Lecture 6

Translation shifts and transformations.

1. The translation shift approach.

1.1 Vinay and Darbelnet's model.
1.2 Catford and translation shifts.
1.3 Czech writing on translation shifts.
1.4 Van Leuven-Zwart's comparative-descriptive model of translation shifts.
2. Selivanova’s translation transformations.
 References:

1. Селіванова О.О. Проблема диференціації перекладацьких трансформацій // Нова

філологія. – 2012. – № 50. – С. 201–208.
2. Munday J. Introducing Translation Studies. Theories and Applications / J. Munday. – London
and New York: Routledge, 2008. – 236 p.
 1. The translation shift approach.
1.1. Vinay and Darbelnet’s model.

The two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet (2000) are direct translation
and oblique translation, which correspond to the 'literal vs. free' division. The two strategies comprise
seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three, and oblique translation – next four.
1. Borrowing.
2. Calque.
3. Literal translation.
4. Transposition.
5. Modulation.
6. Equivalence.
7. Adaptation.
1. Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. This grouping covers words to fill a
semantic gap in the TL. Sometimes borrowings are employed to add local colour. E.g. champagne, chic,
інфлюенсер, стендапер.
2. Calque: This is a special kind of borrowing where the SL expression or structure is transferred in a
literal translation. E.g., voice mail – голосова пошта, memory card – карта пам’яті.
3. Literal translation: This is ‘word-for-word’ translation, which is most common between languages of the
same family and culture. I left my spectacles on the table downstairs. Я залишила свої окуляри на столі
внизу. Logistics can increase the efficiency of individual models of transport and their combinations.
Логістика може підвищити ефективність окремих моделей транспорту та їх комбінацій. However,
literal translation may be unacceptable: You are right to begin with. – Ви маєте рацію, щоб почати з. –
Почнемо з того/припустимо, що ви маєте рацію/що ви праві.
4. Transposition: This is a change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense. Transposition
can be: obligatory or optional. It is the most common structural change undertaken by translators.
5. Modulation: This changes the semantics and point of view of the SL. It can be: obligatory and
optional. Modulation is a procedure that is justified when although a literal translation or even
transposition result in a grammatically correct utterance, it is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or
awkward in the TL.
6. Equivalence: Vinay and Darbelnet use this term to refer to cases where languages describe the same
situation by different stylistic or structural means. Equivalence is particularly useful in translating
idioms and proverbs. The use of equivalence in this restricted sense should not be confused with the
more common theoretical use of this term.
7. Adaptation: This involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the source culture does
not exist in the target culture. For example, Vinay and Darbelnet suggest that the cultural annotation of a
reference in an English text to the game of cricket might be best translated into French by a reference to
the Tour de France.
1) obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the
two language systems;
2) non-obligatory changes that are due to the translator’s own style and
preferences.
A translator’s 5 steps:

1. Identify the units of translation.

2. Examine the SL text, evaluating the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of the units.
3. Reconstruct the metalinguistic context of the message.
4. Evaluate the stylistic effects.
5. Produce and revise the TT.

The unit of translation is a combination of a ‘lexicological unit’ and a ‘unit of thought’ which is the smallest
segment of the utterance whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated
individually.
1.2. Catford and translation shifts.
Levels (e.g. phonology, graphology, grammar, lexis) and ranks (sentence, clause, group, word, morpheme,
etc.).
Formal correspondence and textual equivalence:

1) A formal correspondent is 'any TL category (unit, class, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to
occupy, as nearly as possible, the "same" place in the "economy" of the TL as the given SL category
occupies in the SL.

2) A textual equivalent is any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a particular occasion to be the
equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text.
 Catford considers two kinds of shift: (1) shift of level and (2) shift of category:
1. A level shift would be something which is expressed by grammar in one language and lexis in another.
2. Category shifts. These are subdivided into four kinds:
(a) Structural shifts: The most common form of shift which involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. For example,
the subject pronoun + verb + direct object structures of I like jazz are translated by an indirect object pronoun + verb +
subject noun structure in Ukrainian (Мені подобається джаз).
(b) Class shifts: These comprise shifts from one part of speech to another. An example given by Catford is the English a
medical student and the Ukrainian студент-медик, where the English premodifying adjective medical is translated
by the noun phrase.
(c) Unit shifts or rank shifts: These are shifts where the translation equivalent in the TL is at a different rank to the SL.
'Rank' here refers to the hierarchical linguistic units of sentence, clause, group, word and morpheme.
(d) Intra-system shifts: These are shifts that take place when the SL and TL possess approximately corresponding systems
but where the translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system. Examples given between
English and Ukrainian is number, where, although similar systems operate in the two languages, they do not always
correspond. Thus, advice (uncountable) in English becomes порада (countable) in Ukrainian.
1.3. Czech writing on translation shifts.

Jiři Levy's work on literary translation ‘Uměni překladu’ (1963).

1. The translation of the surface structure of the ST and TT with particular attention to poetry
translation.
2. Literary translation is both a reproductive and a creative labour with the goal of equivalent
aesthetic effect.
3. Categorization of features of texts where equivalence may need to be achieved. These are:
denotative meaning, connotation, stylistic arrangement, syntax, sound repetition (rhythm, etc.),
vowel length and articulation. Their importance in a translation depends on the type of text.
4. “The translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum of
effect with a minimum of effort. That is to say, he intuitively resolves for the so-called
MINIMAX STRATEGY”.
František Miko focuses on 'shifts of expression' or style in translation. Preserving the expressive
character or style of the ST is the main goal of the translator. He suggests an analysis of style
under categories such as operativity, iconicity, subjectivity, affectation, prominence and contrast.

Anton Popovič emphasizes the importance of the shift of expression concept. Shift analysis can
be seen as a way of influencing the system of norms which govern the translation process.
Popovič, in terms very similar to Levy’s, relates shifts to the 'literal vs free' debate, considering
them to arise from the tension between the original text and the translation ideal, and to be the
result of the translator's conscious efforts faithfully to reproduce the aesthetic totality of the
original. He also defines 'adequacy of translation' as synonymous with both 'faithfulness to the
original' and 'stylistic equivalence in translation'.
1.4 Van Leuven-Zwart's comparative-descriptive model of translation
shifts.
The model is 'intended for the description of integral translations of fictional texts' and comprises
(1) a comparative model and (2) a descriptive model.
1) The comparative model involves a detailed comparison of ST and TT and a classification of all
the microstructural shifts (within sentences, clauses and phrases).
The three main categories of shifts are modulation (using a phrase that is different in the source
and target languages to convey the same idea), modification (a lack of correspondence
semantically, stylistically, syntactically, pragmatically, or some other combination of these) and
mutation (addition, deletion or some radical change in meaning).
Two microshifts: syntactic-semantic modification (e.g. the noun becomes the pronoun);
syntactic-pragmatic modification (by selecting certain syntactic structure a translator provides
more pragmatic information to the reader).
2). The descriptive model is a macrostructural model, designed for the analysis of translated
literature. It is based on concepts borrowed from narratology and stylistics. It attempts to combine
the concepts of ‘discourse level’ (the linguistic expression of the fictional world) and ‘story level’
(the narration of the text, including narrational point of view) with three linguistic ‘metafunctions’
(interpersonal, ideational and textual).
2. O. Selivanova’s transformation theory.

1. Functional-communicative equivalence is the most optimal balance of semantics and form,

denotative, connotative, stylistic, cultural and pragmatic information of the source and target
texts.
2. A translation, no matter how adequate it may be, is always a transformation in the broadest
sense of the term. In a narrow sense, translation transformation is a transformation, modification
of form, or content and form in the target text in order to achieve a balance of different types of
information and a pragmatic impact on the addressee compared to the original text.
3. Systemic transformations and functional transformations.
4. The triad of linguistic semiosis proposed by Ch. Morris: semantics, syntax and pragmatics.
5. Translation transformations: formal, formal and semantic and formal and semantic
transformations with a pragmatic component.
Formal transformations involve a change of form in the translation, provided the content of the original is
preserved.
At the phonetic level, these include, first of all, phonographic transformations:
1) transcription;
2) transliteration;
3) phonographic replacement according to tradition (for example, Charles – Карл);
4) their combination (for example, Weaver, Вівер).
At the word-building level formal transformations are represented by:
1) word-building calque,
2) inversion of word components. The lexical level of form changes in the translation is primarily represented by the
equivalents of another language with the same semantic content.

At the morphological level, formal transformations are represented by:

1) categorial substitution with preservation of the meaning of linguistic units,
2) substitution of the parts of speech,
3) substitution of morphological means by lexical ones with the same meaning,
4) the elimination or appearance in the translation of the phenomenon of transposition of number, time.

At the syntactic level, formal transformations are represented by replacing a word combination with a word and vice
versa, syntactic connections in phrases and sentences, anaphoric and elliptical substitutions, combining and splitting
sentences without changing the meaning.
Formal and semantic transformations on the contrary, involve a change of form and modification of content.
At the phonetic level, such transformations are represented mostly in poetic texts by a change in the rhythmic-melodic
structure of the poem, which leads to a modification of the conceptual plan of the text.

At the lexical level, this type of transformations has two plains in which the content of linguistic units is represented:
denotative and connotative. The denotative level, e.g.: I have arrived. Я прийшла. The semes: 1) the speaker; 2)
female gender; 3) arrival; 4) on foot; 5) previous; 6) relevant now; 7) completed. The English construction chooses
features 1, 3, 5, 6, the Ukrainian one - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7. At the connotative level transformations are divided into
evaluative and emotional, expressive, and functional and stylistic (change of style).
At the morphological level, formal and semantic transformations are categorial substitutions with a change in
meaning.
At the syntactic level formal and semantic transformations are represented by the substitution of a word for a word
combination and vice versa, one type of sentence for another, omission or addition of the elements in the sentence.
Formal and semantic transformations with a pragmatic component involve changing the form and content
of units in the text, text fragments in order to balance the pragmatic impact of the translation on its reader.
The basis for the development of this type of transformations is the concept of dynamic equivalence of the
American translation scholar E. Nida.
These pragmatic transformations can be figurative (change or omission of a stylistic figure/device),
phraseological (change or omission of a phraseological unit), conceptual (substitution of ST realia for TT
realia), axiological (change of values), megatextual (the use of commentaries and footnotes to balance the
pragmatic influence).
 Assignment for Practical class 6.

1. Discuss the lecture.

2. Read Селіванова О.О. Проблема диференціації перекладацьких трансформацій // Нова
філологія. – 2012. – № 50. – С. 201–208.
3. Read pp. 55-71 in Munday J. Introducing Translation Studies. Theories and Applications / J. Munday. –
London and New York: Routledge, 2008. – 236 p.