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GLOBA L E N GL I S HE S

Routledge English Language Introductions cover core areas of language study and
are one-stop resources for students.
Assuming no prior knowledge, books in the series offer an accessible overview of
the subject, with activities, study questions, sample analyses, commentaries, and key
readings – all in the same volume. The innovative and flexible ‘two-dimensional’
structure is built around four sections – introduction, development, exploration, and
extension – which offer self-contained stages for study. Each topic can also be read
across these sections, enabling the reader to build gradually on the knowledge gained.
Global Englishes, Third Edition, previously published as World Englishes, has been
comprehensively revised and updated and provides an introduction to the subject
that is both accessible and comprehensive.
Key features of this best-selling textbook include:
t coverage of the major historical, linguistic, and sociopolitical developments in
the English language from the start of the seventeenth century to the present day
t exploration of the current debates in global Englishes, relating to its uses as
mother tongue in the US, UK, Antipodes, and post-colonial language in Africa,
South and Southeast Asia, and lingua franca across the rest of the globe, with a
new and particularly strong emphasis on China
t a range of texts, data and examples draw from emails, tweets and newspapers
such as The New York Times, China Daily and The Straits Times
t readings from key scholars including Alastair Pennycook, Henry G. Widdowson
and Lesley Milroy
t activities that engage the reader by inviting them to draw on their own experience
and consider their orientation to the particular topic in hand.
Global Englishes, Third Edition provides a dynamic and engaging introduction to this
fascinating topic and is essential reading for all students studying global Englishes,
English as a lingua franca, and the spread of English in the world today.

Jennifer Jenkins is Professor of Global Englishes and founding director of the Centre
for Global Englishes at the University of Southampton.

M PA N O
O
I

The accompanying website can be found at

N
C

www.routledge.com/cw/jenkins E
W

E B S IT
R OUTLEDGE ENGLISH LANGUAGE INTRODUCTIONS

SERIES CONSULTANT: PETER STOCKWELL

Peter Stockwell is Professor of Literary Linguistics in the School of English at the
University of Nottingham, UK, where his interests include sociolinguistics, stylistics
and cognitive poetics. His recent publications include The Handbook of Stylistics (2014),
Cognitive Grammar in Literature (2014) and The Language and Literature Reader (with
Ron Carter, Routledge 2008).

SERIES CONSULTANT: RONALD CARTER

Ronald Carter is Professor of Modern English Language in the School of English at
the University of Nottingham, UK. He is the co-series editor of the Routledge Applied
Linguistics series, series editor of Interface and was co-founder of the Routledge
Intertext series.

TITLES IN THE SERIES:

Global Englishes Language and Media

(previously published as World Englishes) Alan Durant and Marina Lambrou
Jennifer Jenkins
History of English
Stylistics Dan McIntyre
Paul Simpson
Pragmatics and Discourse
Practical Phonetics and Phonology Joan Cutting
Beverley Collins and Inger M. Mees
Sociolinguistics
Discourse Analysis Peter Stockwell
Rodney Jones
Child Language
English Grammar Jean Stilwell Peccei
Roger Berry
Language in Theory
Researching English Language Mark Robson and Peter Stockwell
Alison Sealey
Psycholinguistics
Introducing English Language John Field
Louise Mullany and Peter Stockwell
Grammar and Vocabulary
Language and Power Howard Jackson
Paul Simpson and Andrea Mayr

For more information on any of these titles, or to order, please go to

www.routledge.com/linguistics
G L O B A L E NG L I S H ES A

Third Edition B

A resource book for students C

D
JENNIFER JENKINS

Routledge
ROUTLEDGE

Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Third edition published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2015 Jennifer Jenkins

The right of Jennifer Jenkins to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by
her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published as World Englishes: a resource book for students by Routledge 2003
Second edition published as World Englishes: a resource book for students by Routledge 2009

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jenkins, Jennifer
[World Englishes]
Global Englishes : a resource book for students / Jennifer Jenkins. – Third Edition.
pages cm. – (Routledge English language Introductions)
Previously published as: World Englishes: a resource book for students / Jennifer Jenkins, 2nd ed., 2009.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. English language–Variation–English-speaking countries. 2. English language–Variation–Commonwealth
countries. 3. English language–Variation--Foreign countries. 4. English language–English-speaking
countries. 5. English language–Commonwealth countries. 6. English language–Foreign countries.
I. Title.
PE2751.J46 2015
427–dc23
2014004947

ISBN: 978-0-415-63843-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-63844-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-76159-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Minion
by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong
HOW TO U SE T H IS BOOK

The Routledge English Language Introductions are ‘flexi-texts’ that you can use to suit
your own style of study. The books are divided into four sections:

A Introduction – sets out the key concepts for the area of study. The units of this
section take you step by step through the foundational terms and ideas, carefully
providing you with an initial toolkit for your own study. By the end of the sec-
tion, you will have a good overview of the whole field.
B Development – adds to your knowledge and builds on the key ideas already
introduced. Units in this section might also draw together several areas of interest.
By the end of this section, you will already have a good and fairly detailed grasp
of the field, and will be ready to undertake your own exploration and thinking.
C Exploration – provides examples of language data and guides you through your
own investigation of the field. The units in this section will be more open-ended
and exploratory, and you will be encouraged to try out your ideas and think for
yourself, using your newly acquired knowledge.
D Extension – offers you the chance to compare your expertise with key readings
in the area. These are taken from the work of important writers, and are provided
with guidance and questions for your further thought.

You can read this book like a traditional textbook, ‘vertically’ straight through from
beginning to end. This will take you comprehensively through the broad field of study.
However, the Routledge English Language Introductions have been carefully designed
so that you can read them in another dimension, ‘horizontally’ across the numbered
units. For example, Units A1, A2, A3, and so on, correspond with Units B1, B2, B3,
and with Units C1, C2, C3 and D1, D2, D3, and so on. Reading A5, B5, C5, D5 will
take you rapidly from the key concepts of a specific area, to a level of expertise in
that precise area, all with a very close focus. You can match your way of reading with
the best way that you work.
The Glossarial Index at the end, together with the suggestions for Further Read-
ing that follow Section D, will help to keep you orientated. Each textbook in the series
has a supporting website with extra commentary, suggestions, additional material, and
support for teachers and students.

Global Englishes
Global Englishes has eight units, each following the above four-part structure. Section
A’s units introduce the key topics in Global Englishes from the sixteenth century to
the present time and beyond. Section B develops these issues with additional detail
and discussion. Section C offers opportunities for further study and your own research
vi HOW TO U S E T H I S B OO K

by following the latest works and controversies in the field. Finally, the readings in
Section D take up the themes of each of the other three units in their respective sec-
tion, and are accompanied by suggestions for further study and discussion.
The eight horizontal strands begin with the historical, social and political context
(in units A1, B1, C1, and D1). Strand 2 explores the debates about English today;
strand 3 looks at English in the Anglophone world; strand 4 investigates variation
across the postcolonial Englishes; strand 5 turns to pidgin and creole languages; strand
6 focuses on English as an international lingua franca; strand 7 takes a closer look at
East Asian and European Englishes; and the final strand looks to the future of Eng-
lishes in the global context.
Further material and activities can also be found on the website which accom-
panies the book: www.routledge.com/cw/jenkins
CONTENT S

Contents cross-referenced x
List of figures and tables xii
Preface to the third edition xiii
Acknowledgements xiv

A Introduction: key topics in global Englishes 1

1 The historical, social, and political context 2
2 Who speaks English today? 10
3 Standard language ideology in the Anglophone world 21
4 Variation across postcolonial Englishes 27
5 Pidgin and creole languages 35
6 English as an international lingua franca 41
7 English in Asia and Europe 45
8 The future of global Englishes 52

B Development: implications and issues 57

1 The legacy of colonialism 58
2 The English Today debate 64
3 Standards across Anglophone space 69
4 ‘Legitimate’ and ‘illegitimate’ offspring of English 80
5 Characteristics of pidgin and creole languages 85
6 The nature of ELF communication 90
7 En route to new standard Englishes 99
8 Possible future scenarios 105

C Exploration: current debates in global Englishes 111

1 Postcolonial Africa and North America 112
2 Teaching and testing global Englishes 120
3 Standards across channels 128
4 ‘Sub’-varieties of English: the example of Singlish 140
5 Creole developments in the UK and US 146
6 ELF and education 155
7 Asian Englishes: focus on India, Hong Kong, and China 161
8 Language killer or language promoter? 172
viii CONTENTS

D Extension: readings in global Englishes 181

1 The discourses of postcolonialism (Alastair Pennycook) 182
2 Who owns English today? (Henry G. Widdowson) 190
3 Is language (still) power in the Inner Circle? (Lesley Milroy,
Alfred Lee and Dennis Bloodworth) 197
4 From language to literature (Chinua Achebe and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o) 206
5 The status of pidgin languages in education (Samuel Atechi) 215
6 The challenge of testing ELF (Jennifer Jenkins and Constant Leung) 223
7 Attitudes to non-native Englishes in China and mainland Europe
(Ying Wang and Ulrich Ammon) 230
8 Looking ahead (Alastair Pennycook) 240

Further reading 248

References 251
Glossarial index 272
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS CROSS-REFERENCED

UNITS INTRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

A Key topics in GE B Implications and issues

1 The historical, social, and political The legacy of colonialism

context

2 58

2 Who speaks English today? The English Today debate

10 64

3 Standard language ideology in the Standards across Anglophone space

Anglophone world

21 69

4 Variation across postcolonial Englishes ‘Legitimate’ and ‘illegitimate’ offspring of

English

27 80

5 Pidgin and creole languages Characteristics of pidgin and creole

languages

35 85

6 English as an international lingua franca The nature of ELF communication

41 90

7 English in Asia and Europe En route to new standard Englishes

45 99

8 The future of global Englishes Possible future scenarios

52 105

Further
reading

References

Glossarial
index
 CONTENTS CROSS-REFERENCED

EXPLORATION EXTENSION UNITS

C Current debates in GE D Readings in GE

Postcolonial Africa and North America The discourses of postcolonialism 1

(Alastair Pennycook)

112 182

Teaching and testing global Englishes Who owns English today? 2

(Henry G. Widdowson)

120 190

Standards across channels Is language (still) power in the Inner 3

Circle? (Lesley Milroy, Alfred Lee and
Dennis Bloodworth)
128 197

‘Sub’-varieties of English: the example of From language to literature (Chinua 4

Singlish Achebe and Ngũgı̃ wa Thiong’o)

140 206

Creole developments in the UK and US The status of pidgin languages in 5

education (Samuel Atechi)

146 215

ELF and education The challenge of testing ELF 6

(Jennifer Jenkins and Constant Leung)

155 223

Asian Englishes: focus on India, Attitudes to non-native Englishes in 7

Hong Kong, and China China and mainland Europe (Ying Wang
and Ulrich Ammon)
161 230

Language killer or language promoter? Looking ahead (Alastair Pennycook) 8

172 240

Further
reading

References

Glossarial
index
FI GURES A ND TA B L E S

Figures
A2.1 Strevens’s world map of English 12
A2.2 McArthur’s Circle of World English 13
A2.3 Kachru’s three-circle model of World Englishes 14
A2.4 Modiano’s centripetal circles of international English 17
A2.5 Modiano’s English as an international language (EIL) illustrated
as those features of English which are common to all native and
non-native varieties 18
A2.6 Representing the community of English speakers as including
a wide range of proficiencies 19
A2.7 Pennycook’s 3D transtextual model of English use 20
A2.8 Mahboob’s language variation framework 21
A5.1 Pidgin lifespan 37
C3.1 Continuum view of speech and writing 128
C3.2 Typical speech and writing continuum 129
C6.1 Wen’s pedagogical framework for an ELF-informed approach to
the teaching of English 157
C8.1 Traditional hierarchy of Englishes 177
C8.2 Reconceptualised hierarchy of Englishes prioritising international use 178

Tables
A1.1 English-speaking territories 3
A1.2 Summary of the two dispersals of English 7
A4.1 Question tags used in outer-circle varieties 32
A7.1 Asian Englishes by region 46
A7.2 Asian Englishes by use 47
B3.1 British English/American English lexical differences 71
C3.1 Characteristics of speech and writing 128
C3.2 Features of typical speech and writing 129
PREFACE TO T H E T H IR D E DITION

As was noted in the preface to the second edition (then World Englishes, 2009), this
is an immensely fast-moving field. Since then, there have been many further develop-
ments, and these meant that the second edition needed not only extensive updating,
but also substantial revising. So while the general structure of this new edition remains
the same as that of the previous two editions, there have been a number of changes.
The most obvious of these is the change in the title. The term ‘World Englishes’ was
appropriate for a book focusing on Englishes as nation-bound varieties. However,
with the recent massive growth in the use of English as an international lingua franca
among people from different nations and first languages, the focus has been adjusted
to include newer non-nation-bound developments. The book’s overall focus is there-
fore better represented by the more inclusive term, ‘Global Englishes’.
In terms of content, the adjustment in focus means that there is now more
emphasis on the lingua franca function of English. Hence, there is more material on
English in regions where it is learnt for communication with people from outside the
region, and therefore on non-postcolonial Asia, and China in particular. The third
edition also takes account of the dramatic rise in the use of computer-mediated com-
munication, with more material on trends such as texting and twitter than previously.
Finally, four of the eight readings in section D have been replaced with more topical
texts.
While the original structure is the same as before, the order of the strands has
been altered. Strands 3 and 4 have been reversed. Previously, the book covered the
postcolonial Englishes first and mother tongue Englishes second. The purpose was to
make the point that in this book, the latter were not considered to have priority over
the former. However, this point is now more widely accepted, and there is also plenti-
ful material on postcolonial Englishes in strands 1 and 2. The mother tongue Englishes
are therefore now covered in strand 3, and the postcolonial Englishes in strand 4.
Pidgin and Creole languages, previously in strand 2, are now positioned more logically
after the postcolonial Englishes in strand 5.
Finally, a comment on the approach taken throughout this book. As before, one
of its main purposes is to raise readers’ awareness not only of the way English has
spread but also of the issues involved in its spread, and of the dramatic speed and
nature of developments in the field, particularly in the most recent decades. But rather
than presenting the author’s perspective, like the previous editions, the book provides
a range of positions on each topic and asks you, the reader, to decide where you stand
in the many debates and controversies that unfold in the pages that follow.
ACK NO W L ED G EME N TS

A number of people around the world have generously provided help with this third
edition. I would like to thank the following for their advice on aspects of the book’s
content and/or for providing information and materials: David Deterding, Roxy
Harris, Maggie Hawkins, Vicky Hollett, Ahmar Mahboob, and Jane Zuengler. Colleagues
and doctoral students past and present of the University of Southampton provided
helpful comments on the first draft. In this respect, my thanks go especially to Will
Baker, Julia Hüttner, Lanxi Hu, and Ying Wang. As well as this, I would like to express
my appreciation to Sonia Moran Panero and Melissa Yu for their care and expertise
in designing the website that accompanies the book. Finally, as always, the support
of the editorial team at Routledge has proved invaluable. I would like to record my
gratitude to Louisa Semlyen for her encouragement, Nadia Seemungal and Rachel
Daw for their help, advice, and patience throughout, Sarah Fish for her painstaking
copy-editing, and Sarah May for making the production process go so smoothly. My
thanks to you all.

Permissions
The authors and publishers would like to thank the following copyright holders for
permission to reproduce the following material:

Achebe, Chinua and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, an extract from ‘From language to literature’
from Morning yet on Creation Day, New York: Anchor 1975. © The Wylie Agency
LLC.
Ammon, Ulrich, an extract from ‘Towards More Fairness in International English:
Linguistic Rights of Non-native Speakers?’ from Robert Phillipson (ed.) Rights to
Language. Equity, Power, and Education, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 2000.
Reproduced by kind permission of Taylor and Francis.
Atechi, Samuel, ‘Is Cameroon Pidgin flourishing or dying? An attempt to reconcile
conflicting reports on the functions and status of Cameroon pidgin English’
from English Today vol. 27 no.3, 2011: 30–34. Reproduced by kind permission of
Cambridge University Press.
Baron, N. Table: Characteristics of speech and writing. From Alphabet to Email, London:
Routledge 2000. Reproduced by kind permission of Taylor and Francis.
Crystal, D. Table: English-speaking territories. From English as a Global Language,
Cambridge: Cambridge 2003. Reproduced by kind permission of Cambridge
University Press.
Graddol, D. Figure: Representing the community of English speakers as including a wide
range of proficiencies. From English Next. Why Global English May Mean the End
of ‘English as a Foreign Language’, London: British Council 2006. © British Council.
AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S xv

Jenkins, Jennifer and Leung, Constant, an extract from ‘English as a Lingua Franca’
(DOI: 10.1002/9781118411360.wbcla047), reprinted from A. Kunnan (ed.) The
Companion to Language Assessment. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons 2014.
Reproduced by kind permission of Wiley-Blackwell and Constant Leung.
Kachru, B.B. Figure: Kachru’s three-circle model of World Englishes. From ‘Teaching
World Englishes’ in B.B. Kachru (ed.) The Other Tongue. English Across Cultures, Urbana,
IL: University of Illinois Press. Copyright 1982, 1992 by the Board of Trustees of
the University of Illinois. Used with permission of the University of Illinois Press.
Lee, Alfred, ‘English to get English lessons’ reprinted from The Straits Times, Tuesday
15 May 2001. Reproduced by kind permission of Singapore Press Holdings Ltd
© Permission required for reproduction.
Leech, G., Deuchar, M. and Hoogenraad, R. Table: Typical features of speech and
writing. From English Grammar for Today, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan
1982. Reproduced by kind permission of Palgrave Macmillan.
McArthur, A. Figure: McArthur’s Circle of World English. From “The English
Languages?” in English Today Volume 11: 1987. © Cambridge University Press.
Mahboob, A. Figure: Mahboob’s Language variation framework. From Mahboob, A.
‘Identity management, language variation, and English language textbooks’. in
Djenar, D., Mahboob, A. & Cruickshank, K. (eds) Language and Identity Across
Modes of Communication, Boston: Walter de Gruyter 2009. Reproduced by kind
permission of Walter de Gruyter.
Melchers, G. and Shaw, P. Table: Question tags used in outer-circle varieties. World
Englishes Second Edition, London: Hodder 2011. Reproduced by kind permission
of Taylor and Francis.
Milroy, Lesley, an extract from ‘Bad grammar is slovenly’ from Language Myths,
by Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill (eds), London: Penguin 1998. Reproduced by
kind permission of Penguin Random House UK.
Modiano, M. Figure: Modiano’s centripetal circles of international English. From ‘Inter-
national English in the global village’, English Today 15/2: 22–34. © Cambridge
University Press.
Modiano, M. Figure: Modiano’s English as an international language (EIL) illustrated
as those features of English which are common to all native and non-native
varieties. From ‘Standard English(es) and educational practices for the world’s
lingua franca’, English Today 15/4:3-13. © Cambridge University Press, reproduced
with permission.
Mühlhäusler, P. Figure: Pidgin lifespan. From Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, London:
University of Westminster Press 1997. © Wiley-Blackwell.
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, an extract from Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in
African Literature, London: James Currey, 1986. © James Currey.
Pennycook, Alastair, an extract from ‘The discourses of postcolonialism’ in English
and the Discourses of Colonialism, London: Routledge 1998. Reproduced by per-
mission of Taylor and Francis.
Pennycook, Alastair, an extract from ‘The future of Englishes. One, many or none?’
from from Andy Kirkpatrick (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes.
London and New York: Routledge 2010. Reproduced by kind permission of
Taylor and Francis.
xvi AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S

Pennycook, A. Figure: Pennycook’s 3D transtextual model of English use. From

Pennycook, A. ‘Plurilithic Englishes: towards a 3D model’. In Murata, K. and
Jenkins, J. (eds) Global Englishes in Asian Contexts, Houndmills, Basingstoke:
Palgrave 2009. Reproduced with permission of Palgrave Macmillan. The full pub-
lished version of this publication is available from: http://www.palgrave.com/
products/title.aspx?pid=311310
Strevens, P. Figure: Strevens’s world map of English. From ‘English as an international
language: directions in the 1990s’ in B.B. Kachru (ed.) The Other Tongue. English
Across Cultures, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Copyright 1982, 1992 by
the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. Used with permission of the
University of Illinois Press.
Wang, Ying, an extract from ‘Non-conformity to ENL norms: a perspective from
Chinese English users’ from Journal of English as a Lingua Franca 2(2), 2013:
255–282. © De Gruyter.
Wen, Q. Figure: Wen’s pedagogical framework for an ELF-informed approach to the
teaching of English. From ‘English as a lingua franca: a pedagogical perspective’
in Journal of English as a Lingua Franca 1/2: 371–376. 2012. Reproduced by kind
permission of De Gruyter. A previous version of this material is available here:
http://www.degruyter.com/.
Widdowson, Henry, an extract from ‘Who owns English today?’ The Peter Strevens
Memorial Lecture delivered at the 1993 IATEFL International Conference, Swan-
sea, and reprinted from the IATEFL Annual Conference Report: Plenaries 1993.
Reproduced by kind permission of Henry Widdowson and IATEFL.

While the publishers have made every effort to contact copyright holders of material
used in this volume, they would be grateful to hear from any they were unable to
contact.
 A

Section A
INTRODUCTION
KEY TOPICS IN
GLOBAL ENGLISHES
A1 2 K E Y TO P I C S I N G L O BA L E N G L I S H E S

A1 THE HISTORICAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL CONTEXT

Introduction to Global Englishes

In the period between the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603 and the later
years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II in the early part of the twenty-first century,
the number of speakers of English increased from a mere five to seven million to
possibly as many as two billion. Whereas the English language was spoken in the
mid-sixteenth century only by a relatively small group of mother tongue speakers
born and bred within the shores of the British Isles, it is now spoken in almost every
country of the world, with its majority speakers being those for whom it is not a first
language.
Currently, there are approximately seventy-five territories where English is spoken
either as a first language (L1), or as an official (i.e. institutionalised) second language
(L2) in fields such as government, law, and education. Crystal (2003a, 2012a) lists these
territories, along with their approximate numbers of English speakers, in Table A1.1
(those countries where the variety of English spoken is a pidgin or creole are indicated
by an asterisk).
The total numbers of L1 and L2 English speakers amount here to 329,140,800
and 430,614,500 respectively, and together these speakers constitute almost a third of
the total population of the above territories (2,236,730,000 in total). However, as
Crystal (2003a: 68) points out, the L2 total is conservative:

The total of 430 million . . . does not give the whole picture. For many countries,
no estimates are available. And in others (notably India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Ghana,
Malaysia, Philippines and Tanzania, which had a combined total of over 1,462
million people in 2002) even a small percentage increase in the number of speak-
ers thought to have a reasonable (rather than a fluent) command of English would
considerably expand the L2 grand total.

He goes on to point out that whether or not pidgin and creole languages are included,
the total number of L2 speakers in these regions is well above the total number of
L1 speakers. And in fact, although all three totals (population, L1, L2) have increased
since the first edition of Crystal’s English as a Global Language (1997), the most sub-
stantial increase by far is in the number of L2 speakers, which has almost doubled
from 235,351,300 in 1997 to over 430 million in 2003. And we should bear in mind
that Crystal’s figures are likely to have increased still further in the decade or so since
the publication of his second edition in 2003.
The total number of L2 speakers is in fact still more remarkable than Crystal’s
figures suggest. For, as he explains, they take no account of one further, and increas-
ingly important, group of L2 English speakers: those for whom English was never a
colonial language and for whom it may have little or no official function within their
own country. This group of English speakers, whose proficiency levels range from
reasonable to bilingual competence, were originally described as speakers of English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) to distinguish them from L2 speakers for whom Eng-
lish serves country-internal functions, that is, speakers of English as a Second Lan-
guage (ESL). Since the mid-1990s, however, it has become increasingly common to
T H E H I STO R I C A L , S O C I A L , A N D P O L IT I C A L C O N T E X T 3
A1
Table A1.1 English-speaking territories (source: Crystal 2003a: 62–65; 2012a: 62–65)

Territory Usage estimate Population (2001)

L1 L2

American Samoa 2,000 65,000 67,000

Antigua & Barbuda* 66,000 2,000 68,000
Aruba 9,000 35,000 70,000
Australia 14,987,000 3,500,000 18,972,000
Bahamas* 260,000 28,000 298,000
Bangladesh 3,500,000 131,270,000
Barbados* 262,000 13,000 275,000
Belize* 190,000 56,000 256,000
Bermuda 63,000 63,000
Bhutan 75,000 2,000,000
Botswana 630,000 1,586,000
British Virgin Islands* 20,000 20,800
Brunei 10,000 134,000 344,000
Cameroon* 7,700,000 15,900,000
Canada 20,000,000 7,000,000 31,600,000
Cayman Islands 36,000 36,000
Cook Islands 1,000 3,000 21,000
Dominica 3,000 60,000 70,000
Fiji 6,000 170,000 850,000
Gambia* 40,000 1,411,000
Ghana* 1,400,000 19,894,000
Gibraltar 28,000 2,000 31,000
Grenada* 100,000 100,000
Guam 58,000 100,000 160,000
Guyana* 650,000 30,000 700,000
Hong Kong 150,000 2,200,000 7,210,000
India 350,000 200,000,000 1,029,991,000
Ireland 3,750,000 100,000 3,850,000
Jamaica* 2,600,000 50,000 2,665,000
Kenya 2,700,000 30,766,000
Kiribati 23,000 94,000
Lesotho 500,000 2,177,000
Liberia* 600,000 2,500,000 3,226,000
Malawi 540,000 10,548,000
Malaysia 380,000 7,000,000 22,230,000
Malta 13,000 95,000 395,000
Marshall Islands 60,000 70,000
Mauritius 2,000 200,000 1,190,000
Micronesia 4,000 60,000 135,000
Montserrat* 4,000 4,000
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
For what despair, fire, shipwreck, treachery?
Was it for threat that from the macchia sprang
For Genoa’s feud, the oppressor’s piracy,
Or the Falcon of Sarzana that it rang?
Was the boat-guild’s silver plundered? Blood should pay.
Hardwon the footing of the fishers’ clan
The sea-cloud-watchers.—Loud above the spray
The maddening iron cry, the appeal of man,
Washed through the torchless midnight on and on.
Are not enough the jeopardies of day?
Riot arose—fear’s Self began the fray:
But the tower proved empty. By the lightning’s ray
They found no human ringer in the room....
The bell-rope quivered out in the sea-spume....

A creature fierce, soft, witless of itself,

A morbid mouth, circled by writhing arms,
By its own grasp entangled on that shelf,
Had dragged the rope and spread the death-alarms;
Insensitive, light-forgotten, up from slime,
From shelter betwixt rocks, issuing for prey
Disguised, had used man’s language of dismay.
The spawn of perished times had late in time
Emerged, and griefs upon man’s grief imposed
Incalculable.

But the fishers closed

The blind mouth, and cut off the suckers cold.
Two thousand fathoms the disturber rolled
From trough to trough into the gulf Tyrrhene;
And fear sank with it back into its night obscene.
Herbert Trench
THÉO VAN RYSSELBERGHE
PORTRAIT OF ÉMILE
VERHAEREN
FROM A PENCIL DRAWING
ÉMILE VERHAEREN
 LE PRINTEMPS DE 1915

Tu me disais de ta voix douce,

Tu me disais en insistant:
—Y a-t-il encore un Printemps
Et les feuilles repoussent-elles?

La guerre accapare le ciel

Les eaux, les monts, les bois, la terre:
Où sont les fleurs couleur de miel
Pour les abeilles volontaires?

Où sont les pousses des roncerois

Et les boutons des anémones?
Où sont les flûtes dans les bois
Des oiseaux sombres aux becs jaunes?

—Hélas! plus n’est de floraison

Que celle des feux dans l’espace:
Bouquet de rage et de menace
S’éparpillant sur l’horizon.

Plus n’est, hélas! de splendeur rouge

Que celle, hélas! des boulets fous
Éclaboussant de larges coups
Clochers, hameaux, fermes et bouges.

C’est le printemps de ce temps-ci:

Le vent répand de plaine en plaine,
Là-bas, ces feuillaisons de haine;
C’est la terreur de ce temps-ci.
Émile Verhaeren

Saint-Cloud, le 31 Juillet 1915

 THE NEW SPRING
[TRANSLATION]

Sadly your dear voice said:

“Is the old spring-time dead,
And shall we never see
New leaves upon the tree?

“Shall the black wings of war

Blot out sun, moon and star,
And never a bud unfold
To the bee its secret gold?

“Where are the wind-flowers streaked,

And the wayward bramble shoots,
And the black-birds yellow-beaked
With a note like woodland flutes?”

No flower shall bloom this year

But the wild flame of fear
Wreathing the evil night
With burst of deadly light.

No splendour of petals red

But that which the cannon shed,
Raining their death-bloom down
On farm and tower and town.

This is the scarlet doom

By the wild sea-winds hurled
Over a land of gloom,
Over a grave-strewn world.
Émile Verhaeren
 1915

Though desolation stain their foiled advance,

In ashen ruins hearth-stones linger whole:
Do what they may, they cannot master France;
Do what they can, they cannot quell the soul.
Barrett Wendell
EDITH WHARTON
THE TRYST
I said to the woman: Whence do you come,
With your bundle in your hand?
She said: In the North I made my home,
Where slow streams fatten the fruitful loam,
And the endless wheat-fields run like foam
To the edge of the endless sand.

I said: What look have your houses there,

And the rivers that glass your sky?
Do the steeples that call your people to prayer
Lift fretted fronts to the silver air,
And the stones of your streets, are they washed and fair
When the Sunday folk go by?

My house is ill to find, she said,

For it has no roof but the sky;
The tongue is torn from the steeple-head,
The streets are foul with the slime of the dead,
And all the rivers run poison-red
With the bodies drifting by.

I said: Is there none to come at your call

In all this throng astray?
They shot my husband against a wall,
And my child (she said), too little to crawl,
Held up its hands to catch the ball
When the gun-muzzle turned its way.

I said: There are countries far from here

Where the friendly church-bells call,
And fields where the rivers run cool and clear,
And streets where the weary may walk without fear,
And a quiet bed, with a green tree near,
To sleep at the end of it all.

She answered: Your land is too remote,

And what if I chanced to roam
And what if I chanced to roam
When the bells fly back to the steeples’ throat,
And the sky with banners is all afloat,
And the streets of my city rock like a boat
With the tramp of her men come home?

I shall crouch by the door till the bolt is down,

And then go in to my dead.
Where my husband fell I will put a stone,
And mother a child instead of my own,
And stand and laugh on my bare hearth-stone
When the King rides by, she said.
Edith Wharton
Paris, August 27th, 1915

P. A. J. DAGNAN-BOUVERET
 BRITTANY WOMAN
FROM A DRAWING IN COLOURED CRAYONS
MARGARET L. WOODS
FINISTERRE
O that on some forsaken strand,
Lone ending of a lonely land,
On such an eve we two were lying,
To hear the quiet water sighing
And feel the coolness of the sand.

A red and broken moon would grow

Out of the dusk and even so
As here to-night the street she faces,
Between the half-distinguished spaces
Of sea and sky would burn and go.

The moon would go and overhead,

Like tapers lighted o’er the dead,
Star after silver star would glimmer,
The lonely night grow calmer, dimmer,
The quiet sea sink in its bed.

We, at the end of Time and Fate,

Might unconcerned with love or hate
As the sea’s voices, talk together,
Wherefore we went apart and whither,
And all the exiled years relate.

Thus were life’s grey chance-’ravelled sleave’

Outspread, we something might perceive
Which never would to chance surrender,
But through the tangled woof its slender
Golden, elusive pattern weave.

Then while the great stars larger shone

Leaned on the sea, and drew thereon
Faint paths of light, across them faring
Might steal the ship that comes for bearing
Sore-wounded souls to Avalon.
Margaret L. Woods
W. B. YEATS
 A REASON FOR KEEPING SILENT

I think it better that at times like these

We poets keep our mouths shut, for in truth
We have no gift to set a statesman right;
He’s had enough of meddling who can please
A young girl in the indolence of her youth
Or an old man upon a winter’s night.
W. B. Yeats

JACQUES-ÉMILE BLANCHE
PORTRAIT OF IGOR STRAVINSKY
FROM A STUDY IN OILS

MUSICAL SCORE
IGOR STRAVINSKY
SOUVENIR D’UNE MARCHE BOCHE
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