Indian music are Raga, Tala and Swara. In the Indian
classical music, Raga is the basis of melody and Tala is the basis of rhythm.
The basic element necessary for the Raga is the note. As per the number of notes
in the Raga, there are three main Jatis or categories, Odava Raga with five notes,
Shadava Raga with six notes and Sampurna Raga with seven notes.
In the Raga Bhed, the three main types are Shudda Raag, the nature and form
of which does not change, Chhayalag Raag of which nature and form changes
and Sankeerna Raag is the one in which a combination of two or more Ragas is
found.
The main Ragas of Hindustani Music: Although there are 72 Melas or parent
scales on which the ragas are based, there are six main Ragas in Hindustani music
which are time and season based and evoke a particular type of emotion; Bhairay
(for any season, time-dawn and for mood-peace) Hindol (for spring, time-
morning, evokes sweetness of young couple) Shree (for winter, time-evening,

84
mood-gladness) Deepak (for summer, time-night, mood-compassion) Megh (for
rainy season, time-late night, mood-courage) and Malkaush (for winter time
midnight and for the mood vir or brave).
The other Ragas are derived from these six Ragas. The first derivatives of the
Ragas are Raginis and each of the six Ragas have five Raginis under them.
The other Ragas include Dabari (for winter, time-midnight and meditative)
Bageshwari (for winter, time-midnight and mood romantic) and Bahar (for
spring, time-day and for mood gay).
Ragas created by different persons: The first North Indian music conference
was held at Jaunpur by Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi. In the conference, the Ragas
made by the Sultan like Jaunpuri Todi and Hussaini Konada were made
authentic.
Tansen created the Ragas Miyan-ki-Todi, Miyan-ki-Malha, Miyan-ki-sarang,
Darbari Konada and Darbari Todi, all considered as foremost Ragas of
Hindustani Classical Music.
Amir Khussau, the legendary poet cum singer, created the new Ragas such as-
Sarfarda, Zilaph, Hemant, Prabhat Kali, Sanam, Aiman and Ghora.
Kumar Gandharva created Sanjari, Malavati, Saheli Todi and Gandhi Raga.
Ali Akbar Khan introduced Ragas such as- Chandra Nandan, Gauri Manjari and
Hem Hindol.
Pandit Ravi Shankar was credited with the Ragas like Kameshwari,
Ganeshwari, Komeshwari, Parameshwari and Nat Bhairav. He also
composed Raga Mohan Kauns in Honour of Mahatma Gandhi. V.D. Pulaskar
composed Raghupathi Raghav Raja Ram, the most favourite of Gandhi.

Ragas of the Carnatic Music- They fall into two categories-

1) The base are Melakarta Ragas
2) The derived of Janya Ragas
Melakarta Ragas have a formal structure and follow a rigid scheme of scientific
organization whereas, the Janya Ragas are rested in usage and are liable to evolve
with the music. The present Carnatic music is based on a system of 72 Melakarta
Ragas. Venaka Makhi of 17th century appears to be the first to use the 72
Melakartas.
There is an important feature to the Ragas in Carnatic music, namely- The
appropriate Gamakams (micro-tones) associated with the Ragas. The Gamakams
are of 10 types and their mastery is considered a must for effective recital of
Ragas.

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Important Ragas in Carnatic music- Dharmavati, Dhenuka, Gouri Manohari,
Hanuma Todi, Hemavathi,Jyothi Swarupini, Kanakangi, Karaharpriya,
Natakapriya, Ramapriya, Rasikapriya, Rathnangi and Yogapriya.
Tala- It is the rhythmical groupings of beats. These rhythmic cycles range from
3 to 10 beats. It is the theory of time measure and has the same principle in
Hindustani and Carnatic music, though the names differ. Though it is believed
that there are more than Hundred Talas, only thirty Talas are currently known and
about ten to twelve are actually used. The most commonly used one is the one
with sixteen beats called Teen Tal.
The Carnatic music has a rigid Thala Structure, with basic units like Laghu,
Drutam and Anudrutam. Though there are 175 Thalas in the Carnatic music with
the most common thala is the Adi Thala with the Repeating measure of eight
beats.
Alap: It is the first movement of Ragas. It is slow, serene movement acting as an
invocation and gradually develops the Raga.
Jor: It begins with added element of rhythm, combined with melodic patterns, it
gradually gains in tempo and brings the Raga to the final movement.
Jhala: It is the final movement, climax played with fast action of the plectrum
worn on the right index finger.
Gat: It is the fixed composition, generally divided into two sections Pallavi and
Anupallavi in Carnatic and Asthaji and Antarai in Hindustani.

Different forms of Hindustani Music: In Hindustani there are ten main forms
styles and compositions
I. DHRUPAD: It is the earliest and grandest of Hindustani vocal music. It is
consolidated itself as a classical music towards the beginning of 13 th century.
It reached its glory under Mughal Emperor Akbar with masters like Baba
Gopal Das, Swami Haridas, Tansen and Baiji Bawra. It was adapted for court
performance during the reign of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior.
It is essentially a poetic form incorporated into an extended presentation style
marked by precise and orderly elaboration of a raga. It starts with Alap which
is sung without words. It rises the tempo gradually evoking a mood in the
audience coinciding with the mood of the Raga chosen. It has usually 4 to 5
stanzas, performed by two male vocalists, usually accompanied by
instruments Tanpura and Pankhawaj.
The recital is further divided into four forms on the basis of Banis they
perform. Dagar Bani or Gharana is the most popular school today preserving
its originality.
It emphasizes on Alap. The other forms include Khandaar Bani, Nauhar Bani
and Gauhar Bani.

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II. KHAYAL: Literally it means idea or imagination. It is the most prominent
genre of Hindustani music depicting romantic style of singing.
The origin of Khayal is a matter of debate while some attribute it to Amir
Khusrau some give credit to Hussain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur. However it
became popular with sadarang Nyamat Khan of the court of Mohammad Shah
Rangela.
Khayal composition is generally referred to as Bandish with the theme
romantic in nature. The unique feature of Khayal is the use of Taan in the
composition. As a result Alap is given much less room when compared to
Drupad. It goes with a particular Raga, Tala and a brief test ranging from two
to eight times.
In its recital there are two ways: Bada Khayal- sung in the slow tempo and
chhota Khayal sungin the fast tempo. Its performance is accompanied by
Tanpura tabla, sarangi, harmonium and violin.
Gharanas-
1) The Gwalior Gharana in M.P is the oldest and mother of all other
Gharanas. It is given equal importance for melody and rhythm. Nathu Khan
and Vishnu Palushkar connected with this Gharana.
2) The Kirana Gharana of U.P is known for precise tuning and expression
of notes. Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Gangubai Hangal are the famous singers
connected with the Garana.
3) Agra Gharana: Otherwise called Rangeela Gharana is a blend of Drupad
and Khayal. The major exponents include Mohsin Khan and Vijay Kichlu.
4) Patiala Gharana: Developed by Bade Fateh Ali Khan and Ali Baksh
Khan, it stresses on greater rhythm. The most well known composer of this
Gharana Bade Ghulam Ali Khan.
5) Bhendibazzar Gharana: The singers of this Gharana known for
controlling their breath for longer period. It was founded in 19 th century by
Chhaju Khan, Nazir Khan and Khadim Hussain Khan.
III. THUMRI: It is a romantic and erotic style of singing with subjects of love,
separation and devotion. This is more because of the influence of Bhakti
movement. Thumris are composed in lighter Ragas and simpler Talas usually
sung in slower tempo. The lyrics are generally written in Braja Bhasha, Khari
Bholi and urdu.
The three main Gharanas of Thumri are Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala.
Rasoolan Bai, Janki Bai, Kashi Bai, Bade Moti and Chhoti Moti are the
exponents of Benaras Gharana. Qadar Piya, Samad Piya, Lallan Piya, Rang
Piya and Nawab Wagid Ali Shah are all well known Thumri singers of

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 Lucknow Gharana whereas Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan belonged to
Patiala Gharana.
IV. TAPPA: It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders in the desserts.
Credit for its development goes to Shorey Mian or Ghulam Nabi of Multan.
The compositions are very short and are based on Sharingara Rasa. Even
though the Tappas are in Punjabi, Gwalior and Varanasi became their main
centers.
The eminent Tappa singers include Krishna Rao, Shankar Pandit, Nawab
Hussain Ali Khan and Girija Devi.
V. TARANA: It is usually sung in faster tempo, emphasis on rhythm. Imitates
Persian and Arabic words. For this form, tabla and Sitar are the stroke
providers.
VI. DADRA: It bears a close resemblance to Thumri. The major difference is that
Dadras have more than one antara.
VII. DHAMAR-HORI: It comes closer to Drupad, mainly connected with the
festival of Holi, with the theme in praise of Lord Krishna.
VIII. RAGA SAGAR: It consists of different parts of musical passages in
different Ragas as one song composition, with eight to twelve different
Ragas with lyrics indicating the change of Ragas.
IX. CHATURANG: A composition of a song in four parts- Khayal, Tarana,
Sargam and a “Paran” of Tabla or Pakhawaj.
X. GHAZAL: It is more poetic than musical in form and content. Originated in
Iran, it grew out of Persian Qasida, a poem written in praise of a king or
benefactor. It never exceeds twelve couplets, on an average. It deals with just
one subject-love. Though it began with Amir Khusrau, it developed more in
the courts of Bahamani Sultans of Deccan, with its main centers Golconda
and Bijapur.
The 18th and 19th centuries are regarded as the golden age of Ghazal with
Delhi and Lucknow as its main centers. Rumi of 13 th century, Hafez of 14th
century and Mirza Ghalib were the ones associated with Ghazals.

CARNATIC MUSIC: The tradition traces the origin of Carnatic music to state
Karnataka itself. The usage of the term Carnatic music seems to date from Swami
Vidyaranya who wrote Sangeeta Sara. The earliest exponent of tradition was
Purandardasa, who gave new meaning and impetus to Carnatic music. He was
regarded as Sangeet Pitamaha, the father of Carnatic music. He laid the
foundation for the South Indian school which was enriched and perfected by the
trio of Carnatic music- Muttu Swami Deetishitar, Shyama Shastri and Tyaga
Raju.

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The basic elements of Sruti (the relative musical pitch), Swara (the musical
sound of a single note), Raga (The melodic formula) and Tala (The rhythmic
cycles) form the basis for composition in both Hindustani and Carnatic music.
The basis of Carnatic music is the system of Ragas (melodic scales) and Talas
(rhythmic scale). the 7 fundamental Ragas and Talas are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da,
Ni.
The Carnatic music is mainly based on Kriti or Kirtanam, a form developed by
Purandara Dasa and the Trimity of Carnatic music. It is based on Sahitya and is
a highly evolved musical song, set to a certain Raga and fixed Tala.

Every composition in Carnatic music has several parts.

1. PALLAVI: The first or two thematic lines of the song, which are often
repeated in each stanza.
2. ANU PALLAVI: The two lines of a stanza following Pallavi which is either
sung in the beginning or sometimes towards end of the song. Not necessarily
repeated after each stanza or Charanam.
3. VARNAM: Usually sung at the beginning of the recital. It reveals the Raga
of the recital to the audience.
4. RAGAMALIKA: is the concluding part. It is an important part as the singer
freely indulges in improvisation and reverts to the original theme at the end.
5. THANAM: is the melodic improvisation in free rhythm with Mridangam.
The same without Mridangam is called Ragam.
6. The other important part is SWARA KALPANA: which is an improvised
section, performed with the drummer in medium and fast speeds. The voice
is usually performed by ensemble of musicians who include principal
performer (vocalist) a melodic accompaniment, a violinist, a rhythm
(mridangam) and a tambura. The other instruments include Ghatam, Kanjira,
Keera and Chitraveena.

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:

According to Bharathas muni’s Natya Shastra, instruments are of four types:
1) Tata or Tantu (stringed)
2) Avanaddha (percussion or drums)
3) Ghana (bells or cymbals)
4) Sishira (wind)
Tatavadya (chordophones or stringed instruments) they include sitar, sarod,
santoor, sarangi, veena, violin, gottuvadyam, tanpura, dilruba, surbhahar, esraj,
ektara, kamaicha, mayuri, tarshehnai, gopichand, rahab, banjo, tambi and tantuna.

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A. SITAR: The word is derived from the Persian word SEHTAR where SE
means six and TAR means strings. Perhaps the most popular stringed
instruments in India, mainly used for solo performances and is also played
with Sarod and Jugalbandi. History credits Amir Khusrau for inventing
sitar and for making it more flexible. Pandit Ravi Shankar made several
changes and gave a new perspective to it.
B. SAROD: The present form of Sarod was developed around 250 years ago as
adaptations of Rahab, Sursinger and Veena, it has 8-10 main playing strings
and 11-16 sympathetic strings. Sursingar, a modified instrument of Rahab by
Jafar Khan, a descendant of Tansen, became a forerunner of Sarod. Ustad Ali
Akbar Khan made a definite change in the shape of instrument for improving
its tonal quality.
C. SANTOOR: The Vedic Shatantru, the hundred strings is the precursor of
Santoor. This was associated with the religious singing of Shaivities and the
Sufi music in Kashmir. It is played solo, with Tabla or Pakhawaj as
accompaniment. It is versatile instrument which can even produce
complicated musical embillishments like Gamaka and Meend.
D. SARANGI: Its origin is not clear. The ancient Ghoshak Veena Comes closer
to Sarangi in terms of shape and structure. The Pinaki Veena mentioned by
Saranga Deva’s Sangeeta Ratnakar bears close resemblance to the modern
Sarangi. Its name derived from Sau Rangi meaning hundred colours, has four
strings and upto forty resonant strings played with bow. It remained as a
premier musical instrument in Hindustani music until the mid 17 th century
and lost its importance as it became identified with the Mehfils and Tawaifs.
Today it is largely replaced by Harmonium.
E. VEENA: It is the most ancient and revered instruments in Indian music called
as the divine instrument of Saraswathi, “the Goddess of learning”. Narada’s
sangeeta makaranda and Bharata’s Natya Shastra describe various types of
veenas. It is played as a solo instrument accompanied by Mridangam and
Flute. The different kinds of Veenas are: Carnatic Veena, Vichitra Veena,
Mahaveena, Saraswathi Veena and Rudra Veena which differ in their size and
number of strings. Many recent instruments like Sitar and Tampura owe their
origin to Veena.
F. VIOLIN: The Stringed instrument, was brought to India in the 18 th century
by the Europeans. Though western in origin, it has become an integral part of
Indian music both in Hindustani and Carnatic.
G. GOTTU VADHYAM: Actually called Chitra Veena is an instrument with
21 strings. Earlier it was played only during mourning, now in all occasions.
H. TANPURA: The Hindu mythological texts credit Narada for its creation.
However, it is believed to have been brought from Persia where it was called

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 Tambur. It is a four or five stringed instruments, provides a reference pitch
for the singer and instrumentalist to follow.
I. DILRUBA/ESRAJ: They are widespread bowed stringed instruments in
classical, folk and popular music. While Dilruba is mostly found in North,
Esraj in central and Eastern India particularly in West Bengal. Eashraj, a
favourite instrument of Ravindranath Tagore.
J. SURBAHAR: It has four rhythm strings, four play strings and fifteen to
seventeen unplayed Sympathetic strings.

Differences between Hindustani and Carnatic music: They differ with each
other in their background, spirit, theme, composition and instrumentation.
1) Background wise Hindustani was influenced by Arab, Persian and Turkish
traditions, whereas Carnatic is indigenous- free from Islamic influence.
2) Spirit wise Hindustani is democratic, within the reach of the common people
whereas Carnatic is highly aristocratic and elitist.
3) Theme wise Hindustani is secular. It deals with various aspects of human life,
whereas Carnatic is highly devotional in its essence.
4) Composition wise Hindustani is very liberal, permits experimentation,
whereas Carnatic is highly rigid. Bhava, Raga, Thana, Pallavi and Anupallavi are
highly synchronized in Carnatic. Secondly, Hindustani adheres to time and
season. The same is not followed in Carnatic. Thirdly, in Ragas Hindustani has
six major Ragas, whereas in Carnatic 72. Fourthly, in Hindustani instrument
equally important as vocal, whereas in Carnatic more emphasis would be on vocal
part and theme.
5) In Instrumentation, Hindustani goes with Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar and Santoor.
Whereas Carnatic goes with Violin, Veena, Mridangam and Mandolin.
6) Gharanas/Samsthans wise Hindustani has more whereas Carnatic is mainly
centered around Tanjore and Madurai.

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 FOLK DANCES
Folk dance is the form of dance that reflects the traditional life of people of a
region or a locality. The terms “ethnic” and “traditional” are used when it is
required to emphasize the cultural roots of a folk dance.
Common characteristic features of the dance forms include; dance performed
with little or no professional training, not designed for public performance and
execution dominated by an inherited tradition rather than innovation. Folk dances
can broadly be classified into (i) Occupational (ii) Seasonal (iii) Martial (iv)
Devotional and (v) Ritualistic.

FOLK DANCES OF NORTHERN INDIA

(a) JAMMU & KASHMIR:
Dumhal (Ras Dhamali): This dance is performed by Wattal tribes.
Hikat: It is a harvest and spring dance performed by girls and boys in pairs
and groups.
Kud: This dance, which is typical of Jammu, exhibits swaying, sinuous
movements.
Rauf: It is a seasonal dance in which dancers link their arms and glide forward
and backward.
(b) PUNJAB:
The major folk dance forms of Punjab are Bhangra, Dankara, Dhamal, Gatka,
Gidda, Jaago, Jhummir (Jhumar), Julli, Luddi, Kikli and Saami.
Bhangra: It is one of most popular folk dances of India, which is associated
with the harvest festival of Baisakhi. The costumes worn by the dancers are
very colourful, depicting the spring season.
Gidda: It is the counterpart of Bhangra and is danced by womenfolk.
Jhummir (Jhumar): Unlike the fast-paced and vigorous Bhangra, Jhummir is
a slower, more rhythmic dance and is usually performed by men. It is an old
dialectical folk dance form of Punjab that originated in Baluchistan in
Pakistan. After Partition, the dance faded away from the Indian Punjab, except
in parts of Ferozepur district, where it is practiced by some Rai Sikh migrants
from Pakistan.
The other popular folk dances of Punjab include Dankara or Gaatka, Dhamal
and Jago, Jhulli, Kikli, Luddi and Sammi.
(c) HARYANA: Dhamal (or Daph): This dance is performed during the sowing
season.

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(d) UTTAR PRADESH: Diwali and Pai Danda: These are typical of the
Bundelkhand region.
Kajri: It is a peasant dance offered as thanks giving after a good crop.
Rai and Shaira: These are folk dances of the Bundelkhand region. Karan,
Nautanki and Raslila are other popular dance forms of Uttar Pradesh.
(e) UTTARAKHAND:
Jhumeila: It is generally performed by women but sometimes both by men and
women.
Chaunfla: It is spinning dance performed at nights by groups of men and
women in the Garhwal region.
Chholiya: It is a famous dance of the Kumaon region performed during
marriages.
Hurka Baul: This dance gets its name from the Hurka or the drum used as
accompaniment to the Baul or song. It is performed during the cultivation of
paddy and maize in the Kumaon region.
(f) HIMACHAL PRADESH: Some of the important folk dances of Himachal
Pradesh include Ujagjama and Chadhgebrikar, martial dances of men in Kullu.

FOLK DANCES OF WESTERN INDIA

(1) RAJASTHAN:
The ‘Bhils’ have a variety of dances like Ghumar.
Chakri Dance: Chakri dance is performed by the Kanjar girls, generally during
weddings. The dancers, who whirl round and round in circles in flowering
skirts, appear like spinning tops.
Chari Dance: This is popular dance form in the Kishangarh region and
involves dancing with a pot (Chari) on one’s head.
Gair Ghumar: This is typical of the Bhil tribes and is performed during the
Holi festival together by men and women, dressed in traditional costumes.
Ghumar: This is a community dance of Bhil women, performed on auspicious
occasions.
Tera Taali: Tera Taali or Terathal is performed by the ‘Kamar’ community of
Pokhran, especially during the ‘Ramdevra’ Festival. It is a rather unusual
performance where the men play a four-stringed instrument called chau-tara,
while the women strike the cymbals.
(2) GUJARAT:
Bhavai, Garba, Dandiya, Raas, Tippomi and Gomph are the popular ones.

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 Bhavai - The most colorful and skillful seven pots folk dance.
Garba - (women dance during Navaratri and Holi) is enacted before the
temples of the mother Goddess Amba. They perform on circular stage with
saragis. ASAIT THAKORE a Gujarati Brahmin is said to have created this
dance.
Dandiya Raas: Simple, rhythmic dance performed by young people moving
around in imaginary circle to the beat of dandiya sticks that they carry in their
hands.
(3) GOA: Ghode Modni: It is a dummy horse presentation, where the dancers,
attired gorgeously and armed with swords, recapitulate the valour and deeds
of the Goan warriors of olden days.
Mando: It is another folk dance of Goa.
Samai Dance: Samai Dance is performed with traditional metallic lamps
(deepaks), especially during the ‘Shigmo Festival’.
(4) MAHARASHTRA: Tamasha was an 18th century form of entertainment for
the Maharashtrian and derived its name from the Persian word for ‘spectacle’.
It was patronized by the Maratha rulers.
Katha, Keertan, Lavani and Lezim, Gafa, Korku, Mauni, Thasadhar are the
other popular dances.

CENTRAL PART OF INDIA

MADHYA PRADESH: Dagla and Ghera are the popular dances.
(1) JHARKHAND:
The most popular dances of Jharkhand include:
Agni: It is a religious dance, which is usually performed on the occasion of
‘Bipu’ or ‘Manda’ worship.
Jhumar: This dance is performed at the time of harvest season. It is performed
in a circle by dancers who wear very colorful costumes.
Phagua: This is a dance that is performed by males during Holi.
Santhal: This is a group dance performed by the Santhal tribes.
(2) CHHATTISGARH:
There are numerous tribal dance forms in Chhattisgarh, which include the
Dandari, Gendi, Bhagoriya, Sela, Karma, Panthi, Damkach and Nacha among
many others.
Saila: This dance is performed with wooden sticks or poles. The dances are
performed to the enchanting tunes of love songs with the accompaniment of

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 tabla, thali and flute. Some of them are named as the Chakramar Saila
(lizard’s dance), Baithiki Saila, Thadi Saila, Chamka Kunda Saila, Artari
Saila and the Shikari Saila.
(3) ORISSA The important dance forms of Orissa:
Bandha: ‘Bandha’ is considered as “the forgotten forerunner of the lyrical
Odissi.” Practised by Gotipua dancers and characterised by acrobatic poses,
bandha is now flourishing in places like Raghurajpur, Konark and Pithapur in
Puri district and some akhadas (gymnasia) in Orissa. Aloka Kanungo, the
renowned Odissi danseuse, is involved in the fusion of bandha with Odissi.
Dalkhai: This vigorous dance is performed by tribal women in Sambalpur,
Barghar and Sonepur districts in the month of Ashwin, Chaiti Ghorha is the
dummy horse version of the dance.
Goti Pua: Goti Pua is the 16th century old tradition of boy dancers who dress
up as girls and dance in pairs. These boys are students of the akhadas found in
the areas adjoining the Puri Temple. Therefore, this dance is also referred as
akhada pilas.
Other important folk dances of Orissa include Jadur, Magha, Ranapa Dance
and Sambhalpuri.
(5) WEST BENGAL:
(i) Brita or Vrita an important traditional folk dance of Bengal, performed by
barren women as a mark of gratitude to God after their wish of conceiving
a child is fulfilled.
(ii) Gudiya Nritya revived by Dr. Mahua Mukherjee. Essentially a dance form
connected with devotional music of Vaishnavism.
(iii) Other two popular dance were Kalinach, performed during Gajan in hour
of Goddess Kali and Rava dance, performed by the women of Rava
community.

TRIBAL DANCES OF NORTH EAST

(i) MANIPUR: 1) Laiharaoba an ancient village dance considered as the
fountain head of Modern Manipuri.
2) Ras Dances: (a) Maha Ras (b) Nitya Ras (c) Vasanta Ras - celebrates the
season and depicts the life of Sri Krishna.
3) Khamba Thoibi: Depicts the love story of Radha and Krishna
4) Pung Cholam: Dance and Drums. Playing the Mridangam, the dancer
executes amazing and energetic movements in unique combination of dance
and movement.

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(ii) Meghalaya:
Bendiengkhalam: i) This is the most important festival dance of the ‘Jaintias’,
celebrated annually in July at Jowai in the Jaintia Hills.
Nongkrem Dance: ii) This is the most important dance of the ‘Khasis’,
celebrated during autumn season essentially as a thanks-giving to God.
(iii) Mizoram:
Chheihlam and Chiraw of Mizoram, Aaluattu, Akhu and Kuki dances of
Nagaland, Cha – a masked ritual dance of Arunachal Pradesh, Yak Chham,
the colourful tribal dance of Sikkim, Lehang Bommni and Maimta (harvest
dances) of Tripura.

FOLK DANCES OF SOUTH INDIA

(1) ANDHRA PRADESH:
Andhranatyam: Dance performed by devadasis as a form of worship.
Dappu Dance: This dance owes its name to the use of dappu, a percussion
instrument.
Kolatam: ‘Kolatam’ or Kol Kolannalu is a form of “stick dance” performed
by men and women, which can be traced back to 7th century A.D.
Perini: This dance gained popularity under the rule of the Kakatiyas
performed by emotionally charged Veera Saivas.
Puli Vesham: Puli Vesham is performed in open-air during festivals.
Tappetagullu: It is a festival dance performed dominantly by the ‘yadava’
men, mainly in the north coastal districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and
Visakhapatnam.
Veer Natyam: Veer Natyam is performed to worship Veerbhadra. It is
commonly performed in Draksharama, which is supposed to be the birthplace
of Veerbhadra.
(2) KARNATAKA:
Balakat Dance: It is performed by the ‘Dodava’ tribes during harvest time.
Bhoota (or Kola): This ritual dance, typical of the South Kanara district of
Karnataka.
Kavadis: These are ritual dances revolving around worship of Lord
Subrahmanya.
(3) KERALA:
Chakiarkoothu: It is originally performed only in temples by members of the
Chakiar caste. The dance is staged in theatre halls known as Koothambalam.
Cherumarkali: It is a harvest dance in which the dancers, both men and
women move in a swift rhythm.

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 Kavadiyattam: It is a ritual dance offering in the Subrahmanya temples.
Kuthiottam: It is a song and dance ritual exclusive to the Devi temples of
South Kerala.
Ottantullal: It is a solo dance form referred as ‘poor man’s Kathakali’.
Padayani or Padeni: It is one of the most colorful and spectacular folk dances
associated with the festivals of certain temples in Alleppey, Kollam and
Kottayam districts of Southern Kerala. It involves impersonating divine and
semi-divine figures by wearing huge masks (kolams) of different shapes
colours and designs.
Theyyam: ‘Theyyam’ or Kaliyattom is a ritual dance typical of northern
Malabar.
Thiruvathirakali: It is a dance form which is a pointer to the old customs
followed in Nair tharawads (joint families) where the women of the house
perform the dance.
Thullal: This dance form, which owes its origin to Kunjan Nambiar, one of
the leading Malayali poets, is characterised by simplicity of presentation, wit
and humour.
(4) TAMILNADU:
Kolattam: Stick dance by girls.
Kavadi attam: Temple dance.
Karagam: Temple dance.
Kummi: Female dance (involves circular movement / clapping).
Dummy: Horse dance in temples.

MARTIAL DANCES
They have their roots in Bharata’s Natyashastra. The various martial dances are:
Gatka: In Punjab is performed by Nihang community. It encompass Veer Ras
Shakti and Bhakti.
Paika: In Bihar where the performers wear multi coloured costumes.
Thag-ta: of Manipur, involves rhythmic display of decorative swords.
Kalaripayattu: a dynamic dance of Kerala.
Choliya Naritya: in Pithoragarh. (U.P.)
Panglhabosol: In Sikkim, the performers dance with swords in their hands which
manifests equality of sexes.
Padidanda: Bundelkhand (M.P.)

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