Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

DOI 10.1007/s12665-010-0452-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Source and distribution of trace metals and nutrients

in Narmada and Tapti river basins, India
Sanjay Kumar Sharma • V. Subramanian

Received: 27 March 2009 / Accepted: 5 January 2010 / Published online: 4 February 2010
Ó Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract The study was designed to establish the distri- catchments originating from natural sources and processes
butions of trace metals, dissolved organic carbon, and as chemical weathering, soil erosion, fallout of aerosols
inorganic nutrients as well as to assess the extent of from marine, volcanic or arid soils sources (Gaillardet et al.
anthropogenic inputs into the Narmada and Tapti rivers. 2003). However, the level of these metals in the environ-
Water and sediment qualities are variable in the rivers, and ment has increased tremendously as a result of human
there are major pollution problems at certain locations, inputs and activities (Merian 1991). For some metals,
mainly associated with urban and industrial centers. The natural and anthropogenic inputs are of the same order (for
metal concentrations of samples of the aquatic compart- example Hg and Cd), whereas for others (for example Pb)
ments investigated were close to the maximum permissible inputs due to human activities dwarf natural inputs (Clark
concentration for the survival of aquatic life, except for 2001). Heavy metals discharged into a river system by
higher values of Cu (5–763 lg l-1), Pb (24–376 lg l-1), natural or anthropogenic sources during their transport are
Zn (24–730 lg l-1), and Cr (70–740 lg l-1) and for distributed between the aqueous phase and sediments.
drinking water except for elevated concentrations of metals Heavy metals are of high ecological significance since they
such as Pb, Fe (850–2,060 lg l-1), Cr, and Ni (20–120 are not removed from water as a result of self purification,
lg l-1). In general, the concentrations of trace metals in the but accumulate in reservoirs and enter the food chain
rivers vary down stream which may affect the ‘‘health’’ of (Loska and Wiechula 2003). The suspended and bed sed-
the aquatic ecosystem and may also affect the health of the iments of a river buffer higher metal concentrations of the
rural community that depends on the untreated river water water, particularly by adsorption and precipitation (Forstner
directly for domestic use. The assessment of EF, Igeo, and and Muller 1973). Changing environmental conditions
PLI in the sediments reveals overall moderate pollution in such as pH, redox potential or the presence of organic
the river basins. chelators in the system may render the remobilization of
metals from sediments (Calmano et al. 1993). Thus, sedi-
Keywords Trace metals  Nutrients  ment quality is a widely utilized method of environmental
Water and sediments  Narmada and Tapti rivers assessment. Natural sediment formed during weathering
processes might be modified markedly during transporta-
tion and deposition by chemicals of anthropogenic origin.
Introduction Apparently, higher the metal concentrations in the sedi-
ments, greater the quantity of metals that could be desorbed
Trace metals have been referred to as common pollutants, from the sediments into the water phase by physiochemical
which are widely distributed in the pristine river processes (Surija and Branica 1995). River sediments are
also a major sink as well as source of nutrients. Suspended
sediments play an important role in the transport of nutri-
S. K. Sharma (&)  V. Subramanian
ents and contaminants, in water–sediment interactions
School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi 110067, India influencing the river water quality and as non-point source
e-mail: sanju.jnu@gmail.com pollutants (Martin and Meybeck 1979).

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1338 Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

Trace metals are important in aquatic systems because Narmada (1,312 km) is the fifth largest river in India and
of their demonstrated effects as both essential at low levels largest west flowing river of Indian peninsula originating
and toxic agents at higher levels for biota. Thus, the from Maikal ranges in the Shahdol district of Madhya
presence of these metals in the aquatic ecosystem has far- Pradesh at Amarkantak at an elevation of 900 m. The river
reaching implications directly to the biota and the food basin extends over an area of 89,000 km2 (Alagarsamy and
chain. Obviously, the chemical status of the river would Zhang 2005) and lies between latitudes 21°700 N and
have its influence on the receiving land, which might 23°450 N and between longitudes 73°350 E and 81°510 E with
possibly reflect on the plant cultivated on such land. On the a mean elevation of 760 m and crosses the state, passing
other hand, aquatic organisms may bioaccumulate and swiftly through a narrow valley between the Vindhyan
bioconcentrate environmental contaminants to more than Range and spurs of the Satpura Range. Lying in the
1,000,000 times the concentrations detected in the water northern extremity of the Deccan Plateau, the basin covers
column (USEPA 1995a, b). Elements like Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, a large area in the state of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat and
and Co, which are required for normal biochemical func- a comparatively smaller area in Maharashtra. The area
tions, could become toxic when present in anomalous belongs to the Humid Tropical Zone and physiographically
concentrations and, according to Bowen (1966), may result it is divided into hilly and plain regions and dominated by
in poisoning of enzyme. Interest in metals like Zn and Cu, black cotton soils. The normal annual rainfall for the basin
which are required for metabolic activity in organisms, lies works out to 1,250 mm. Nearly 90% of this is received
in the narrow ‘‘window’’ between their essentiality and during southwest monsoon period (June–September), out
toxicity, but others like Cd and Pb exhibit extreme toxicity of which about 60% is received in the month of July and
even at trace levels (Iwashita and Shimamura 2003). The August.
metal contribution from Indian rivers, which carry 20% of The shorter Tapti (724 km) follows a generally parallel
the global supply of sediments to the oceans, has not been course to the south of the Narmada, flowing through the
properly assessed (Ramanathan et al. 1988). The metal states of Maharashtra and Gujarat on its way into the Gulf
concentrations in estuarine sediment on the West and East of Cambay. The river originates near Multai in the Betul
Coast of India have been briefly reported by Borole et al. district of Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m. The
(1982) and Subramanian et al. (1988). river basin extends over an area of about 61,145 km2
Data on nutrients such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), (Alagarsamy and Zhang 2005) and lies between latitudes
phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and silica (Si) in sediments and 21°330 N and 22°010 N and between longitudes 74°300 E and
water are rather limited in Indian rivers (Subramanian et al. 78°210 E in the northern extremity of the Deccan Plateau,
2006). The nature and flux of organic C and P in Indian like the Narmada basin. The catchment area is distributed
rivers has been studied by few authors (Gupta et al. 1997; in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and a
Ramesh et al. 1995). Study of major ions in the waters of comparatively smaller area in Gujarat. The average annual
Narmada and Tapti rivers has already been reported rainfall is 830 mm out of which 90% falls during the
(Sharma and Subramanian 2008), and limited data exist on southwest monsoon period.
trace metal pollution in sediments of the Narmada river Both these rivers are perennial; however, most of their
basin (Jain et al. 2008). The objective of this study, annual discharge occurs during the southwest monsoon.
therefore, was to establish the nature of distribution of With annual discharges of 47.3 9 109 and 18.9 9 109 m3,
dissolved trace metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn, and respectively (Alagarsamy and Zhang 2005), the entire
As) and nutrients such as dissolved organic carbon (DOC), region of the Narmada and Tapti river basins is subjected
dissolved inorganic nitrogen (NO3-), dissolved inorganic yearly (usually from June to September) to the monsoon,
phosphorus (PO43-), and dissolved silica (H4SiO4) high- characterized by heavy rains and the consequent transport
lighting the potential risk of their elevated concentrations of huge quantities of particles by surficial waters into the
on the aquatic organism and human beings. This paper also rivers.
examines the trace metal pollution and nutrients concen- The upper catchments are essentially pristine forest. The
tration in sediments and their distributions. middle catchments are dominated by pastoral farming and
have rural population. There are mining and mineral
industries discharging into the river systems in the upper
Materials and methods reaches. Marble and coal mining activities are going on
prevalently in the upper catchments of the Narmada river.
Description of the river catchments In the river mouth region, heavy industries like petro-
chemical industries are located. Practically, there are no
Narmada and Tapti rivers are the two important rivers of mining and mineral industries, except cotton and fabric
central India, flowing into the Arabian Sea (Fig. 1). industries located in the downstream of the Tapti river

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Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352 1339

Fig. 1 The Narmada and Tapti drainage basins and the locations of Guarighat; 6 Tilwaraghat (Jabalpur); 7 Hosangabad; 8 Jhaneshwar;
sampling stations. The field circles represent main-channel stations 9 Bharuch] [Tapti: 1 Betul; 2 Bhusawal; 3 Jalgaon; 4 Kojway; 5
[Narmada: 1 Amarkantak1; 2 Amarkantak2; 3 Mandla; 4 Bheraghat, 5 Gandhibagh (Surat)]

basin, whereas upstream and midstream regions are for- midstream regions, particularly in and around Jabalpur,
ested and agricultural. The downstream chemical compo- marble mining activities are prevalent.
sition of the river basins may also allow two constraints:
namely inputs from agriculture (fertilizers) and inputs from Geology
communal sources. The former is a function of total cul-
tivated area, whereas the latter depends on the population Narmada and Tapti rivers flow through similar geological
density. The total area under cultivation in the Narmada terrains. They initially flow through basaltic terrains of the
basin is about 44,990 km2, and the population density in Deccan Traps and then through alluvial deposits before
the basin area is 170 inhabitants/km2; out of this, in entering the Gulf of Cambay. Though these rivers pre-
Madhya Pradesh it is 149 inhabitants/km2, and it is dominantly drain Deccan basalts, parts of their basins are
203 inhabitants/km2, and 319 inhabitants/km2 in Maha- in the Indian Shield: Vindhyan carbonates, sediments, and
rashtra and Gujarat, respectively. In the Tapti basin, the alluvial deposits (Dessert et al. 2001). Further, these rivers
population density is 233 inhabitants/km2. The population flow through areas more prone to inputs from groundwater
densities in these rivers are significantly lower than the and geothermal water. A number of hydrothermal springs
Indian national population average of 324 persons/km2 have been reported along the Narmada–Tapti lineament
(CPCB 1994). In Amarkantak, the origination point of the (Minissale et al. 2000). Tectonic and flood processes con-
Narmada river, the population utilizing water increases stitute the most important controls on the channel mor-
seasonally during specific periods for religious functions in phology of the Narmada and Tapti rivers. Tapti flows
the river itself. Similarly, population increases temporarily initially through basaltic terrains of the Deccan Traps and
in the rivers mouth regions, i.e., Surat and Ankaleshwar. In then through alluvial deposits of unconsolidated fine sand,
Ankaleshwar, near Bharuch, the downstream region of the silts, and clay before opening via the Gulf of Cambay into
Narmada river, there are oil exploitation wells, and in the the Arabian Sea.

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1340 Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

The Deccan Traps are one of the largest continental molybdosilicate method and by the vial digestion method
flood basalt provinces formed during the Gondwanaland using a chemical oxygen demand reactor, respectively. Bed
break-up, located at the centre-west of the Indian penin- surficial sediment samples were collected with a plastic
sula. The basalts of the Narmada and Tapti basins are spade by scooping from the upper 3–5 cm of river bed
essentially of tholeiitic composition and contain pheno- representing contemporary deposits at a water depth of
crysts of altered olivine, plagioclase, clinopyroxene, opa- about 50 cm. Then the sediments were packed and sealed
que minerals, and altered glass (Vigier et al. 2005). Deccan in polyethylene bags and brought to the laboratory, where
lavas overlie a complex Archaean and Proterozoic base- they were dried at room temperature (25–30°C), properly
ment along the southern and southeastern periphery of the mixed and powdered and were kept in cold room at 4°C.
province. In the northern and northeastern parts of the For the suspended sediment, 1 l of running water was
province, i.e., central India, they overlie diverse geological collected in a plastic bucket at a depth of 50–100 cm from
formations: the Vindhyan sedimentary basin (mid–late the water surface and filtered though 0.45-lm membrane
Proterozoic), the Gondwana sedimentary basin (Carbonif- filter paper, and the samples were dried. The finally ground
erous–Jurassic, early Cretaceous), and Archaean and homogenized bed sediments and suspended sediments were
early Proterozoic crystalline rocks (granites, gneisses, and taken in the beaker and heated with 30% (v/v) H2O2 for
metasediments). In the central part, Vindhyan rocks and the removal of organic matter. The major and trace elements in
Deccan Traps are present in the north of the Narmada river, the sediments were determined by wavelength dispersive
and to the south, Archean rocks are exposed and overlain X-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF) Spectrometry and energy
by the Gondwana formations. dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) spectrometry,
respectively. The Canadian soil standards (SO-1, SO-2,
Sampling and chemical analysis SO-3, and SO-4) were analyzed as unknown samples for
major and trace elements, and the reproducibility was
The water and sediment samples were collected from the found in the range of 90–95%. Total nitrogen (TN) was
prefixed stations along the waterways of the Narmada and determined by Kjeldahl method. Carbon and Sulfur were
Tapti river basins. Two sampling events (monsoon and analyzed using ELTRA (CS-1000) Carbon–Sulfur ana-
post-monsoon) were conducted during the year 2004 in lyzer. Before analysis, sediment samples were made free of
order to examine the seasonal variability of trace metals halogens by washing with deionized water. The untreated
and nutrients in the Narmada–Tapti river waters. Total of samples were used for determining total carbon and sulfur.
nine and five sampling sites were established on Narmada For removing organic fraction, samples were treated with
and Tapti rivers, respectively. Sampling locations along the 30% (v/v) H2O2. The treated samples were used for
rivers are shown in Fig. 1. determining inorganic fraction of carbon and sulfur.
The water samples were collected in polypropylene Phosphorus in sediments was determined by the method of
bottles treated with 10% HNO3 and rinsed well with solution A (Shapiro 1975).
deionized water prior to use. Electrical conductivity (EC)
and pH were measured in situ by pH-electrode and con-
ductivity meter, respectively, during the sampling. The Results and discussion
water samples were filtered in situ through 0.45-lm
Millipore membrane filter paper. About 100 ml of filtered Dissolved trace metals and nutrients in water
sample was acidified with HNO3 to a pH *2 to stabilize
the dissolved metals, and rest of the portion was kept The analytical results including dissolved trace metals and
unacidified. The samples were preserved at 4°C in the nutrient concentrations along the Narmada and Tapti river
laboratory for trace metal and nutrients analysis. The trace basins are presented in Table 1. The elemental concentra-
metal analysis was carried out using a Shimadzu AA-6800 tions in river waters are different during the two investi-
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer in graphite furnace mode. gation periods; the concentrations are higher during the
The Arsenic (As) was analyzed using Shimadzu AA-6800 post-monsoon season than in the monsoon season. The
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer coupled with hydride spatial distributions of dissolved trace metal concentrations
generator. The Merck standards were used for the cali- along the rivers are depicted in Fig. 2, which reflects their
bration for the elements analyzed, and the reproducibility inputs. In general, the concentrations of trace metals in
of the instrument was 90–95%. Parameters such as PO43- Narmada and Tapti rivers vary down stream from one place
and NO3- were determined in the unacidified fractions by to another according to the land-use nature. The concen-
ion chromatography. Dissolved silica (H4SiO4) and DOC tration of dissolved metals shows decreased values in the
were determined using a Cecil spectrophotometer (model monsoon season as compared to post-monsoon season,
no. 594) from the unacidified water samples by the which is perhaps due to the dilution effect of the rain fall

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Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352 1341

Table 1 Chemical composition of Narmada and Tapti river waters compared with water quality criteria for drinking water quality and protection
of aquatic life
Samplesa pH EC NO3- PO43- H4SiO4 DOC Cd Cu Pb Zn Fe Ni Cr Mn As

Narmada
1 Fa 6.7 125 3.02 0.11 6.40 33.88 3 130 380 180 1,980 110 220 170 5
b 6.8 240 3.18 0.01 8.91 11.76 3 150 320 180 2,030 120 190 190 7
2 Fa 7.1 89 2.15 0.23 7.42 3.47 1 40 50 140 970 90 190 190 6
b 6.9 150 3.04 0.02 11.93 7.21 2 50 70 170 1,240 110 240 220 6
3F ? A
a 7.7 178 1.82 0.38 11.14 4.66 1 60 60 90 950 30 150 60 5
b 8.0 160 1.72 0.12 12.91 6.66 1 60 60 110 1,120 50 160 50 6
4Ua 7.7 73 1.35 0.27 12.40 0.29 1 90 40 70 1,860 40 160 80 4
b 7.5 220 1.93 0.01 14.30 5.15 0 100 20 90 1,970 60 180 70 5
5Ua 7.8 142 0.18 0.12 12.40 3.76 1 30 50 70 1,410 30 160 40 4
b 7.8 200 0.70 0.11 15.28 4.50 1 30 30 80 1,680 60 740 100 6
U
6 a 7.8 136 0.52 BDL 11.88 5.16 2 40 50 60 1,220 30 170 30 4
b 7.4 220 0.88 BDL 12.67 6.56 1 80 70 730 1,930 50 190 90 8
7Ua 7.6 177 0.71 0.18 12.12 4.03 9 10 230 640 1,750 60 160 70 7
b 8.1 260 0.50 0.08 10.72 5.80 10 10 250 80 1,890 90 180 90 5
8Ua 8.1 109 0.49 0.27 12.21 1.71 9 760 30 30 1,270 30 70 40 4
b 8.2 340 0.57 0.19 10.81 8.62 14 580 40 50 1,530 50 100 40 6
U
9 a 8.1 216 11.52 0.40 14.21 0.03 1 70 30 30 1,540 30 90 70 4
b 7.8 390 1.34 0.30 10.30 8.18 1 90 20 100 1,730 50 90 70 4
Tapti
1 Fa 7.9 240 0.73 0.71 13.19 9.61 1 10 50 680 1,620 70 80 50 5
b 8.0 280 0.44 0.42 15.00 7.96 1 10 50 700 1,650 70 70 50 4
2Ua 8.1 430 2.29 0.47 20.00 5.66 1 10 50 30 1,330 40 180 50 5
b 9.1 660 1.68 0.21 30.00 11.22 0 10 40 20 850 20 180 40 4
3Ua 7.9 410 4.68 0.39 17.74 5.19 1 30 50 30 1,510 30 140 30 5
b 8.4 620 4.96 0.17 13.47 3.74 1 60 50 50 1,660 30 220 20 6
4Ua 8.1 490 0.17 0.40 14.12 5.30 1 740 60 390 1,790 50 120 10 5
b 7.8 430 1.32 0.00 13.33 9.81 2 740 70 390 2,020 100 180 20 6
5Ua 7.6 1,340 3.15 0.61 14.26 3.60 2 150 80 130 1,980 50 150 10 5
b 7.4 1,010 2.84 0.09 11.60 13.93 3 180 100 140 2,060 80 290 40 6
LLD 1 1 4 2 2 2 1 4 4
Water quality criteria (drinking water quality)
Indiab 10 1,500 50 5,000 1,000 NA 50 300 50
c
WHO 3 2,000 10 3,000 300 20 50 400 10
USAd 5 1,300 15 2,000 300 100 100 NA 10
Water quality criteria (protection of aquatic life)
USAe 5 4 14 36 NA 145 16 NA 340
-1 -1
All values are in mg/L, except trace metals (lg l ), pH, and EC (lS cm )
F forest, A agriculture, U urban, LLD lower limits of detection, BDL below detection limit
a
Seasons (a, monsoon; b, post-monsoon)
b
BIS (2003)
c
WHO (2003)
d
USEPA (2000)
e
USEPA (2001a)

and consequent increased flow of water in the basins. Thus, flow of water. The elevated concentrations of dissolved
it is evident from the above discussion that the concen- metals at some stations mainly the downstream sampling
tration of trace metals in water is also influenced by the points (6, 7, and 8 in Narmada river; 4 and 5 in Tapti river),

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1342 Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

Fig. 2 Distribution of dissolved 10.0 0.010

trace metal concentrations for 8.0 0.008

As (mg/L)
monsoon (a) and post-monsoon 0.006
6.0

pH
(b) seasons along the Narmada
4.0 0.004
and Tapti river basins
2.0 0.002
0.0 0.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.80 2.50
2.00

Zn (mg/L)
0.60

Fe (mg/L)
1.50
0.40
1.00
0.20
0.50
0.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.40 0.25
0.20

Mn (mg/L)
0.30
Pb (mg/L)

0.15
0.20
0.10
0.10 0.05
0.00 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.80 0.80
0.70
0.60 0.60

Cr (mg/L)
Cu (mg/L)

0.50
0.40 0.40
0.30
0.20 0.20
0.10
0.00 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.015 0.15
0.012 a (Narmada)
Cd (mg/L)

Ni (mg/L)

b (Narmada) 0.10
0.009 a (Tapti)
0.006 b (Tapti)
0.05
0.003
0.000 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sampling locations

except for Fe, Mn, Ni, Cr, Pb, Zn, and As which show 2003; WHO 2003; USEPA 2000), except for elevated Pb,
higher values in the upper reaches also (Table 1; Fig. 2), Fe, and Cr concentrations. Ni concentration is higher than
could be attributed to the increased urbanization, industri- the permissible drinking water standard of WHO (2003).
alization, and agricultural activities in the downstream The dissolved concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cr exceed
regions. the guidelines values for protection of aquatic life (USEPA
The decrease of metal concentrations with increase in 2001a).
pH may result from an increased adsorption when pH Under natural conditions, the dissolved phosphate
increases according to the surface complexation theory (PO43-) concentration should not exceed 0.5 mg l-1, as
(Schindler and Stumm 1987) or simply based on ion sol- the solubility of phosphate mineral is limiting (Subrama-
ubility. Metal concentrations in the two river basins are nian 1984). The average PO43- concentrations are 0.2 and
generally low with pH more than 7.5, with few exceptions, 0.3 mg l-1, respectively, in Narmada and Tapti rivers,
probably limited by precipitation of the respective metal exceeding the Indian average of 0.12 mg l-1 (Subramanian
oxides. Generally, low DOC at the time of sampling 1984). The high concentration of PO43- at sites 1 and 5 in
reflects the low contribution of organic complexation and Tapti river, especially in the monsoon season, is attributed
colloidal phases to trace metal transport. In general, metal to addition from anthropogenic sources, such as domestic
concentrations of water samples are below or close to the sewage, detergent, industrial and agricultural effluents, and
maximum permitted concentration for drinking water (BIS excessive soil phosphorus runoff. At levels higher than

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Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352 1343

0.005 mg l-1, there is excessive plant growth (Sawyer the same holds true in the case of Na2O and K2O. In
et al. 1994). The NO3- concentrations vary from 0.18 to Narmada river, the strong positive correlation of Na2O and
11.52 mg l-1 in Narmada river and from 0.17 to K2O with SiO2 (r = 0.68; p = 0.05 and r = 0.51;
4.96 mg l-1 in Tapti river with average values of 2.0 and p = 0.09, respectively), and with Al2O3 (r = 0.57;
2.2 mg l-1, respectively, which are far below the standard p = 0.08 and r = 0.84; p = 0.01, respectively) suggest
drinking water quality guideline (45 mg l-1) suggested by silicate as the common source rock. In general, sediments
BIS and World Health Organization (WHO). Compara- having lower silica contents show higher values of CaO.
tively high concentration of NO3- at some of the sampling There is also considerable negative correlation of CaO and
points in these rivers can be attributed to anthropogenic MgO with silica (r = -0.62; p = 0.08 and r = -0.31;
activities, the likely sources being NPK fertilizers, sewage, p = 0.27, respectively) and of CaO with Al2O3 (r =
and industrial wastes which undergo biological oxidation -0.53; p = 0.11), but MgO shows poor correlation with
in the water. The NO3- concentrations are typically low Al2O3 (r = 0.10; p = 0.43). The same trend is observed in
and less than 10 mg l-1, which is the maximum contami- the river Tapti, where Na2O and K2O are strongly corre-
nant level in public drinking water supply (USEPA 1976). lated with SiO2 (r = 0.98; p = 0.00 and r = 0.90;
The concentrations of DOC and H4SiO4 generally show p = 0.01, respectively) and also with Al2O3 (r = 0.51;
increased values in post-monsoon season. Generally low p = 0.16 and r = 0.56; p = 0.15, respectively). CaO and
DOC values (\5 mg l-1) indicate a small contribution of MgO show negative correlation with silica (r = -0.94;
vegetation to water chemistry. The average DOC concen- p = 0.02 and r = -0.67; p = 0.07, respectively) and with
trations are 6.75 and 7.60 mg l-1 in the Narmada and Tapti Al2O3 (r = -0.44; p = 0.19 and r = -0.67; p = 0.07,
rivers, respectively, which are higher than the world respectively). Although at 95% confidence level, in
average of 4.2 mg l-1 estimated by Meybeck et al. (1996) Narmada river, Na2O and K2O show significant correlation
and significantly lower than measured values in humid with SiO2 and Al2O3, respectively, whereas Na2O, K2O,
tropical rivers such as Mekong (10–20 mg l-1) (Viers et al. and CaO show significant correlation with SiO2 in Tapti
1997) and 10.5 mg l-1 in Congo (Seyler et al. 1995). river. If 80% confidence level is considered, correlation is
Further, the average DOC concentrations in the Narmada significant in most of the cases except, MgO with SiO2 and
and Tapti river basins exceed the DOC (2.7 mg l-1) in Rio Al2O3 in Narmada river. Thus, considering the above-
Branco (clear water) and nearly correspond to the DOC mentioned facts and figures, it can be inferred that
concentrations (7.7–8.6 mg l-1) in Rio Solimoes (white carbonate also acts as a contributing source rock for the
water) but are well below the mean value (11.4 mg l-1) chemical composition of the Narmada and Tapti river
reported in the Negro basin (black water) (Kuchler et al. basins. The strong correlation observed for SiO2, Al2O3,
2000). These rivers are, therefore, non-organic in nature. Na2O, and K2O in the sediments suggest a similar mobility
The dissolved silica (H4SiO4) concentrations range from and probable transport in aluminosilicate phases.
6.4 to 16.3 mg l-1 with an average of 11.6 mg l-1 in The peninsular region is characterized by the basaltic
Narmada river and from 11.6 to 30.0 mg l-1 with an Deccan Traps in the central part and hard rocks in the
average of 16.3 mg l-1 in Tapti river, which are higher southern part. However, even in watersheds characterized
than the Indian average, i.e., 7 mg l-1 (Subramanian et al. by the predominance of silicate rocks, it was found that
1987) and the global average concentration, i.e., carbonate rocks present in veins and thin layers determine
10.8 mg l-1 (Meybeck et al. 1996). The high concentration the basin chemistry (Quade et al. 2003). This is due to the
of dissolved silica in the river basins reflects the contri- fact that the rate of carbonate weathering dominates that of
bution of weathering of silicate rocks that underlie the silicate weathering in a river basin (Gaillardet et al. 1999).
basins and soil erosion. This has been reported by Sharma and Subramanian (2008)
which conclude that the chemical composition of Narmada
Distribution of metals, C, N, S, and P in suspended river is more controlled by the carbonate lithology of the
and bed sediments basin, which is present as intrusive complexes and dykes,
along the minor rift zones in the Deccan Volcanic Province
The suspended and bed sediments have also been investi- with neighbouring carbonate–alkaline complexes.
gated in addition to water samples. The distribution of The degree of weathering can be quantified by chemical
metals and nutrients (C, N, S, and P) in their different index of alteration (CIA) as defined by Nesbitt and Young
chemical forms and in suspended and bed sediments of (1982). The CIA values for average shales range from 70 to
Narmada and Tapti rivers is given in Tables 2 and 3, 75 which reflect the composition of muscovite, illites, and
respectively. smectite minerals. In case of intensively weathered rock,
The SiO2 and Al2O3 contents in the Narmada and Tapti CIA approaches 100. In Narmada river, this value varies
rivers show almost homogenous variation downstream, and from 58.1 to 70.3 with an average of 62.9, whereas it

123
 Table 2 Chemical composition of bed and suspended sediments of Narmada and Tapti rivers compared with averages of Indian, World, Shale standard, Continental crust, and those measured
1344

in this study as local geochemical background

Narmada Tapti Indian World Shale Continental Geochemical LLD

123
averagea averageb Averagec crustd background
Bed sediments Suspended Bed sediments Suspended averagee
sediment sediment
? A
1F 3F 4U 7U 8U 9U Average 8f 1F 2U 3U 4U 5U Average 5f

Oxides (%)
SiO2 59.60 56.90 54.01 59.20 57.34 49.95 56.17 55.86 52.90 49.70 48.75 56.77 49.90 51.45 50.70
Al2O3 14.20 13.50 13.00 13.95 13.20 13.60 13.58 13.40 14.30 14.00 13.02 17.40 16.40 15.22 16.20
Na2O 2.51 2.35 1.72 2.95 1.59 1.47 2.10 2.77 2.22 1.23 1.30 2.83 1.32 1.73 1.50
K2O 1.60 1.02 1.09 1.69 1.15 1.24 1.30 1.09 1.55 1.05 0.88 1.84 0.89 1.29 1.50
CaO 3.50 2.32 5.65 3.85 5.15 5.72 4.37 5.80 4.23 7.40 8.36 3.31 7.40 6.40 7.70
MgO 3.80 2.62 3.02 1.97 2.80 3.44 2.94 3.40 3.92 5.80 6.80 2.97 3.12 4.80 6.20
CIA 65.11 70.35 60.58 62.17 62.59 61.73 63.75 58.11 64.13 59.12 55.26 68.56 63.05 61.72 60.22
Elements (mg kg-1)
Al 75,176 71,471 68,824 73,853 69,882 72,000 71,868 70,941 75,706 74,118 68,929 92,118 86,824 80,576 85,765 50,000 94,000 80,000 82,300 76,810 8.70
Fe 56,700 119,700 81,550 80,010 105,700 93,800 89,577 93,100 96,600 110,600 91,770 71,400 92,400 91,128 84,000 29,983 48,000 47,200 35,000 49,300 1.40
Mn 775 2,866 930 1,085 852 775 1,214 3,099 2,401 1,317 1,162 620 1,162 1,498 2,324 605 1,050 850.0 600.0 821 1.50
Ti 8,400 14,040 12,840 15,000 7,260 13,800 11,890 10,800 17,400 12,120 10,560 14,400 17,400 15,180 19,200 3,450 5,600 4,600 3,000 5,530 1.60
As 1.0 2.1 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.6 2.0 1.1 1.4 2.0 2.0 1.3 1.7 2.2 NA 5 13.0 1.5 1.7 0.25
Cd 1.2 0.9 1.1 1.8 1.0 0.5 1.1 2.0 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.7 NA 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.28
Cr 182.0 189.4 207.0 236.5 179.4 201.6 199.3 229.3 178.3 321.0 236.2 143.7 141.0 212.6 255.2 87 100 90.0 85.0 103.8 0.78
Cu 203.9 158.7 100.0 269.5 212.6 188.2 188.8 275.9 373.2 396.5 339.6 319.7 250.0 326.2 278.3 28 100 45.0 25.0 97.3 0.65
Ni 129.3 145.2 164.0 283.6 269.6 210.0 200.3 312.4 199.2 182.0 280.7 81.4 174.0 205.5 315.5 37 90 68.0 44.0 85.9 1.15
Pb 11.4 15.7 13.7 15.8 14.3 12.5 13.9 16.4 17.8 27.3 18.9 18.5 14.5 25.0 52.8 11.2 150 20.0 17.0 9.5 1.00
Zn 117.5 174.2 100.0 270.5 259.2 255.9 196.2 268.6 169.3 336.0 215.8 138.4 160.0 216.7 280.7 16 350 95.0 71.0 105.0 0.55
Co 14.7 15.6 28.6 64.5 15.8 16.1 25.9 19.6 13.0 46.7 19.8 18.3 15.2 27.0 49.0 31 20 19.0 17.0 17.4 1.53
Mo 1.7 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.3 2.5 1.7 4.8 1.1 1.9 18.0 8.9 25.8 NA 3 2.6 1.5 1.5 0.16
Sr 100.0 617.0 216.5 138.5 907.0 1,310.0 548.2 1,779.7 176.8 509.0 2,696.1 1,842.9 368.0 1,056.3 745.2 217 150 170.0 350.0 121.0 0.24
Ba 363.5 629.0 268.4 512.5 593.2 1,938.9 717.6 1,943.2 3,170.2 246.0 2,222.9 2,220.4 474.1 1,526.2 823.3 368 600 580.0 550.0 332.0 0.63
V 75.1 59.2 614.3 726.4 86.5 917.6 413.2 985.5 69.6 85.2 1,023.8 1,030.3 89.7 418.9 215.0 216.6 170 130.0 107.0 67.7 0.80
Y BDL 65.5 BDL BDL 49.2 15.9 43.5 BDL BDL 79.2 BDL 197.6 72.0 142.6 221.5 NA 28 26.0 22.0 0.21
Zr 100.0 608.0 200.0 812.2 796.0 300.0 469.4 855.7 293.1 174.0 BDL BDL 201.0 246.6 318.2 NA NA 160.0 190.0 107.0 0.50
Th 2.5 2.2 4.3 2.0 2.5 3.6 2.8 3.6 2.7 BDL 3.0 4.1 3.2 3.7 5.3 9 14 12.0 10.7 1.0 0.70
U 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 BDL 0.6 1.4 1.1 1.2 2.1 5.9 3 2.7 2.8 1.0 0.60

LLD lower limits of detection, NA not available, BDL below detection limit, F forest, A agriculture, U urban
a
Subramanian et al. (1985)
b
Martin and Meybeck (1979)
c
Turekian and Wedepohl (1961), REE from Nance and Taylor (1976)
d
Taylor and McLennan (1985)
e
Present study
f
Suspended sediments
Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352
Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352 1345

Table 3 Nutrient (C, N, and P) concentrations in bed and suspended in the basin bed topography cause resuspension of the bed
sediments of Narmada and Tapti rivers (all parameters in mg/g, sediments. The Narmada river basin except the upper
except C/N ratio)
reaches is dammed with 30 large, controversial dams
TC IC OC TS IS OS TP TN C/N (some are under construction), which have major impacts
Narmada on hydrogeochemistry of the river. Dissolved organic
1 Fa 7.7 3.2 4.5 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.9 4.0 1.9 matter plays an important role in controlling the concen-
b 8.3 4.1 4.2 0.035 0.018 0.017 1.2 4.7 1.8
trations of inorganic micro-elements in river waters and
2 Fa 18.5 12.1 6.4 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.4 6.7 2.8
their non-conservative behavior during river water/sea water
mixing. Flocculation of the organic and inorganic dissolved
b 37.5 23.8 13.7 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.1 9.3 4.0
species begins as a result of chemical as well as electro-
3F ? A
a 10.9 8.4 2.5 0.033 0.000 0.033 0.7 5.3 2.1
static interactions when river water comes in contact of
b 20.3 9.0 11.3 0.031 0.000 0.031 0.5 6.7 3.0
sea water (Sholkovitz 1978). Flocculation of dissolved
4Ua 8.3 7.9 0.4 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.5 4.7 1.8
organic and inorganic matter is an important removal
b 12.4 7.7 4.7 0.008 0.000 0.008 0.9 5.3 2.3
mechanism for dissolved metals in the estuarine region.
5Ua 9.8 6.2 3.6 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.6 4.7 2.1
Thus, dissolved trace metal cations may be scavenged by
b 15.9 12.6 3.3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.5 6.7 2.4
U
the flocculating colloids, and the bulk of micro-elements
6 a 12.7 8.6 4.1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.3 4.2 3.0
are transferred into suspended state (Sholkovitz 1978).
b 14.5 13.0 1.5 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0 4.7 3.1
Hence, the little enhanced micro-elemental concentrations
7Ua 5.5 4.4 1.1 0.014 0.000 0.014 0.6 3.3 1.7
observed in the suspended sediments of Narmada and
b 8.5 5.9 2.6 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.2 4.7 1.8
Tapti rivers can be attributed to the flocculation processes
8Ua 9.7 7.4 2.3 0.013 0.000 0.013 0.6 4.7 2.1 throughout the mixing zone. In general, the concentration
b 13.9 11.8 2.1 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.0 6.0 2.3 of metals in bed sediments comes out to be lower than in
U
9 a 9.1 2.8 6.3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.4 4.7 1.9 suspended sediments which can also be attributed to the
b 8.4 6.0 2.4 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.7 4.0 2.1 prevention of sedimentation process by water current in
Average 13.0 8.6 4.4 0.007 0.001 0.006 0.7 5.3 2.5 the monsoon season. Further, within the dry period with
8aa 15.7 8.1 7.5 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.9 5.7 2.8 decreased flow rate in the river, a fraction of suspended
Tapti sediment in river water is partially incorporated into the
1 Fa 32.7 13.9 18.8 0.026 0.011 0.015 0.8 8.0 4.1 bed sediment. Most of the metal concentrations in
b 39.4 17.8 21.6 0.033 0.026 0.007 1.0 8.3 4.7 Narmada and Tapti river sediments exceed the respective
2Ua 16.5 12.0 4.5 0.015 0.000 0.015 0.7 3.3 5.0 geochemical background values (in shale standard and
b 18.5 13.0 5.5 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.6 4.0 4.6 continental crust) as well as Indian and world averages
3Ua 15.7 11.3 4.4 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.8 2.3 6.8 (Table 2; Fig. 3). The higher values of metals in these
b 16.8 10.7 6.1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.5 2.7 6.2 rivers may be attributed to geological source coupled with
4Ua 20.1 12.8 7.3 0.075 0.000 0.075 0.7 4.7 4.3 anthropogenic inputs from the catchments. It can be
b 25.4 19.4 6.0 0.012 0.000 0.012 1.0 5.1 5.0 noticed from Fig. 3 that the sediments in the municipal
5Ua 30.3 18.4 11.9 0.010 0.009 0.001 0.9 5.3 5.7 areas (sampling stations: 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9 in Narmada
b 34.6 16.2 18.4 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.1 6.7 5.2 river basin and 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Tapti river basin) have
Average 25.9 15.8 10.1 0.020 0.007 0.013 0.9 5.2 5.2 considerably higher concentrations for most of the metals.
5aa 35.1 28.8 6.3 0.054 0.034 0.020 1.1 6.9 5.1 This characterizes the sediments as polluted due to
proximity to industrial sites and municipal sewage dis-
TC total carbon, IC inorganic carbon, OC organic carbon, TS total
sulfur, IS inorganic sulfur, OS organic sulfur, TP total phosphorus, posal points.
TN total nitrogen The spatiotemporal distributions of total C, N, P, and S
a
Suspended sediments in Narmada and Tapti river sediments are shown in Fig. 4.
Nutrient enrichment variations were found in sediments at
different locations. The TN concentration is quite high and
ranges from 55.3 to 68.6 with an average of 61.7 in Tapti varies within a narrow range from 3.3 to 9.3 mg g-1 with
river. These values, therefore, indicate moderate weath- an average of 5.3 mg g-1 and from 2.3 to 8.3 mg g-1 with
ering taking place in these basins. an average of 5.2 mg g-1, respectively, in the two major
The spatial distribution of metals and nutrients can channels, Narmada and Tapti, respectively. The variation
reveal the existence of natural anomalies and the pres- in the TC (total carbon) content in the two basins is quite
ence of pollution sources in the river basin. The Indian significant. It varies between 5.5 and 37.5 mg g-1
sub-continent has high rates of chemical weathering (mean = 13.0 mg g-1) and between 15.7 and 39.4 mg g-1
(Subramanian 1979). Man-made dams and abrupt changes (mean = 25.9 mg g-1) in the two basins, respectively. In

123
1346 Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

Fig. 3 Total heavy metal

concentrations in the bed and
suspended sediments (asterisk)
of Narmada and Tapti rivers

general, inorganic carbon (IC) exceeds organic carbon in these rivers are comparable to those reported by
(OC) content indicating inorganic fertilizers applied in the Subramanian (2008).
agricultural lands and is washed in the river and remained
unadsorbed unto the sediments as a source. The S was Metal pollution assessment
detected quite low or nil in the river sediments. TC and TN
are strongly correlated in bed sediments of these river It is of primary importance to establish the natural level of
basins, which reflect that the concentration of TN may be metals in order to determine the extent of pollution in a
regulated similar to TP by inorganic sources like fertilizers river basin by metal load in sediments. A comparison of the
used extensively in the agricultural areas of the catchments. ratio of the element concentration in particular sediment
The C/N ratio in the Narmada and Tapti river basins ranges with relative concentration in the crust might indicate
from 1.7 to 4.0 and from 4.1 to 6.8 with an average of 2.5 sources of the trace elements (Heit et al. 1980). To
and 5.2, respectively. The TC, TN, and C/N ratio values understand the possible sources, sediment elemental

123
Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352 1347

Fig. 4 Total C, N, P, and S in 10.0

bed and suspended sediments 9.0
(asterisk) in monsoon (a) and 8.0
post-monsoon (b) seasons 7.0

TN (mg/g)
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 5* 6 7 8 9 8*

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
TP (mg/g)

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 5* 6 7 8 9 8*

0.060

0.050

0.040
TS (mg/g)

0.030

0.020

0.010

0.000
1 2 3 4 5 5* 6 7 8 9 8*

50
a (Narmada)
40 b (Narmada)
TC (mg/g)

30 a (Tapti)
b (Tapti)
20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 5* 6 7 8 9 8*
Sampling locations

enrichment factors (SEF) were calculated according to the corresponding elements to quantify the degree of pollution
following equation (Kemp and Thomas 1976): (Feely et al. 1981). The normalization of trace metals by
Cz Cb
conservative elements may reveal the imbalances due to
Alz  Al elevated trace metal concentrations generally attributed to
SEF ¼ Cb
b

Alb anthropogenic activities. An EF = 1 assumes a crustal

source, whereas an EF \ 1 implies natural elemental
where Cz is the concentration of element in sample, Cb is depletion. When EF [ 1, external influences are assumed
the background concentration of the element, Alz is the to be significant. The average EF for metals exceeds 1
concentration of Al in sample, and Alb background con- except, Pb, As, Co, and Mo in Narmada river and except
centration of Al. Mn, As, Cd, Pb, and Co in Tapti river (Table 4). The
Aluminum with a high crustal abundance is used to highest average EF is found for Cu with values of 2.07 and
normalize the data as it is assumed to have had a uniform 3.22 in Narmada and Tapti rivers, respectively. This
flux to the sediments during the past century, and the shale implies an additional input of these elements, perhaps from
global standards are used as background values for the unusual geochemical enrichment or from anthropogenic

123
1348 Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

Table 4 Metal pollution assessment results of Narmada and Tapti rivers

Fe Mn Ti As Cd Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn Co Mo PLI

Narmada
1
EF 0.18 -0.04 0.55 -0.39 2.09 0.79 1.14 0.54 0.22 0.14 -0.14 0.17
Igeo -0.38 -0.67 0.02 -1.34 1.01 0.24 0.48 0.01 -0.32 -0.42 -0.83 -0.39 1.29
CF 1.15 0.94 1.52 0.59 3.02 1.75 2.10 1.51 1.20 1.12 0.85 1.15
3
EF 1.61 2.75 1.73 0.28 1.44 0.96 0.75 0.82 0.78 0.78 -0.03 -0.10
Igeo 0.69 1.22 0.76 -0.33 0.60 0.29 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.15 -0.74 -0.84 1.71
CF 2.43 3.49 2.54 1.19 2.27 1.82 1.63 1.69 1.65 1.66 0.90 0.84
4
EF 0.85 0.26 1.59 0.20 2.05 1.23 0.15 1.13 0.60 0.06 0.83 -0.17
Igeo 0.14 -0.41 0.63 -0.48 0.86 0.42 -0.55 0.35 -0.06 -0.66 0.13 -1.02 1.45
CF 1.65 1.13 2.32 1.08 2.73 1.99 1.03 1.91 1.44 0.95 1.64 0.74
7
EF 0.69 0.37 1.82 -0.14 3.52 1.37 1.88 2.43 0.73 1.68 2.86 -0.24
Igeo 0.11 -0.18 0.85 -0.86 1.53 0.61 0.88 1.14 0.15 0.78 1.31 -1.05 2.03
CF 1.62 1.32 2.71 0.83 4.34 2.28 2.77 3.30 1.66 2.58 3.71 0.73
8
EF 1.36 0.14 0.44 -0.13 1.79 0.90 1.40 2.45 0.65 1.71 0.00 -0.07
Igeo 0.52 -0.53 -0.19 -0.92 0.76 0.22 0.54 1.07 0.00 0.72 -0.73 -0.83 1.55
CF 2.14 1.04 1.31 0.79 2.54 1.73 2.18 3.14 1.50 2.47 0.91 0.85
9
EF 1.03 0.01 1.66 0.00 0.33 1.07 1.06 1.61 0.40 1.60 -0.01 -0.02
Igeo 0.34 -0.67 0.73 -0.67 -0.27 0.38 0.37 0.70 -0.19 0.70 -0.70 -0.71 1.50
CF 1.90 0.94 2.50 0.94 1.24 1.94 1.93 2.44 1.31 2.44 0.93 0.92
8a
EF 1.04 3.09 1.11 0.27 4.15 1.39 2.07 2.94 0.86 1.77 0.22 0.83
Igeo 0.33 1.33 0.38 -0.35 1.66 0.57 0.92 1.28 0.20 0.77 -0.41 0.17 2.23
CF 1.89 3.77 1.95 1.17 4.76 2.21 2.83 3.64 1.72 2.56 1.13 1.69
Tapti
1
EF 0.99 1.97 2.19 -0.33 0.66 0.74 2.89 1.35 0.90 0.64 -0.24 0.12
Igeo 0.39 0.96 1.07 -1.18 0.12 0.21 1.35 0.63 0.32 0.10 -1.01 -0.45 1.73
CF 1.96 2.92 3.15 0.66 1.63 1.72 3.83 2.32 1.87 1.61 0.75 1.10
2
EF 1.32 0.66 1.27 -0.17 -0.06 2.20 3.22 1.20 1.97 2.32 1.78 2.32
Igeo 0.58 0.10 0.55 -0.91 -0.73 1.05 1.44 0.50 0.94 1.09 0.84 1.09 2.19
CF 2.24 1.60 2.19 0.80 0.90 3.09 4.07 2.12 2.87 3.20 2.68 3.20
3
EF 1.07 0.58 1.13 0.32 0.41 1.54 2.89 2.64 1.22 1.29 0.27 -0.19
Igeo 0.31 -0.08 0.35 -0.34 -0.24 0.61 1.22 1.12 0.41 0.45 -0.40 -1.05 1.72
CF 1.86 1.42 1.91 1.19 1.27 2.28 3.49 3.27 1.99 2.06 1.14 0.73
4
EF 0.21 -0.37 1.17 -0.01 0.02 0.15 1.74 -0.21 0.62 0.10 -0.12 0.03
Igeo -0.05 -0.99 0.80 -0.34 -0.30 -0.10 1.13 -0.66 0.37 -0.19 -0.51 -0.27 1.40
CF 1.45 0.75 2.60 1.19 1.22 1.38 3.29 0.95 1.94 1.32 1.05 1.24

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Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352 1349

Table 4 continued
Fe Mn Ti As Cd Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn Co Mo PLI

5
EF 0.66 0.25 1.78 -0.36 -0.05 0.20 1.27 0.79 0.35 0.35 -0.23 9.62
Igeo 0.32 -0.08 1.07 -1.05 -0.48 -0.13 0.78 0.43 0.02 0.02 -0.78 3.00 1.80
CF 1.87 1.42 3.15 0.73 1.07 1.36 2.57 2.03 1.53 1.52 0.88 12.00
5a
EF 0.53 1.54 2.11 0.14 0.42 1.20 1.56 2.29 3.97 1.39 1.52 14.40
Igeo 0.18 0.92 1.21 -0.24 0.08 0.72 0.93 1.29 1.89 0.83 0.91 3.52 3.04
CF 1.70 2.83 3.47 1.27 1.59 2.46 2.86 3.67 5.55 2.67 2.82 17.20
a
Suspended sediments

sources. The magnitude of input for each metal in the abundance of heavy metals in sediments derived from
sediment from probable sources and/or the difference in the weathering of Deccan basalts in the absence of anthropo-
removal rate of each metal from the sediment may be genic activities. The Igeo consists of seven grades (0–6).
attributed for the variability in EF values. The highest grade (class six) reflects 100-fold enrichment
The geoaccumulation index (Igeo) introduced by Muller above the background values. The calculated Igeo indicates
(1969) was also used to assess metal pollution in sediments that the sediments of Narmada and Tapti rivers are mod-
of Narmada and Tapti rivers. It is expressed as: erately polluted with heavy metals, except As which shows
Cn Igeo values below zero (Tables 4, 5).
Igeo ¼ Log2 To quantify the magnitude of pollution by different
1:5Bn
metals, contamination factor (CF) is used (Salomons and
where Cn is the measured concentration of the heavy metal Forstner 1984). It is expressed as:
(n) in the \37 lm fraction of sediments, Bn is the local
geochemical background value in average sediments of metal concentration in sediment
CF ¼
element n, and 1.5 is the background matrix correction World shale average for the metal
factor due to lithogenic effects. Three uncontaminated
The calculated contamination factors are found to fall in
surface sediments were also collected for the analysis of
the following sequences:
geochemical background values of heavy metals (Bn) from
upstream of the Narmada river, where both anthropogenic Cu [ Cd [ Ni [ Ti [ Cr [ Zn [ Fe [ Mn [
and industrial activities were absent. These stations are Co [ Pb [ Mo [ As (Narmada river)
located at almost 6–7 km downstream to origin of the river Cu [ Mo [ Ti [ Ni [ Cr [ Zn [ Fe [ Mn [ Cd [
which was considered appropriate to examine the natural Co [ Pb [ As (Tapti river)

Table 5 Measure of metal pollution in sediments of Narmada and Tapti rivers

Muller (1969) Heavy metals
Narmada river Tapti river
Index of geo Igeo class Sediment quality Bed sediment Suspended Bed sediment Suspended
accumulation designation sediment sediment

5-10 6 Extremely polluted

4-5 5 Highly polluted
3–4 4 Moderately to highly Mo Mo
polluted
2–3 3 Moderately polluted –
1–2 2 Moderately to Mn, Cd, Ni, Co Mn, Cd, Ni Ti, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Ti, Ni, Pb
unpolluted Mo
0–1 1 Unpolluted Fe, Ti, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ti, Cr, Cu, Pb, Fe, Mn, Ti, Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, Cd, Cr,
Ni, Pb, Zn, Co Zn, Mo Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Co Cu, Zn, Co
0 0 Background Fe, Mn, Ti, As, Cd As, Co Fe, Mn, As, Cd, Cr, As
concentration Cu, Pb, Zn, Co, Ni, Zn, Co, Mo
Mo

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1350 Environ Earth Sci (2010) 61:1337–1352

Fig. 5 Pollution load index 2.50 Narmada River 4.00

(PLI) at different sampling 2.00 Tapti River
3.00
stations along the Narmada and
1.50
Tapti rivers

PLI
PLI
2.00
1.00
0.50 1.00

0.00 0.00
1 3 4 7 8 9 8* 1 2 3 4 5 5*
Sampling locations Sampling locations

To evaluate the sediment pollution severity, pollution activities, in particular urban daily life, seem to be one of
load index (PLI) was used to find out the mutual pollution the factors influencing metal concentrations. Though
effect at different stations by different metals. PLI for a set of human activities have not yet caused serious degradation of
n polluting metals was defined as the geometric mean of the river water quality, some trace metal concentrations have
CF values for the n metals (Tomlison et al. 1980). A PLI profoundly exceeded the related standards. Dissolved metal
value close to 1 indicates heavy metal loads near the back- concentrations of all water samples are below or close to
ground level, while values [1 indicate pollution (Cabrera the maximum permitted concentration for the protection of
et al. 1999). In Narmada river, PLI value ranges from 1.29 to aquatic life (except, for Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cr) and for
2.23 with an average of 1.68, whereas it varies between 1.40 drinking water, except for elevated Pb, Fe, Cr, and Ni
and 3.04 with an average of 1.98 in Tapti river. The mutual concentrations with respect to specific standards. The
pollution effect of different metals at different sampling average PO43- values exceed the Indian average as well as
locations in the Narmada and Tapti river basins is depicted in the recommended standards. But the NO3- concentrations
Fig. 5. Thus, the findings, taking into account of EF, Igeo, and are typically low except, at few sampling stations and far
PLI, confirm that heavy metal pollution in the two rivers below the standard drinking water quality guidelines. The
under investigation is moderately serious. DOC values are higher than the world average but signif-
Most of the toxic trace metals show considerably higher icantly lower than other humid tropical rivers considered
concentration at the sites 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9 of Narmada river for comparison. However, dissolved silica concentration
due to influx of large volume of domestic sewage and exceeds Indian as well as global averages indicating sili-
industrial effluents from Mandla, Hoshangabad (urban area), cate weathering in the basins. The CIA values indicate the
the second largest city in the basin and major source of moderate weathering taking place in the Narmada and
pollution (municipal solid waste and sewage) and Jhanesh- Tapti rivers. Taking into account of the EF, Igeo, and PLI
war (industrial town). Comparatively higher concentration is values, it can be concluded that the investigated river
found at sampling sites 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Tapti river which may basins are moderately polluted with heavy metals. The
apparently be attributed to the nearby municipal and indus- higher values of metals in these rivers imply additional
trial activities. The upper reaches of the Narmada river basin inputs from unusual geochemical enrichment, which in turn
witness several mining activities with respect to marble, may be attributed to the geological sources coupled with
limestone, and coal, whereas the midstream region passes anthropogenic inputs from the catchments. This study has
through thick forests. The sewerage from the Jabalpur city, revealed that enhanced concentrations of heavy metals are
the largest habitat in the Narmada river basin, also drains in recorded near to industrial establishments or urban sewage
the river upstream region polluting the river. The down- discharge points, indicating that their concentrations have
streams of both the rivers are dominated by various kinds of been strongly affected by anthropogenic influences.
industrial setups. The Narmada and Tapti rivers culminate in Potentially more profitable crops, like cotton, jute, rice,
the Arabian Sea at Bharuch and Surat, respectively, which wheat, vegetables, sugarcane, etc., are grown in the culti-
are the industrial towns and major source of pollution to the vated areas of the river basins. Rice cultivation consumes
rivers in the coastal region. lots of water; thus, contaminants can move through the
food chain to human beings, affecting their health.
Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that the increased
Conclusion concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments of the
Narmada and Tapti rivers are considerably due to direct
Distribution characteristics of trace element concentrations discharge of industrial and urban wastes into the river. The
and consequently the river quality in the two interesting distribution patterns of heavy metals in the river basins
catchments, Narmada and Tapti, are the result of combined indicate that the continuous discharge of sewage and
influence of natural conditions, i.e., geological and hydro- effluents into the river will continue to increase the mag-
meteorological backgrounds and human activity. Human nitude of metal pollution in the river to intolerable limits,

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and this may have severe impact on aquatic plants and Kuchler IL, Miekeley N, Forsberg BR (2000) A contribution to the
other organisms in the rivers. It is, therefore, recommended chemical characterization of rivers in the Rio Negro basin,
Brazil. J Braz Chem Soc 11:286–292
that in order to check this trend, the industrial establish- Loska K, Wiechula D (2003) Application of principal component
ments and the municipal council should establish efficient analysis for the estimation of source heavy metal contamination
waste-treatment and disposal systems. in surface sediments from Rybnik Reservoir. Chemosphere
51:723–733
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Nehru University (SKS) and University Grant Commission Project carried by major world rivers. Mar Chem 7:173–206
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