Understanding the Intricacies of the

Indian Taxation System

The Indian taxation system stands as a critical pillar of the nation's fiscal framework, playing an
indispensable role in funding public services, driving economic development, and fostering
social progress. Its structure is characterized by a well-defined distribution of authority across
the three tiers of governance: the central government, state governments, and local municipal
bodies. This carefully demarcated authority ensures a balanced approach to revenue collection
and expenditure management across the vast and diverse Indian landscape. Beyond its
fundamental function of revenue generation to support government spending, the Indian tax
system is also strategically employed as a vital instrument for achieving broader socio-economic
objectives. These objectives include promoting economic stability by influencing
macroeconomic factors, ensuring equity through progressive taxation policies, and ultimately
driving the overall national progress of the country. Over the past decade and a half, the Indian
taxation system has undergone significant reforms aimed at rationalizing tax rates and
simplifying the complex web of tax laws that had evolved over time. These continuous efforts
underscore a commitment to enhancing tax compliance by making the system more
understandable and user-friendly, facilitating ease of tax payment for individuals and
businesses, and strengthening the mechanisms for effective enforcement. The ongoing nature
of these reforms reflects a dynamic approach to fiscal policy, adapting to the evolving economic
environment and addressing the persistent challenges in tax administration and compliance.

The Constitutional Framework of Indian Taxation

The bedrock of the Indian taxation system lies within the Constitution of India, which explicitly
grants the authority to levy taxes to the government, delineating the powers between the Union
and the States. A cornerstone of this framework is Article 265 of the Constitution, which
unequivocally states that no tax can be imposed or collected without explicit legal sanction. This
fundamental provision ensures that all taxation in India is governed by the rule of law, requiring
that every tax levied must be backed by a specific law passed by either the Parliament at the
central level or the State Legislature at the state level. This legal underpinning is crucial as it
prevents any arbitrary or unauthorized imposition of taxes, thereby safeguarding the rights and
interests of the taxpayers. Taxes, in their essence, are defined as mandatory contributions that
individuals and entities are obligated to make to the government. The primary purpose of these
payments is to finance the extensive range of public spending undertaken by the government,
which includes funding essential public services, developing crucial infrastructure projects, and
supporting various other national, regional, and local expenditures that are vital for the
functioning and development of the nation. The constitutional mandate for taxation, therefore,
establishes a system where the government's power to tax is both derived and limited by the
law, ensuring legitimacy and accountability in the fiscal operations of the state.
The distribution of the legislative power to impose taxes in India is meticulously defined within
Article 246 of the Constitution, with the specifics detailed in the Seventh Schedule, which
comprises three distinct lists: the Union List (List I), the State List (List II), and the Concurrent
List (List III). The Union List exclusively grants the Parliament of India the legislative
competence to enact laws concerning a range of subjects, including key taxes such as income
tax (with the notable exception of agricultural income), corporate tax, customs duties levied on
the import and export of goods, excise duties on specific goods manufactured or produced
within India (excluding those now under the GST regime), and service tax (which has largely
been subsumed under GST). Specifically, Entry 82 of this list explicitly vests the central
government with the exclusive authority over income tax, excluding income derived from
agricultural activities. Conversely, the State List delineates the subjects over which the state
legislatures have the exclusive power to legislate, encompassing taxes like state excise duty (on
alcoholic liquors), stamp duty (on various legal documents and transactions), land revenue,
taxes on income derived from agricultural activities, and professional tax (levied on professions,
trades, callings, and employments). Notably, Entry 46 of the State List specifically empowers
state legislatures to levy taxes on agricultural income. Interestingly, the Constitution does not
provide for a separate head of taxation within the Concurrent List (List III), which otherwise
allows both the Union and the State governments to legislate on the matters included therein.
However, a significant development in India's tax structure is the Goods and Services Tax (GST)
regime, which, although not a specific entry in the Concurrent List, operates under a framework
of shared taxation authority between the Union and the States, enabled by the Constitution
(One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016. This collaborative approach to indirect taxation
is a testament to the evolving nature of India's fiscal federalism. Furthermore, local municipal
bodies across the country are authorized to levy certain minor taxes to fund their operations and
provide local services. These taxes typically include octroi (a tax on goods entering a local
area), property tax (on the ownership of real estate), and other levies on various services such
as water supply and drainage. This clear division of taxation powers aims to prevent any overlap
or conflict between the tax jurisdictions of the different levels of government, thereby fostering a
balanced and harmonious federal structure that ensures both national unity and state autonomy
in fiscal matters.
Several key articles within the Constitution of India further elaborate on the principles and
mechanisms governing taxation and the financial relations between the Union and the States.
Article 270 plays a crucial role by outlining the principles for the distribution of tax revenues
collected by the Union government between the Union itself and the various State governments.
This article ensures a fair sharing of financial resources based on the recommendations of the
Finance Commission. Established under Article 280, the Finance Commission is a pivotal body
that is constituted every five years to recommend the principles that should govern the
distribution of tax revenues between the Centre and the States, the allocation of the States'
share among themselves, and the principles governing grants-in-aid to the States from the
Consolidated Fund of India. Article 279A provides for the establishment of the Goods and
Services Tax Council, a body designed to ensure uniform tax administration across the country
under the GST regime by deliberating and making recommendations on various aspects of
GST, including rates, exemptions, and procedures. Articles 268 through 270 specifically deal
with the levy, collection, and appropriation of different types of duties and taxes between the
Union and the States, clarifying which level of government has the authority over these fiscal
matters. Additionally, Articles 271 and 279 address the scenario where both the Union and the
States might have the power to levy taxes on the same subject matter, stipulating that in such
cases, the law made by the Union government will generally prevail. Furthermore, Article 286
imposes certain restrictions on the power of the States to levy taxes, particularly concerning
taxes on imports and exports, on goods of special importance (unless authorized by
Parliament), and on sales or purchases that take place outside the State's territorial jurisdiction.
These constitutional articles collectively establish a comprehensive framework that governs the
financial relationship between the Union and the States, ensuring that both have the necessary
resources to carry out their respective functions while also promoting a sense of fiscal
responsibility and national economic cohesion.

Direct Taxes in India: A Detailed Examination

The realm of direct taxes in India encompasses those taxes levied directly on the income or
wealth of individuals and entities. The primary forms of direct taxation in India include income
tax on individuals, corporate tax on companies, and capital gains tax on profits from the sale of
capital assets.

Income Tax on Individuals

The income tax on individuals in India has a rich history, with its origins dating back to 1860
when it was first introduced by the British administration under Sir James Wilson. Initially
conceived to address the financial strain caused by the military mutiny of 1857, the income tax
system has undergone significant transformations over the decades, with numerous revisions
and replacements of the governing legislation. The current legal framework for income tax is
primarily based on the Income Tax Act of 1961, which has been amended multiple times since
its enactment to reflect the evolving economic landscape and policy objectives.
Presently, the income tax structure for individuals in India offers two optional tax regimes: the
Old Tax Regime and the New Tax Regime. The Old Tax Regime allows taxpayers to claim a
wide range of exemptions and deductions, potentially reducing their taxable income significantly,
while the New Tax Regime offers lower tax rates across different income slabs but with
significantly fewer exemptions and deductions. Under the Old Tax Regime, the income tax slab
rates vary based on the individual's total annual income and their age category: below 60 years,
between 60 and 80 years (senior citizens), and above 80 years (super senior citizens), with
each category having different basic exemption limits. In contrast, the New Tax Regime,
applicable for the financial years 2024-25 and 2025-26, provides a different set of income tax
slabs with generally lower tax rates compared to the old regime, but it restricts the availability of
many popular exemptions and deductions. For individuals with high annual incomes exceeding
₹50 lakh, a surcharge is levied in addition to the income tax, with the rate of surcharge
increasing progressively with higher income levels. Furthermore, a Health and Education Cess
is applied at a rate of 4% on the total amount of income tax payable, including any applicable
surcharge, across both tax regimes.
Under the Old Tax Regime, the Income Tax Act offers a wide array of exemptions and
deductions that taxpayers can claim to reduce their taxable income. Some of the prominent
exemptions and deductions include investments made under Section 80C (such as
contributions to Public Provident Fund (PPF), National Savings Certificates (NSC), Equity
Linked Saving Schemes (ELSS), and payments towards life insurance premiums), House Rent
Allowance (HRA) for salaried individuals living in rented accommodation, Leave Travel
Allowance (LTA) for travel expenses, deductions for medical insurance premiums under Section
80D, and deductions for the interest paid on education loans under Section 80E. Notably, a
standard deduction is available to salaried individuals and pensioners under both the Old and
New Tax Regimes, providing a fixed reduction from their gross total income.
The parallel existence of these two tax regimes provides taxpayers with a crucial choice,
allowing them to opt for the system that best suits their individual financial circumstances, tax
planning strategies, and preferences regarding simplicity versus maximizing tax savings through
deductions. The New Tax Regime aims to simplify the tax filing process by offering lower rates
but with fewer avenues for claiming exemptions, while the Old Tax Regime caters to those who
prefer to utilize various savings and investment instruments to reduce their tax liability. The
progressive nature of the income tax system, with increasing tax rates applied to higher income
brackets, is a fundamental aspect that reflects the principle of equitable contribution, ensuring
that individuals with greater financial capacity contribute a larger proportion of their income
towards public revenue. Additionally, the diverse range of exemptions and deductions available
under the Income Tax Act serves as an important mechanism for the government to promote
specific economic and social objectives, such as encouraging long-term savings, channeling
investments into key sectors of the economy, and providing financial relief for essential
expenditures like healthcare and education.

Corporate Tax
Corporate tax in India is levied on the taxable income of companies that are registered under
the Companies Act. The tax liability of a company depends on its residency status. Domestic
companies, which are incorporated in India, are taxed on their income from all sources
worldwide. In contrast, foreign companies are taxed only on the income that they earn from a
business connection within India. The tax rates applicable to domestic companies are structured
based on their total turnover during the previous financial year and whether they have opted for
specific provisions under the Income Tax Act, such as Section 115BA, Section 115BAA, or
Section 115BAB. The standard corporate tax rates for domestic companies range from 25% for
those with a total turnover or gross receipts not exceeding ₹400 crore during the previous year
to 30% for any other domestic company. The Income Tax Act also provides for reduced tax rates
for domestic companies that opt for specific sections and fulfill the prescribed conditions. For
instance, companies that opt for taxation under Section 115BAA are subject to a tax rate of
22%, while those opting for Section 115BAB, which typically includes new manufacturing
companies, can avail a tax rate of 15%. For foreign companies operating in India, the basic tax
rate is 35%, which was recently reduced from 40% in an effort to attract more foreign investment
into the country.
In addition to the basic corporate tax rates, companies in India are also liable to pay a
surcharge, which is levied based on their total income. The surcharge rates for domestic
companies range from 7% to 12%, while foreign companies face surcharge rates of 2% to 5%,
depending on the income threshold. A Health and Education Cess is also applicable at a rate of
4% on the amount of income tax payable plus any applicable surcharge for both domestic and
foreign companies. To ensure that all companies contribute a minimum amount of tax, even if
they have claimed significant exemptions, the concept of Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) is in
place. MAT is levied at a rate of 15% on the book profits of a company if the income tax
calculated according to the regular tax provisions is less than 15% of its book profits. However,
companies that have opted for the reduced tax rates under Section 115BAA or Section 115BAB
are exempt from the provisions of MAT.
The Indian tax system also offers various tax incentives and special provisions to encourage
specific economic activities and investments. These include tax benefits for companies engaged
in manufacturing or production, as well as for startups that meet the prescribed criteria.
Furthermore, special tax regimes and exemptions have been introduced for companies
operating in International Financial Services Centres (IFSCs) like GIFT City, aiming to promote
these zones as global financial hubs. The tiered corporate tax structure, with its reduced rates
and various incentives, is strategically designed to make India a competitive destination for both
domestic and foreign investments, thereby fostering economic growth and development. The
Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) plays a crucial role in ensuring that all profitable entities
contribute to the national revenue, maintaining fairness and equity within the corporate tax
framework.

Capital Gains Tax

Capital gains tax in India is levied on the profits that arise from the sale or transfer of capital
assets. These assets can include a wide range of items such as land, buildings, vehicles,
patents, trademarks, and jewelry. For the purpose of taxation, capital gains are broadly
classified into two categories based on the period for which the asset was held by the taxpayer:
Short-Term Capital Gains (STCG) and Long-Term Capital Gains (LTCG). The holding period that
determines whether a capital gain is short-term or long-term varies depending on the type of
asset. For equity shares and securities listed on a recognized stock exchange in India, as well
as units of specified mutual funds, a holding period of one year or less is considered short-term,
while a holding period of more than one year is long-term. For other assets, such as immovable
property and gold, a holding period of more than three years was traditionally considered
long-term, but recent amendments have streamlined this to 24 months for most assets other
than listed securities.
The tax rates applicable to Short-Term Capital Gains Tax (STCG) depend on the nature of the
capital asset. In the case of short-term capital gains arising from the transfer of equity shares or
units of equity-oriented mutual funds where the transaction is subject to Securities Transaction
Tax (STT), the gain is taxed at a rate of 20%. However, short-term capital gains from other types
of assets are generally taxed according to the individual's applicable income tax slab rates.
Similarly, the tax rates for Long-Term Capital Gains Tax (LTCG) also vary depending on the type
of capital asset. For long-term capital gains exceeding ₹1 lakh from the sale of equity shares
and equity-oriented mutual funds, the tax rate is 12.5%. In the case of other long-term capital
assets, the gains are taxed at a rate of 12.5% without the benefit of indexation, or at 20% with
the benefit of indexation (for assets acquired on or before July 22, 2024), depending on the
specific type of asset. The indexation benefit allows taxpayers to adjust the cost of the asset for
inflation, thereby potentially reducing their tax liability on long-term capital gains. There are also
special tax rates that apply to certain specific categories of capital assets. For instance,
long-term capital gains from the sale of shares or units of mutual funds are exempt from tax ,
and short-term capital gains arising on the transfer of equity shares or units of mutual funds are
taxed at a rate of 10%. Additionally, there's a special GST rate of 0.25% applicable to rough
precious and semi-precious stones, which could be considered a form of tax on capital gains in
the context of trade in these items.
The taxation of capital gains in India is designed to differentiate between gains arising from
short-term speculative activities and those resulting from long-term investments. The varying tax
rates and the provision of benefits like indexation for long-term holdings aim to encourage
investors to adopt a longer-term perspective in their investment decisions. The recent efforts to
streamline the holding periods for capital assets and the adjustments made to the tax rates on
capital gains reflect an ongoing endeavor to simplify the tax regime and align it with the broader
economic objectives of promoting investment and growth in the country.
Indirect Taxes in India: A Comprehensive Overview
Indirect taxes in India are characterized by the fact that they are levied on goods and services
rather than directly on income or profits. The most significant indirect taxes in India include the
Goods and Services Tax (GST), customs duties, excise duties (on goods outside the scope of
GST), and stamp duties.

The Goods and Services Tax (GST)

The Goods and Services Tax (GST) represents a transformative reform in India's indirect tax
system. Implemented on July 1, 2017, GST is a comprehensive, multi-stage, destination-based
tax that is levied on every value addition across the supply chain of goods and services. It
operates on a dual GST model, comprising three main components: Central GST (CGST),
which is levied and collected by the Central Government on intra-state supplies of goods and
services; State GST (SGST), which is levied and collected by the respective State Governments
on intra-state supplies; and Integrated GST (IGST), which is levied and collected by the Central
Government on inter-state supplies of goods and services, as well as on imports. Additionally,
Union Territory GST (UTGST) is applicable to the supply of goods and services within India's
Union Territories.
The GST in India follows a four-tier tax structure, with goods and services being categorized
under different tax slabs: 0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%. Essential goods and services, as well
as supplies to Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and exports, are generally zero-rated. There are
also special GST rates applicable to certain items, such as 0.25% on rough precious and
semi-precious stones and 3% on gold. Furthermore, a compensation cess is levied on luxury
goods and sin goods like high-end automobiles, tobacco products, and aerated drinks, over and
above the 28% GST rate. The Goods and Services Tax Council, comprising the finance
ministers of the central government and all the states, is the governing body responsible for
making decisions regarding GST rates, rules, and regulations.
The implementation of GST has had a profound impact on businesses and consumers in India.
It has led to the consolidation of numerous indirect taxes that were previously levied by the
central and state governments, thereby eliminating the cascading effect of taxation (tax on tax)
and reducing the overall cost of goods and services. GST has simplified the tax structure by
replacing a complex web of taxes with a single, unified tax, making compliance easier and
reducing the administrative burden on businesses. One of the key features of GST is the Input
Tax Credit (ITC) mechanism, which allows businesses to claim credit for the GST paid on their
inputs, thus reducing their overall tax liability and preventing the cascading effect of taxes. While
GST simplifies the tax landscape, it has also increased compliance requirements, as
businesses are now required to file monthly, quarterly, and annual returns through the Goods
and Services Tax Network (GSTN) portal. The implementation of GST has resulted in changes
in the prices of various goods and services, with essential commodities often falling under lower
tax brackets and luxury goods and certain services being taxed at higher rates. It has also led to
more uniform pricing of goods and services across different states in India and has provided a
boost to the e-commerce and logistics sectors by streamlining inter-state movement of goods
and simplifying tax compliance for online businesses.

Customs Duties
Customs duty is a tax levied by the Government of India on goods that are imported into the
country, as well as on some goods that are exported. The imposition and regulation of customs
duty are primarily governed by the Customs Act 1962 and the Customs Tariff Act 1975. There
are several types of customs duties that may be applicable to imported goods, including Basic
Customs Duty (BCD), which is a fundamental duty levied on most imported goods; Special
Additional Duty (SAD), which is imposed on imported goods to counter the sales tax or
value-added tax levied on domestically produced goods; Countervailing Duty (CVD), which is
levied on imported goods that have received subsidies in their country of origin; and the Social
Welfare Surcharge (SWS), which is levied on the value of imported goods to fund social welfare
programs. Additionally, the government may impose Anti-dumping Duty to prevent the import of
goods at prices below their normal value, which could harm domestic industries, and Safeguard
Duty to protect domestic producers from a sudden surge in imports. The Integrated Goods &
Services Tax (IGST) is also levied on imported goods as a part of the GST regime, and a
Compensation cess may be applicable to certain goods like tobacco and automobiles. A
nominal Customs handling fee is also charged on imported goods. The rates for these various
types of customs duties can vary significantly, ranging from 0% to 100% or even higher,
depending on factors such as the Harmonized System (HS) code classification of the goods,
their country of origin, and the materials used in their manufacture.
The calculation of customs duty is generally based on the value of the imported goods, often
referred to as the assessable value, which typically includes the cost of the goods, insurance,
and freight (CIF value). This is known as an ad valorem basis calculation, where the duty is a
percentage of the value. However, in some cases, customs duty may be calculated on a specific
basis, such as a fixed amount per unit of weight or volume. The primary objectives of levying
customs duties are to protect domestic industries from foreign competition, to generate revenue
for the government, and to regulate the overall trade practices of the country. Certain categories
of goods, such as essential life-saving drugs and equipment, fertilizers, and food grains, are
often exempted from the levy of import duties. The administration and collection of customs
duties in India are the responsibility of the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC),
which operates under the Ministry of Finance.

Excise Duties (Non-GST)

Excise duty is a type of indirect tax that is levied by the Indian federal government on goods that
are manufactured or produced domestically within the country. Before the implementation of the
Goods and Services Tax (GST) in July 2017, excise duty was a significant component of India's
indirect tax system, encompassing levies such as Central Excise Duty, Additional Excise Duty,
and others. However, the introduction of GST has led to the subsumption of many of these
excise duties under the new tax regime. Currently, excise duty continues to be applicable to a
limited number of goods that have been kept outside the purview of GST. These primarily
include petroleum products, such as crude oil, petrol, diesel, aviation turbine fuel (ATF), and
natural gas, as well as alcoholic beverages.
There are different types of excise duties that can be levied in India, including Basic Excise
Duty, which is imposed on all excisable goods (except salt) manufactured in India; Special
Excise Duty, which is levied on goods that are also subject to Basic Excise Duty; and Education
Cess on Excise Duty, which is a surcharge calculated on the aggregate of excise duties.
Additionally, a Natural Calamity Contingent Duty may be levied on specific goods like cigarettes,
chewing tobacco, and pan masala. The levy and collection of excise duties are governed by the
Central Excise Act 1944 and the Central Excise Tariff Act 1985. The liability to pay excise duty
generally falls on the manufacturer or producer of the goods, and the duty becomes payable at
the time the goods are removed from the place of production or a designated warehouse for the
purpose of sale. The administration and collection of excise duties in India are overseen by the
Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) under the Ministry of Finance.

Stamp Duties
Stamp duty is a form of indirect tax that is levied by the state governments and the Union
Government of India on a variety of specified financial and legal transactions. The payment of
stamp duty is essential to ensure that a document has legal validity and is admissible as
evidence in a court of law. As stamp duty is a state subject under the Indian Constitution, the
rates and rules governing its levy and collection differ across various states in India. The cost of
stamp duty is generally calculated as a percentage of the property's market value or the
transaction value, with rates typically ranging from 5% to 7%.
Stamp duty is payable on a wide range of legal documents and transactions, most notably
including the purchase or sale of immovable property such as land and buildings. It is also
applicable to other instruments like lease agreements, mortgage deeds, agreements of sale,
and certain financial instruments. In most cases, the stamp duty charges are borne by the buyer
of the property or the recipient of the service or goods in the transaction. Several factors can
influence the stamp duty rates applicable to a transaction, including the market value of the
property, the type of property (residential, commercial, agricultural), its location (urban or rural),
and in some cases, the age and gender of the property owner. Stamp duty can be paid through
various methods, including the purchase of physical stamp paper from authorized sellers or
through online payment portals provided by the respective state governments.

A Historical Journey of Indian Taxation

The history of taxation in India is a long and varied one, reflecting the different eras and rulers
that have shaped the subcontinent.

Taxation in Pre-Independence India

The origins of the taxation system in India can be traced back to ancient times, with references
to various forms of taxes found in ancient Indian texts such as the Manusmriti and the
Arthashastra. These texts suggest that even in ancient India, there was a structured system of
taxation where the king was entitled to collect taxes from the subjects, often in the form of a
share of their agricultural produce or through levies on trade and commerce. During the
Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE), under the rule of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya and later
Emperor Ashoka, a well-organized taxation system was implemented to finance the
administration, military, and public works. Land revenue was the primary source of income for
the state, with taxes also imposed on mining, forest resources, professions, and wealth.
In the medieval period, the tax system continued to evolve under various dynasties. During the
Gupta Empire (320–550 CE), taxes were relatively low, contributing to economic prosperity.
However, with the advent of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and subsequently the Mughal
Empire (1526–1857), the tax burden on the populace generally increased. Notably, during the
Mughal Empire, Emperor Akbar introduced the "Zabt" system, which aimed to create a more
equitable and predictable tax collection process based on land productivity.
The foundations of the modern Indian tax system were laid during the British colonial rule in
India. Following the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the British government faced a severe financial
crisis. To address this, the first income tax in India was introduced in 1860 by Sir James Wilson,
who was appointed as the first finance member of the Viceroy's Executive Council. The Indian
Income Tax Act of 1860 taxed income under four schedules: income from landed property,
income from professions and trades, income from securities, and income from salaries and
pensions. Agricultural income was also initially taxable under this act. Over the subsequent
decades, the income tax laws were revised and replaced, leading to the enactment of the Indian
Income Tax Act of 1886, which introduced a more comprehensive system of income taxation.
Further significant changes were brought about by the Income Tax Acts of 1918 and 1922,
which further refined the structure of income tax and established a proper administrative system
for its collection. The British also levied various other taxes, including customs duties, excise
duties on goods like salt and opium, and land revenue, which were crucial sources of revenue
for the colonial government. The salt tax, in particular, became a major point of contention and a
symbol of British oppression, playing a significant role in the Indian independence movement
led by Mahatma Gandhi, who launched the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 to protest against it.

Key Milestones and Evolution of Tax Laws Post-Independence

Following India's independence in 1947, the tax system continued to evolve to serve the needs
of a newly independent nation focused on economic development and social welfare. One of the
most significant milestones was the enactment of the Income Tax Act of 1961, which replaced
the earlier Income Tax Act of 1922 and provided a comprehensive legal framework for income
taxation in India. This act, with its numerous amendments over the years, remains the principal
law governing income tax in the country today.
In the years after independence, the government also introduced several other direct taxes,
such as the Wealth Tax Act in 1957, the Expenditure Tax Act in 1957, and the Gift Tax Act in
1958. However, with the passage of time and changes in economic priorities, some of these
taxes were either abolished or repealed. For instance, the Wealth Tax Act was repealed in 2015.
The Indian tax system underwent significant reforms in the 1980s and 1990s, driven by the
broader economic liberalization policies. These reforms focused on reducing the historically high
tax rates, broadening the tax base to include more individuals and entities, and simplifying the
overall tax structure to encourage compliance and stimulate economic growth.
A notable development in India's indirect tax regime was the introduction of Service Tax in 1994.
As the services sector grew to become a major contributor to the Indian economy, service tax
was levied on an increasing number of services, expanding the government's revenue base.
However, the most transformative tax reform in post-independence India has been the
implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in 2017, which subsumed service tax and
a multitude of other central and state indirect taxes into a single, unified tax system.

The Genesis and Implementation of GST in India

The journey towards the implementation of a nationwide Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India
was a long and complex one, spanning nearly two decades from its initial proposal in 2000. The
concept of GST was first mooted by the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government in 2000, which set up
an Empowered Committee of State Finance Ministers to design a GST model suitable for India's
federal structure. Over the years, the proposal went through numerous discussions, faced
political opposition, and missed several deadlines, reflecting the challenges of achieving
consensus on a major fiscal reform involving both the central and state governments.
A significant breakthrough came in 2016 with the passage of the Constitution (One Hundred and
First Amendment) Act, which amended the Constitution to provide the necessary legal
framework for the implementation of GST. Following the constitutional amendment, the GST
Council, comprising the Union Finance Minister and representatives from all the states, was
formed in September 2016. The GST Council played a crucial role in finalizing the tax rates,
rules, and regulations under GST. Finally, after years of preparation and anticipation, the Goods
and Services Tax was officially rolled out across the nation on July 1, 2017.
The implementation of GST marked a paradigm shift in India's indirect tax system, as it
subsumed a multitude of central and state taxes, including service tax, value-added tax (VAT),
central excise duty, octroi, and others, into a single, unified tax regime. The primary objectives of
GST were to eliminate the cascading effect of taxes, create a common national market, simplify
the tax structure, enhance tax compliance, and improve the ease of doing business in India. The
journey towards GST implementation underscores the complexities involved in undertaking
major tax reforms in a large federal country with diverse interests, yet its successful rollout
represents a significant milestone in India's economic history.

The Administration and Enforcement of Taxes in India

The administration and enforcement of the Indian taxation system are carried out through a
structured network of government bodies and departments, primarily under the purview of the
Ministry of Finance.

The Income Tax Department

The Income Tax Department (ITD) is the primary government agency in India responsible for the
collection and administration of direct taxes. It operates under the Department of Revenue,
which is part of the Ministry of Finance. The apex body that oversees the functioning of the
Income Tax Department is the Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT). The main responsibility of
the ITD is to enforce the various direct tax laws in India, with the Income-tax Act, 1961, being
the most important among them, to collect revenue for the Government of India.
The key functions of the Income Tax Department include the assessment of income tax returns
filed by individuals, firms, companies, and other entities; the collection of taxes due from
taxpayers; the implementation of measures to combat tax evasion and tax avoidance; the
processing of income tax rebates and refunds; and the creation of public awareness regarding
income tax laws and compliance requirements. The Income Tax Department has a well-defined
organizational structure with a hierarchy of officers, ranging from the top-level Principal Chief
Commissioner of Income Tax down to the level of Tax Assistant. For administrative purposes,
the field offices of the ITD are divided into 18 regions across India, with each region headed by
a Principal Chief Commissioner of Income Tax. To ensure compliance with tax laws, the Income
Tax Department is empowered to undertake various enforcement activities, including conducting
audits of tax returns, imposing penalties for non-compliance, initiating prosecutions in cases of
willful tax evasion, carrying out surveys of business premises, and conducting search and
seizure operations (commonly referred to as raids) in cases where tax evasion is suspected.
The department also utilizes measures such as the General Anti Avoidance Rule (GAAR) to
specifically target and combat aggressive tax avoidance practices.
Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT)
The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) is the apex body of the Income Tax Department in
India. It functions as a part of the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance and is a
statutory authority established under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. The CBDT plays
a crucial role in the formulation of policies related to direct taxes in India. It is responsible for
planning and overseeing the administration of direct tax laws through the Income Tax
Department. The board is headed by a Chairman and comprises six members, all of whom hold
the rank of ex officio Special Secretaries to the Government of India. These members are
selected from the Indian Revenue Service (IRS) and constitute the top leadership of the Income
Tax Department. The CBDT is instrumental in framing progressive tax policies, ensuring the fair
enforcement of tax laws, facilitating the delivery of quality services to taxpayers, and making tax
compliance easier. Additionally, the board plays a vital role in providing the necessary resources
to finance public spending, which is essential for achieving the socio-economic objectives of the
nation.

Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC)

The Central Board of Indirect Taxes & Customs (CBIC), which was previously known as the
Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC), is a statutory body that operates under the
Department of Revenue within the Ministry of Finance, Government of India. The CBIC is
primarily responsible for formulating policies related to the levy and collection of indirect taxes,
which include Customs duties, Central Excise duties, Central Goods & Services Tax (CGST),
and Integrated Goods & Services Tax (IGST). Its mandate also extends to the prevention of
smuggling and the administration of matters concerning Customs, Central Excise, CGST, IGST,
and Narcotics, within the scope of CBIC's authority.
The CBIC serves as the administrative authority for its various subordinate organizations,
including Custom Houses, Central Excise and Central GST Commissionerates, and the Central
Revenues Control Laboratory. To effectively carry out its functions, the CBIC operates through a
network of field organizations and several specialized Directorates. These include the
Directorate General of Analytics and Risk Management, which focuses on data analysis and risk
assessment; the Directorate General of GST Intelligence, responsible for combating tax evasion
under GST; the Directorate General of Audit, which oversees audit functions; and the
Directorate General of Vigilance, which deals with matters related to vigilance and
anti-corruption.

Taxpayer Services and Grievance Redressal Mechanisms

Both the Income Tax Department and the CBIC have increasingly focused on enhancing
taxpayer services and establishing effective mechanisms for grievance redressal. The Income
Tax Department provides an online portal that facilitates various taxpayer services, including
e-filing of income tax returns, online payment of taxes, checking the status of refunds, and
accessing tax-related information. For taxpayers who prefer in-person assistance, the ITD has
established Aaykar Seva Kendras (ASK), which function as Income Tax Service Centers where
individuals can file grievance petitions and seek assistance. Additionally, an online grievance
redressal mechanism is available through platforms like CPGRAMS and E-Nivaran, enabling
taxpayers to file their grievances electronically and allowing tax administrators to address and
resolve disputes online. The Income Tax Department also has a Taxpayers' Charter that outlines
the rights and responsibilities of taxpayers, promoting transparency and trust in the tax
administration process. Similarly, the CBIC has been focused on facilitating a smooth transition
for taxpayers to the GST environment and providing support for compliance with indirect tax
laws.

Enforcement Activities and Measures Against Tax Evasion

The Income Tax Department and the CBIC are actively involved in enforcement activities and
have implemented various measures to combat tax evasion and the generation of black money
in India. The Income Tax Department undertakes several enforcement actions, including
conducting scrutiny assessments of tax returns, imposing penalties for non-compliance with tax
laws, initiating prosecutions in cases of willful tax evasion, carrying out surveys of business
premises to verify records, and conducting search and seizure operations (raids) based on
intelligence inputs suggesting tax evasion. To specifically address the issue of tax avoidance,
the department utilizes the General Anti Avoidance Rule (GAAR), which is designed to prevent
taxpayers from entering into arrangements with the primary purpose of obtaining a tax benefit.
On the indirect tax front, the CBIC has established specialized directorates, such as the
Directorate General of GST Intelligence (DGGI), which is responsible for detecting and
combating tax evasion under the Goods and Services Tax regime. The CBIC also plays a
crucial role in preventing smuggling and other forms of illicit trade that can lead to revenue loss
for the government. In recent years, the government has also implemented broader policy
measures, such as the demonetization of high-value currency notes and the introduction of the
Goods and Services Tax (GST), with the aim of curbing tax evasion and reducing the circulation
of black money in the economy. Furthermore, both the Income Tax Department and the CBIC
are increasingly leveraging technology, including big data analytics and tracking of financial
transactions, to identify patterns of tax evasion and improve compliance.

Current Landscape: Issues, Debates, and Reforms

The Indian taxation system, despite undergoing significant reforms, continues to grapple with
several issues and remains a subject of ongoing debates and further reform efforts.

Challenges of Tax Evasion and Black Money in India

One of the most persistent challenges facing the Indian taxation system is the widespread issue
of tax evasion and the prevalence of black money, which result in substantial revenue losses for
the government. A significant portion of India's economy operates within the informal sector,
which often remains outside the formal tax net, making it difficult for tax authorities to monitor
and collect revenue from these activities. Studies have also indicated that wealthy individuals in
India tend to report significantly lower incomes relative to their vast wealth, suggesting a trend of
underreporting and tax avoidance among the affluent. The use of tax havens by some
individuals and entities to avoid tax obligations further exacerbates the problem. The complexity
of the tax laws and the administrative procedures themselves can sometimes create loopholes
that are exploited for tax evasion, and corruption within certain sections of the tax administration
can also contribute to the issue. The informal nature of a considerable segment of the Indian
economy, coupled with sophisticated tax avoidance strategies employed by some
high-net-worth individuals and corporations, presents major hurdles for achieving effective and
comprehensive tax collection across the country.

Efforts Towards Simplifying Tax Compliance and Reducing Burden

Recognizing the challenges faced by taxpayers in navigating the complexities of the Indian tax
system, the government has been actively pursuing various measures aimed at simplifying tax
compliance and reducing the overall burden. One of the key initiatives in this direction has been
the introduction of the New Income Tax Regime, which offers lower tax rates as an alternative to
the traditional regime that allows for numerous exemptions and deductions. The implementation
of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in 2017 was a landmark reform that aimed to unify the
indirect tax system and streamline compliance by replacing a multitude of taxes with a single
levy. The government has also been actively promoting the digitalization of tax-related
processes, with the Income Tax Department's e-filing portal making it easier for taxpayers to file
their returns and make tax payments online. Recent reforms announced in the Union Budget
2025 include the rationalization of Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) and Tax Collected at Source
(TCS) limits, as well as the extension of the period for filing updated income tax returns, all
aimed at easing the compliance burden on taxpayers. Furthermore, there are ongoing efforts to
simplify the GST procedures and potentially reduce the number of tax slabs to make the indirect
tax system more user-friendly. The government has also announced plans to introduce a new
Income Tax Bill that aims to further simplify the tax regime and reduce the compliance burden
by replacing the existing Income Tax Act of 1961. These various initiatives demonstrate a clear
focus on leveraging technology and simplifying regulations to make tax compliance easier for
both individuals and businesses in India.

Analysis of Recent Tax Reforms and their Economic Impact (e.g.,

Union Budget 2025)
Recent tax reforms, particularly those announced in the Union Budget 2025, have placed a
significant emphasis on providing tax relief to the middle class in India. Key measures include
an increase in the nil tax slab under the new tax regime to ₹12 lakh, effectively making income
up to ₹12.75 lakh tax-free for salaried taxpayers after considering the standard deduction. The
budget also proposed revisions to the income tax slabs under the new regime, aiming to further
reduce the tax burden on individuals earning between ₹12 lakh and ₹24 lakh per year.
Additionally, there has been a rationalization of TDS and TCS provisions, including doubling the
limit for tax deduction on interest for senior citizens and increasing the annual TDS limit on rent.
The government has also extended the time limit for filing updated income tax returns, providing
more flexibility to taxpayers. These reforms are primarily driven by the objective of boosting
household consumption, savings, and investment by leaving more disposable income in the
hands of the middle class.
The Union Budget 2025 also includes tax incentives and financial support for startups and
Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to encourage entrepreneurship and job
creation, including an extension of the period for incorporating startups to avail tax benefits.
Furthermore, the budget has introduced customs duty exemptions on certain critical minerals
and for the manufacturing of electric vehicles, aiming to boost domestic manufacturing and
exports. The economic impact of these recent tax reforms is expected to be significant in the
long term, with the potential to stimulate GDP growth, attract more investment, and generate
employment opportunities across various sectors. However, some concerns have been raised
regarding the potential impact of these tax cuts on the fiscal deficit, as the significant tax relief
provided to the middle class is not accompanied by compensatory tax increases for higher
income groups. While the reforms aim to boost consumption and overall economic activity, the
long-term sustainability of this strategy will depend on maintaining fiscal discipline and exploring
alternative revenue sources.

India's Tax System in Global Context

Understanding the Indian taxation system requires placing it within a global context by
comparing its structure and rates with those of other major economies. This comparative
analysis helps in identifying similarities and differences, understanding India's relative position in
terms of tax burden and competitiveness, and drawing lessons from international best practices.

Comparative Analysis of Tax Structures and Rates with Major

Economies
When comparing personal income tax rates, India's maximum marginal rate of around 39%
(including surcharge and cess) is notably lower than that of many developed nations such as
the USA, Canada, the UK, France, Germany, Japan, and Australia, where top rates can exceed
45% or even 50%. However, it is higher than some other major economies like China. In the
realm of corporate tax rates, India's standard rate of 22-30% is generally comparable to or
somewhat higher than that of China (25%) and the federal corporate tax rate in the USA (21%).
When considering the combined federal and state corporate tax rate in the USA, it becomes
more aligned with India's. Germany's corporate tax rate is around 30%, similar to the higher end
of India's range, while the UK has a lower standard corporate tax rate of 19%.
In terms of indirect taxation, India's Goods and Services Tax (GST) operates on a multi-slab
structure with rates ranging from 0% to 28%, which is quite different from the simpler single or
fewer slab systems prevalent in countries like Canada (with a federal GST of 5% and varying
Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) rates across provinces), the UK (standard VAT rate of 20%), and
Singapore (GST rate of 7%). China also has a standard VAT rate of 13%. For capital gains tax,
India's rates vary depending on the holding period and the type of asset, with long-term capital
gains on equity shares taxed at 12.5% (above a certain threshold). Other major economies have
different approaches; for instance, China imposes a flat 20% tax on capital gains from the sale
of property, while Australia taxes capital gains at the marginal income tax rate with a 50%
discount for assets held longer than 12 months. Singapore stands out by not levying any capital
gains tax. Overall, when considering the total tax burden as a percentage of GDP, India's ratio is
lower than that of many developed countries, which often have higher social security
contributions and more comprehensive welfare systems funded through taxation.

India's Tax-to-GDP Ratio: Trends and International Comparisons

India's tax-to-GDP ratio, which measures the country's total tax revenue as a percentage of its
gross domestic product, provides a key indicator of the government's capacity to mobilize
resources for development. In recent years, India's direct tax-to-GDP ratio has shown an
increasing trend, reaching 6.6% in the fiscal year 2023-24, up from 6.1% in the previous year.
The indirect tax-to-GDP ratio for the same period stood at 6.86%. When considering all taxes
levied by the central, state, and local governments, India's total tax-to-GDP ratio is around 19%.
While this indicates a growing capacity for revenue generation, it is still lower than the average
tax-to-GDP ratio of developed countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), which is typically over 30%. However, India's tax-to-GDP ratio is
comparable to or even higher than that of some other Asian and developing economies. The
trend in India's tax revenue collection over the past decade shows that the contribution of direct
taxes has been gradually increasing, and in recent years, it has surpassed the revenue
generated from indirect taxes, indicating a shift towards a more direct tax-oriented system.
While India's tax-to-GDP ratio is on the rise, it still has room for improvement when compared to
more developed nations, suggesting that as the Indian economy continues to grow, there is
potential for further enhancing revenue mobilization to support the country's developmental
needs.

Learning from International Best Practices in Tax Administration

Examining the tax administration practices of developed countries can offer valuable lessons for
India in its ongoing efforts to improve efficiency, enhance compliance, and reduce the burden on
taxpayers. Several countries stand out for their adoption of best practices across various
aspects of tax administration. For instance, Australia's tax office is widely perceived as a leading
global tax agency, known for its sophisticated approach to taxpayer registration and compliance
risk management. The Scandinavian countries, particularly Denmark, Norway, and Sweden,
have made significant strides in pre-filling tax returns and promoting e-filing, simplifying the
process for taxpayers and enhancing efficiency. These nations also place a strong emphasis on
understanding what drives taxpayer behavior and tailoring their services and enforcement
strategies accordingly. Ireland has demonstrated effectiveness in monitoring withholding agents
and managing the recovery of tax arrears. The United States is notable for its comprehensive
information returns program and its efforts in tax gap analysis, which helps in understanding the
difference between potential and actual tax revenue. New Zealand has focused on
understanding and reducing the compliance costs for taxpayers. Estonia, Chile, Singapore, and
Australia are recognized for their successful implementation of advanced IT systems in tax
administration, streamlining processes and improving service delivery. By studying and adapting
these international best practices, India can further strengthen its tax administration capabilities,
improve taxpayer services, enhance compliance rates, and ultimately build a more robust and
efficient tax system.

Impact of Global Tax Standards and Initiatives on India

India, as a significant player in the global economy, is increasingly influenced by international
tax standards and initiatives aimed at promoting transparency, preventing tax evasion, and
ensuring fair taxation. One of the most prominent global initiatives is the Base Erosion and Profit
Shifting (BEPS) project spearheaded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) and the G20. BEPS aims to address tax avoidance strategies used by
multinational enterprises that exploit gaps and mismatches in tax rules to artificially shift profits
to low or no-tax locations. India has been actively involved in the BEPS project and has taken
steps to implement several of its recommendations, including those related to transfer pricing,
treaty abuse, and the taxation of the digital economy. Another key global initiative is the
implementation of global minimum taxes, which aim to ensure that large multinational
companies pay a minimum level of tax regardless of where they are headquartered or the
location of their operations. India has shown its commitment to combating tax avoidance by
adhering to international frameworks such as the OECD's Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
(BEPS) Action Plan and by renegotiating Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements (DTAAs) with
various countries. These agreements are designed to prevent the same income from being
taxed twice in two different countries and to promote cross-border investment by reducing tax
barriers. India has also been strengthening initiatives like the Common Reporting Standard
(CRS) to enhance transparency and curb tax avoidance by facilitating the automatic exchange
of financial account information between countries. By aligning its tax policies and
administration with these international standards and initiatives, India aims to create a more
transparent, fair, and efficient tax system that is conducive to attracting genuine foreign
investment while also preventing revenue leakages through tax avoidance.

Conclusion: Navigating the Complexities of Indian

Taxation
The Indian taxation system, with its federal structure and a blend of direct and indirect taxes,
plays a pivotal role in the nation's economic development. The constitutional framework clearly
demarcates the taxation powers between the Union and the States, ensuring a balance in fiscal
authority. Direct taxes, primarily comprising income tax on individuals and corporations, are
characterized by a progressive rate structure and various incentives aimed at promoting
savings, investment, and economic growth. Indirect taxes, led by the transformative Goods and
Services Tax (GST), have streamlined the tax landscape by replacing a multitude of levies with
a unified, destination-based tax. While GST has simplified the system and eliminated the
cascading effect of taxes, challenges related to compliance and rate rationalization persist.
Other indirect taxes like customs duties, excise duties (on select goods), and stamp duties
continue to be important sources of revenue and regulatory tools.
The historical evolution of Indian taxation, from ancient times through the British colonial era to
the post-independence reforms and the implementation of GST, reflects a continuous adaptation
to changing economic and political landscapes. The administration and enforcement of taxes
are primarily handled by the Income Tax Department for direct taxes and the Central Board of
Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) for indirect taxes, both of which are under the Ministry of
Finance. These departments are increasingly leveraging technology to improve taxpayer
services, enhance compliance, and combat tax evasion. Despite the progress made, India's tax
administration still faces challenges such as a large informal economy, tax evasion, and the
need for further simplification and improved efficiency.
In a global context, India's tax rates are generally competitive, with personal income tax rates
being lower than many developed countries. However, the overall tax-to-GDP ratio remains
modest, indicating potential for increased revenue mobilization as the economy grows. Learning
from international best practices in tax administration, particularly in areas like technology
adoption and risk management, can further strengthen India's tax system. Moreover, India's
active participation in global tax initiatives, such as the OECD's BEPS project, demonstrates its
commitment to aligning with international standards for a fair and transparent tax environment.
Navigating the complexities of the Indian taxation system requires a continuous focus on
simplification, effective enforcement, and a balance between revenue generation and promoting
economic growth and equity.
Works cited

1. Understanding the Tax Structure in India: A Key Pillar of Nation-Building,

https://www.eoiparis.gov.in/content/A-Key-Pillar-of-Nation-Building.pdf 2. Complete Guide to Tax
Laws and Rules in India, https://www.lloydlawcollege.edu.in/blog/tax-laws-rules-india.html 3. Tax
System & Structure in India - Types & Taxation | SBI Life,
https://www.sbilife.co.in/en/knowledge-centre/insurance-basics-financial-advice/tax-structure-sys
tem-in-india 4. Tax Structure In India: Learn Indian Tax System & Taxation - Canara HSBC Life
Insurance, https://www.canarahsbclife.com/blog/tax-saving/all-about-tax-structure-in-india 5.
Indian Tax System- A three tier Federal Structure - Unacademy,
https://unacademy.com/content/kerala-psc/study-material/finance/indian-tax-system-a-three-tier-
federal-structure/ 6. Tax: Basics, Types, Tax Rates, and Tax Filing in India - RenewBuy,
https://www.renewbuy.com/articles/tax/indian-tax-system 7. Tax Structure in India - Types of
Taxes in India | HDFC Life,
https://www.hdfclife.com/insurance-knowledge-centre/tax-saving-insurance/tax-structure-in-india
8. India's Taxation System: Types, Objectives & Challenges - PMF IAS,
https://www.pmfias.com/indias-taxation-system/ 9. Taxation System in India - High Commission
of India, Seychelles, https://www.hciseychelles.gov.in/taxation-system-in-india.php 10. Taxation
in India - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_India 11. www.finactservices.com,
https://www.finactservices.com/constitutional-provisions/#:~:text=Article%20265%3A%20Article
%20265%20of,the%20Legislature%20imposing%20the%20tax. 12. Taxation System In India -
Drishti CUET, https://www.drishticuet.com/current-affairs/taxation-system-in-india 13.
Constitutional Provisions for Taxation System in India - Ignited Minds Journals,
https://ignited.in/index.php/jasrae/article/download/12829/25461/63617 14. Taxation Provisions
through the Prism of Constitution - The Law Codes,
https://thelawcodes.com/article/taxation-provisions-through-the-prism-of-constitution/ 15. Law of
taxation and the Constitution of India - iPleaders,
https://blog.ipleaders.in/law-taxation-constitution-india/ 16. Legislative Entries in the Constitution
- The Law Codes, https://thelawcodes.com/legislative-entries-in-the-constitution/ 17. States'
power to impose taxes based on annual turnover - Supreme Court Observer,
https://www.scobserver.in/cases/states-power-to-impose-taxes-based-on-annual-turnover/ 18.
How does the Indian Constitution allocate powers related to revenue collection between the
central and state governments? | Law4u,
https://law4u.in/answer/6678/How-does-the-Indian-Constitution-allocate-powers-related-to-reve
nue-collection-between-the-central-and-state-governments 19. Constitutional Provisions
Relating to Taxation in India - LawBhoomi,
https://lawbhoomi.com/constitutional-provisions-relating-to-taxation-in-india/ 20. Distribution of
Revenues between the Union and the States - Finance Commission,
https://fincomindia.nic.in/constitutional-provisions 21. Unit -1 Brief history income tax in india,
https://law.uok.edu.in/Files/5ce6c765-c013-446c-b6ac-b9de496f8751/Custom/unit_1_of_income
_tax.pdf 22. What Is the History of Taxation in India? - Unacademy,
https://unacademy.com/content/bank-exam/study-material/general-awareness/what-is-the-histor
y-of-taxation-in-india/ 23. Taxation System in India: Understanding the Indian Tax Structure -
PNB MetLife,
https://www.pnbmetlife.com/articles/taxation/evolution-of-taxation-system-in-india.html 24.
History of Law of taxation in India - LeDroit India,
https://ledroitindia.in/history-of-law-of-taxation-in-india/ 25. History of Income Tax Act - The Law
Codes, https://thelawcodes.com/history-of-income-tax-act/ 26. Income Tax Was Introduced On
This Day: Celebrating India's Fiscal Milestone - NDTV,
https://www.ndtv.com/offbeat/national-income-tax-day-income-tax-was-introduced-on-this-day-c
elebrating-indias-fiscal-milestone-on-24th-july-6175720 27. Income tax in India - Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_tax_in_India 28. Celebrating Income Tax Day 2024: A
Journey of Transformation Budget 2024-25 Introduces Enhanced Deductions and Revised Tax
Slabs - PIB, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2035918 29. India -
Individual - Taxes on personal income,
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/india/individual/taxes-on-personal-income 30. Income Tax Slabs
and Rates – FY 2024-25, AY 2025-26 - Max Life Insurance,
https://www.maxlifeinsurance.com/blog/tax-savings/income-tax-slab-2024-25 31. NRI taxation:
Know the income tax rates - ICICI Bank,
https://www.icicibank.com/nri-banking/nriedge/nri-articles/nri-taxation-know-the-income-tax-rates
32. FAQs on New Tax vs Old Tax Regime | Income Tax Department,
https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/help/new-tax-vs-old-tax-regime-faqs 33. Income Tax
Slab Rates for FY 2025-26 (New & Old Tax Regime) - Bankbazaar,
https://www.bankbazaar.com/tax/income-tax-slabs.html 34. Income Tax Slabs for FY 2025-26
and AY 2026-27 (New & Old Tax Regime) - ClearTax, https://cleartax.in/s/income-tax-slabs 35.
New Income Tax Slab and Rates - FY 2025-26 (AY 2026-27) - The Economic Times,
https://m.economictimes.com/wealth/income-tax-slabs 36. Senior Citizens and Super Senior
Citizens for AY 2025-2026 | Income Tax Department,
https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/help/individual/return-applicable-2 37. Individual
having Income from Business / Profession for AY 2025-2026,
https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/help/individual-business-profession 38. Returns and
Forms Applicable for Salaried Individuals for AY 2025-26 - Income Tax,
https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/help/individual/return-applicable-1 39. Are Indians
paying more tax than those in other countries? - India Today,
https://www.indiatoday.in/diu/story/are-indians-paying-more-tax-than-those-in-other-countries-23
93897-2023-06-16 40. Comparison of US and India Tax Systems - USAIndiaCFO,
https://usaindiacfo.com/comparison-of-us-and-india-tax-systems/ 41. Comparison of Income Tax
filing in India and the US - Canara HSBC Life Insurance,
https://www.canarahsbclife.com/blog/tax-saving/how-different-is-filing-taxes-in-india-versus-filing
-taxes-in-the-usa 42. Income Tax Budget 2024: Where do India's tax rates stand vis-à-vis
developed nations like US, UK & Australia? Check here | Mint,
https://www.livemint.com/money/personal-finance/income-tax-budget-2024-where-do-india-s-tax
-rates-stand-vis-vis-developed-nations-like-us-uk-australia-check-here-11721750398113.html
43. Tax system: India vs. Other Countries - OkCredit,
https://okcredit.in/blog/income-tax-in-india-vs-other-countries/ 44. India and German tax slabs
compared : r/IndiaTax - Reddit,
https://www.reddit.com/r/IndiaTax/comments/1ifyfb0/india_and_german_tax_slabs_compared/
45. Income Tax Calculator for FY 2025-26 | Calculate Your Old and New Regime - Groww,
https://groww.in/calculators/income-tax-calculator 46. Income Tax Slab for FY 2025-26 and FY
2024-25 - New vs Old Tax Regime - Bajaj Finserv,
https://www.bajajfinserv.in/investments/income-tax-slabs 47. 5 key tax reforms for middle class
introduced in Budget 2025 - India Today,
https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/5-key-tax-reforms-for-middle-class-introduced-in-budge
t-2025-no-tax-till-rs-12-lakh-revised-tax-slabs-extension-in-updated-tax-filing-2674538-2025-02-
04 48. Key Takeaways from Union Budget 2025: Tax Updates and More - RBL Bank,
https://www.rblbank.com/blog/banking/tax/union-budget-2025-tax-updates-economic-highlights
49. Income tax highlights of Budget 2025: Lakshmi blesses middle class taxpayer,
https://m.economictimes.com/wealth/tax/income-tax-highlights-of-budget-2025-lakshmi-blesses-
middle-class-taxpayer/articleshow/117832475.cms 50. Union Budget 2025-26: Transformative
Tax Relief for the Middle-Class - Times of India,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/union-budget-2025-26-major-tax-relief-for-mi
ddle-class-aiming-for-viksit-bharat-with-comprehensive-sectoral-reforms/articleshow/117828593.
cms 51. Transformative direct tax reforms in Budget 2025 for middle class empowerment,
https://www.business-standard.com/budget/news/transformative-direct-tax-reforms-in-budget-20
25-for-middle-class-empowerment-125020101111_1.html 52. Middle Class Receives Relief with
Lower Tax Burden in Union Budget 2025 | DD India,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJHrD3y2ePE 53. Income Tax Deductions List - Deductions
on Section 80C, 80CCC ..., https://cleartax.in/s/80c-80-deductions 54. Deductions in New Tax
Regime under Union Budget 2025 - Policybazaar,
https://www.policybazaar.com/income-tax/some-of-the-important-deductions-available-in-the-ne
w-tax-regime/ 55. Income Tax Allowances and Deductions Allowed to Salaried ...,
https://cleartax.in/s/income-tax-allowances-and-deductions 56. Income Tax Deductions &
Exemptions List (AY 2024-25) - Kotak Life Insurance,
https://www.kotaklife.com/insurance-guide/savingstax/income-tax-deductions-list 57. India -
Individual - Deductions - PwC Tax Summaries,
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/india/individual/deductions 58. Understanding the Tax Reforms in
India Budget 2025 | IndusInd Bank,
https://www.indusind.com/iblogs/investment/understanding-tax-reforms-in-india-budget-2025/
59. Overhauling India's tax system - Deccan Herald,
https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/overhauling-india-s-tax-system-3391700 60. Corporate
Tax in India: Meaning and Tax Rate - ClearTax, https://cleartax.in/s/corporate-tax 61. Corporate
Income Tax in India - India Guide | Doing Business in India,
https://www.india-briefing.com/doing-business-guide/india/taxation-and-accounting/country-wise
-tax-structure/corporate-income-tax 62. Corporate Tax Overview - Meaning and Tax rates -
Groww, https://groww.in/p/tax/corporate-tax 63. Returns and Forms Applicable for Domestic
Company for AY 2025-26 - Income Tax,
https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/help/company/return-applicable 64. Corporate Tax in
India: Overview, Rates & Tax Liability | Article - HSBC Business Go,
https://www.businessgo.hsbc.com/en/article/corporate-tax-in-india-overview-rates-tax-liability 65.
International Tax India Highlights 2024 - Deloitte,
https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/Tax/dttl-tax-indiahighlights-20
24.pdf 66. India Announces Simplified Tax Regime & Reforms - ECOVIS International,
https://www.ecovis.com/global/india-announces-simplified-tax-regime-reforms/ 67. India -
Corporate - Taxes on corporate income - PwC Tax Summaries,
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/india/corporate/taxes-on-corporate-income 68. Business Friendly
Reforms India's Path to Prosperity - Invest India,
https://www.investindia.gov.in/blogs/business-friendly-reforms-indias-path-prosperity 69. Are
LTCG tax rates in India too high? Here is a look at tax rates in other major economies,
https://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/policy/budget-2024-ltcg-tax-rates-in-india-too-high-
here-is-a-look-at-tax-rates-in-other-major-economies/articleshow/112040889.cms 70. A
comparative look at India's LTCG rates in tandem with peers like UAE, Singapore, China, USA
and others - Grant Thornton,
https://www.grantthornton.in/insights/media-articles/a-comparative-look-at-indias-ltcg-rates-in-ta
ndem-with-peers-like-uae-singapore-china-usa-and-others/ 71. Goods and Services Tax (India) -
Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goods_and_Services_Tax_(India) 72. Understanding
GST: A Comprehensive Overview of India's Goods and Services Tax,
https://omnicard.in/blogs/gst-14092024 73. Explainer on 4-tier GST Tax Structure in India -
Jordensky, https://www.jordensky.com/blog/4-tier-gst-tax-structure-in-india 74. India Goods and
Services Tax (GST) - India Guide | Doing Business in India - India Briefing,
https://www.india-briefing.com/doing-business-guide/india/taxation-and-accounting/country-wise
-tax-structure/goods-and-services-tax-gst 75. Goods and Services Tax: What is GST in India?
Indirect Tax Law Explained - ClearTax, https://cleartax.in/s/gst-law-goods-and-services-tax 76.
India - Corporate - Other taxes - PwC Tax Summaries,
https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/india/corporate/other-taxes 77. Structure of GST in India:
Four-Tier GST Tax Structure Breakdown, https://cleartax.in/s/gst-structure-india 78. GST
Structure in India: Four-Tier GST Tax Structure Breakdown - Bajaj Finserv,
https://www.bajajfinserv.in/gst-structure-india 79. Types of GST in India - What is SGST, CGST,
IGST & UGST? - Groww, https://groww.in/p/tax/types-of-gst 80. cleartax.in,
https://cleartax.in/s/tax-to-gdp-ratio#:~:text=the%202025%20Playbook-,Direct%20tax%20to%20
GDP%20ratio%20of%20India%20in%202023%2D24,6.7%25%20for%20the%20following%20y
ear. 81. GST Rates in India 2025 - List of Goods and Service Tax Rates, Slab ...,
https://cleartax.in/s/gst-rates 82. GST Rates 2025 - List of Latest Goods and Service Tax Rates -
Bankbazaar, https://www.bankbazaar.com/tax/gst-rates.html 83. GST Rates in India 2025:
Complete List of Goods and Services Tax Rates,
https://www.maxlifeinsurance.com/blog/tax-savings/what-are-gst-rates 84. GST rates in India
2025 - Check List of Latest Goods and Service Tax Rates | Bajaj Finance,
https://www.bajajfinserv.in/gst-rates-in-india 85. GST Rates in 2025 - List of Goods and Service
Tax Rates Slabs - Groww, https://groww.in/p/tax/gst-rates 86. Indian GST rates - Avalara,
https://www.avalara.com/vatlive/en/country-guides/asia/india/indian-gst-rates.html 87. GST
Goods and Services Rates, https://cbic-gst.gov.in/gst-goods-services-rates.html 88. GST in
India: Implications for Businesses and Consumers - Lawvs,
https://lawvs.com/articles/gst-in-india-implications-for-businesses-and-consumers 89. GST in
India: Implications for Businesses and Consumers - Legal Articles - Free Law,
https://www.freelaw.in/legalarticles/GST-in-India-Implications-for-Businesses-and-Consumers
90. Impact of GST on the Indian Economy - ClearTax,
https://cleartax.in/s/impact-of-gst-on-indian-economy 91. Unlock The Benefits Of GST: Boosting
Business And Consumer Savings,
https://www.credencecorpsolutions.com/blog/what-are-the-benefits-of-gst-for-businesses-and-co
nsumers-bg1249 92. The Impact of GST on the Indian Economy - Fi.Money,
https://fi.money/guides/personal-finance/the-impact-of-gst-on-the-indian-economy 93. How
India's GST Will Impact Business - Global PEO Services, https://globalpeoservices.com/gst/ 94.
Effects of GST Implementation on the Retail Industry and its Business Impact,
https://ijfans.org/uploads/paper/c39c5a9d34b615fa0e598329f5ced64c.pdf 95. Impact of GST on
Indian Businesses - Pice, https://piceapp.com/blogs/impact-of-gst-on-business/ 96. Impact of
GST on Consumers - Unacademy,
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/government-schemes/impact-of-gst-on-con
sumers/ 97. Customs Duty in India - Check Types, Calculation & Latest rates,
https://www.bankbazaar.com/tax/custom-duty.html 98. Customs Duty and Import-Export Taxes
in India - India Guide | Doing Business in India,
https://www.india-briefing.com/doing-business-guide/india/taxation-and-accounting/customs-dut
y-and-import-export-taxes-in-india 99. wise.com, https://wise.com/in/import-duty/ 100. The guide
to import duty and taxes in India | DHL Malaysia,
https://www.dhl.com/discover/en-my/logistics-advice/import-export-advice/guide-to-import-duty-a
nd-taxes-in-india 101. Understanding customs taxes and duties on personal imports in India -
DHL,
https://www.dhl.com/discover/en-in/e-commerce-advice/shipping-guides-by-country/customs-tax
es-and-duties-on-personal-imports-in-india 102. Custom Duty in India: Meaning, Types, Rates,
Calculation - ClearTax, https://cleartax.in/s/customs-duty-india 103. What is Excise Duty? |
Definition,Types & Steps to Pay Excise Duty - Groww, https://groww.in/p/tax/excise-duty 104.
Check out Types & Rates of Excise Duty in India - Tax - INDmoney,
https://www.indmoney.com/blog/tax/excise-duty 105. Excise Duty in India - Check out Types &
Rates of Excise Duty - Bankbazaar, https://www.bankbazaar.com/tax/excise-duty.html 106.
What is Excise Duty, Excise Duty Definition, Excise Duty News,
https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-excise-duty 107. Excise Duty,
https://wb.gov.in/acts/act_excise_excise_duty.pdf 108. www.angelone.in,
https://www.angelone.in/knowledge-center/income-tax/what-is-stamp-duty#:~:text=Stamp%20du
ty%20is%20a%20form,in%20a%20court%20of%20law. 109. What is Stamp Duty and Why is It
Collected? - Angel One,
https://www.angelone.in/knowledge-center/income-tax/what-is-stamp-duty 110. Stamp Duty -
Registration, Rates, Calculation & Payment - Bankbazaar,
https://www.bankbazaar.com/tax/stamp-duty.html 111. A simple note on Stamp Duty -
Unacademy, https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/commerce/stamp-duty/ 112.
What Is Stamp Duty & Why To Pay It? | IIFL Knowledge Center,
https://www.indiainfoline.com/knowledge-center/tax-saving-tax-planning/what-is-stamp-duty-and
-why-to-pay-it 113. Stamp Duty - Definition, What is Stamp Duty, Advantages of Stamp Duty,
and Latest News - ClearTax, https://cleartax.in/glossary/stamp-duty 114. Stamp Duty Calculator
| Estimate Rates and Registration Charges ..., https://www.bajajfinserv.in/stamp-duty-calculator
115. What is Stamp Duty on Property? A Simple Guide for Savvy Indian Homebuyers - ASBL,
https://asbl.in/blog/what-is-stamp-duty-on-property-a-simple-guide-for-savvy-indian-homebuyers
/ 116. What is Stamp Duty & Why is it Important? - Fi.Money,
https://fi.money/guides/mutual-funds/what-is-stamp-duty-why-is-it-important 117. Stamp duty -
Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_duty 118. A CONSTITUTIONAL COMPARATIVE
ANALYSIS OF TAXATION IN THE USA AND INDIA - Indian Journal of Integrated Research in
Law,
https://ijirl.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/A-CONSTITUTIONAL-COMPARATIVE-ANALYSIS-
OF-TAXATION-IN-THE-USA-AND-INDIA.pdf 119. Evolution of Tax system in India - IJNRD,
https://www.ijnrd.org/papers/IJNRD2309405.pdf 120. History of Taxation in India – Tax Structure
from Past to Present., https://www.levare.co.in/articles/history-taxation-india 121.
www.taxscan.in,
https://www.taxscan.in/indian-tax-system-before-independence-heres-the-history-for-you/42867
9/#:~:text=The%20mediaeval%20period%20saw%20further,)%2C%20the%20tax%20burden%2
0increased. 122. The Evolution of Taxation in India: From Ancient Civilizations to Modern
Systems - ijrpr, https://ijrpr.com/uploads/V4ISSUE9/IJRPR17409.pdf 123. Income concentration
in British India, 1885-1946. Online Appendix - Thomas Piketty,
http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/AlvaredoBergeronCassan2017Appendix.pdf 124. Taxation in
Pre-Independence Period: The Salt Tax - IDEAS/RePEc,
https://ideas.repec.org/h/spr/sptchp/978-3-030-68214-9_5.html 125. Economy of India |
Post-Independence Growth, Agriculture, Manufacturing, & Trade | Britannica,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/economy-of-India 126. How income tax slabs have changed
since Independence - We've come a long way,
https://m.economictimes.com/wealth/tax/how-income-tax-slabs-have-changed-since-independe
nce/weve-come-a-long-way/slideshow/67582813.cms 127. Trends and Issues in Tax Policy and
Reform in India - Brookings Institution,
https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/2005_rao.pdf 128. India's evolving tax
system: its successes and challenges, https://rrjournals.com/index.php/rrijm/article/view/246
129. Thirty Years of Tax Reform in India - ResearchGate,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262125331_Thirty_Years_of_Tax_Reform_in_India
130. Tax Reforms In India: Various Committees - PWOnlyIAS,
https://pwonlyias.com/udaan/tax-reforms-in-india/ 131. Tax Reforms in India since 1991: An
Overview - Semantic Scholar,
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0ce2/6e32d0c99ae22d410e3ad2f0c6b84e83cc1e.pdf 132.
History of GST Explained with Timelines - ClearTax, https://cleartax.in/s/history-of-gst 133.
History of GST in India - Pice, https://piceapp.com/blogs/history-of-gst-in-india/ 134. History of
GST in India: Evolution, Benefits & Implementation | 5paisa,
https://www.5paisa.com/stock-market-guide/tax/history-of-gst-in-india 135. History of GST in
India - Features and Benefits of implementation | Bajaj Finance,
https://www.bajajfinserv.in/history-of-gst 136. About Us Archive | Goods and Services Tax
Council, https://gstcouncil.gov.in/about-us-archive 137. The History of GST: From Concept to
Implementation - Marg ERP Blog, https://margcompusoft.com/m/history-of-gst/ 138. GST
Timeline: 2000-2017 - India Briefing News,
https://www.india-briefing.com/news/gst-timeline-2000-2017-14856.html/ 139. Income Tax
Department - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_Tax_Department 140. Income Tax
Department - Definition - The Economic Times,
https://m.economictimes.com/definition/income-tax-department 141. Decoding the Income Tax
Department's Role in India - Pluto Money,
https://www.plutomoney.in/blog/income-tax-departmentkey-functions-services-role-and-responsi
bilities 142. Income Tax Department's (ITD) primary duties, roles, and services - Super CA,
https://superca.in/blogs/income-tax-departments-itd-primary-duties-roles-and-services 143.
Income Tax Department: Key Functions, Services, Role and Responsibilities of ITD,
https://cleartax.in/s/income-tax-department 144. Department of Revenue : Functions and
Responsibilities - DOR, https://dor.gov.in/functions 145. CHAPTER- I - ITGOA-WB Unit,
https://www.itgoawbunit.org/pdf/464935395Draft%20JCA%20Memorandum.pdf 146. Indian
Revenue Service - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Revenue_Service 147.
Organizational Setup - DOR, https://dor.gov.in/organizational-setup 148. What is the Hierarchy
of raising issues under Income Tax (i.e. AO/ITO/CIT(A)/ITAT etc.),
https://sinewave.co.in/what-is-the-hierarchy-of-raising-issues-under-income-tax-i-e-ao-ito-cita-ita
t-etc/ 149. List of Income Tax Department officer ranks - Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Income_Tax_Department_officer_ranks 150. Income Tax
Delhi, https://www.incometaxdelhi.org/about-us.html 151. Organization Structure - Income Tax
Delhi, https://www.incometaxdelhi.org/organization-structure.html 152. organisation and
functioning of the income-tax department in india - CORE,
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/144508805.pdf 153. Organization Chart - Income Tax
Department, Gujarat, https://incometaxgujarat.gov.in/organization-chart.php 154. Organizational
Chart - State Taxes Department, https://jkcomtax.gov.in/organizationchart.html 155. India -
Individual - Tax administration, https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/india/individual/tax-administration
156. Enforced collection actions | Internal Revenue Service,
https://www.irs.gov/businesses/small-businesses-self-employed/enforced-collection-actions 157.
About us - Department of Taxation and Finance - NY.Gov, https://www.tax.ny.gov/about/ 158.
Criminal Investigation | Internal Revenue Service,
https://www.irs.gov/compliance/criminal-investigation 159. Employment Tax Enforcement -
Department of Justice, https://www.justice.gov/tax/employment-tax-enforcement-0 160. Tax
Division - Department of Justice, https://www.justice.gov/tax 161. Criminal Investigations
Division - Ohio Department of Taxation,
https://tax.ohio.gov/wps/portal/gov/tax/professional/criminal-investigations-division 162. IRS
Enforcement Activities: Past, Present, and Future - The Tax Adviser,
https://www.thetaxadviser.com/issues/2008/jul/irsenforcementactivitiespastpresentandfuture.htm
l 163. T-GGD-97-155 Tax Administration: IRS' Use of Enforcement Authorities to Collect
Delinquent Taxes - GAO, https://www.gao.gov/assets/t-ggd-97-155.pdf 164. Top IRS
Enforcement Targets for 2021 - Jackson Hewitt,
https://www.jacksonhewitt.com/tax-help/tax-tips-topics/filing-your-taxes/top-irs-enforcement-targ
ets-for-2021/ 165. Trends in Compliance Activities Through Fiscal Year 2022 - Treasury
Inspector General for Tax Administration,
https://www.tigta.gov/sites/default/files/reports/2023-12/2024300011fr.pdf 166. The Legal
Challenges of Corporate Tax Evasion and Avoidance in India - LegalOnus,
https://legalonus.com/the-legal-challenges-of-corporate-tax-evasion-and-avoidance-in-india/
167. Central Board of Indirect Taxes & Customs (CBIC) - DOR,
https://dor.gov.in/sites/default/files/inline-documents/CBIC.pdf 168. Central Board Of Indirect
Taxes & Customs, https://www.cbic.gov.in/entities/who-we-are 169. Goods & Service Tax, CBIC,
Government of India :: ACES, https://cbic-gst.gov.in/aces/whoweare.html 170. Central Board of
Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) - Referencer,
https://www.referencer.in/General_Information/CBEC.aspx 171. Central Board of Indirect Taxes
and Customs - Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Board_of_Indirect_Taxes_and_Customs 172. Central
Board of Indirect Taxes & Customs (CBIC), CBIC Functions [UPSC Notes] - BYJU'S,
https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/central-board-of-indirect-taxes-and-customs-cbic/ 173. What is
Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC)?,
https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-daily-current-affairs/prelims-pointers/central-board-of-indirect-ta
xes-and-customs-cbic/ 174. The Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) | GST
Refund Services,
https://www.mygstrefund.com/The-Central-Board-of-Indirect-taxes-and-Customs/ 175. Customs
- CBIC, https://www.cbic.gov.in/entities/customs 176. CBIC - dghrd,
https://dghrdcbic.gov.in/cbecinner.asp 177. Central Board Of Indirect Taxes & Customs - Cbic
Content Msts, https://www.cbic.gov.in/entities/cbic-content-mst/MzA2MDY%3D 178. CBIC -
Directorate General of human resource development (HRD), https://dghrdcbic.gov.in/cbic.asp
179. Charter Of Function - Directorate of Legal Affairs,
https://www.dlacbic.gov.in/uploads/forms/Charter%20of%20Functions%20of%20DLA%20(with%
20amendments).pdf 180. Customs Central Excise Service Tax | Overview - Referencer,
https://www.referencer.in/General_Information/Overview.aspx 181. Central Board of Indirect
Taxes and Customs (CBIC) | Directorates - Referencer,
https://www.referencer.in/General_Information/Directorates.aspx 182. PRESS NOTE -
CBIC-GST, https://cbic-gst.gov.in/pdf/press-release.pdf 183. Mandate of DGPM - Directorate
General of Performance Management, https://dgpm.gov.in/mandateofdgpm.htm 184. Home |
Income Tax Department, https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/ 185. Challenges of
Digitalization for Tax Administrations,
https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Conferences/2024/13-IMF-Japan-Conf/Presentations/abhishek
-tripathy-india-challenges-of-digitilization-for-tax-administrations.ashx 186. Directorate General
of Income Tax (Intelligence & Criminal Investigation),
https://office.incometaxindia.gov.in/intelligence-and-criminals-investigation/Pages/about-us.aspx
187. (PDF) Fostering Taxpayer Honesty: Exploring Effective Strategies to Curb Income Tax
Evasion - ResearchGate,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378776382_Fostering_Taxpayer_Honesty_Exploring_
Effective_Strategies_to_Curb_Income_Tax_Evasion 188. Tax Evasion in India - AspireIAS,
https://www.aspireias.com/daily-news-analysis-current-affairs/Tax-Evasion-in-India 189. India's
Post-Demonetization Policy Agenda | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,
https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2017/09/indias-post-demonetization-policy-agenda?lan
g=en&center=middle-east 190. Understanding Tax Evasion and Penalties in India - ClearTax,
https://cleartax.in/s/tax-evasion-and-penalties-in-india 191. Challenges and Reforms in India's
Taxation System - Drishti IAS,
https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/challenges-and-reforms-in-indias-t
axation-system 192. understanding and countering the challenges of tax evasion and avoidance
in india: a framework-based approach by - sushruth panjagall & l sai krishna - ijlra,
https://www.ijlra.com/paper-details.php?isuurl=understanding-and-countering-the-challenges-of-
tax-evasion-and-avoidance-in-india-a-framework-based-approach-by-sushruth-panjagall-l-sai-kri
shna 193. Addressing the 'tax gap' in India - PwC India,
https://www.pwc.in/research-and-insights-hub/immersive-outlook/addressing-the-tax-gap-in-indi
a.html 194. Indian Economy: Informal Sector and Its Challenges - Sleepy Classes IAS,
https://sleepyclasses.com/informal-sector-and-its-challenges/ 195. Formalizing the informal
sector with GST: Balancing benefits and challenges for small businesses - Times of India,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/formalizing-the-informal-sector-with-gst-balanci
ng-benefits-and-challenges-for-small-businesses/ 196. Informal Economy in India: -
Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung,
https://www.kas.de/documents/252038/253252/7_dokument_dok_pdf_50571_2.pdf/990d673f-e
202-4e36-00da-d2f32f0e14cb?version=1.0&t=1539648379741 197. Full article: Taxing the
Informal Economy: The Current State of Knowledge and Agendas for Future Research,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2014.940910 198. India's super rich are
hiding their income, pay less tax than you think - The Economic Times,
https://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/finance/how-indias-super-rich-are-hiding-their-inco
me-pay-less-tax-than-you-think/articleshow/120276434.cms 199. India curbing misuse of tax
havens through regulatory measures, global tax standards, say experts - CFO News,
https://cfo.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/tax-legal-accounting/india-curbing-misuse-of-tax
-havens-through-regulatory-measures-global-tax-standards-say-experts/116615254 200.
Challenges & Solutions. Methods of Tax Evasion. - TaxBuddy.com,
https://www.taxbuddy.com/blog/tax-evasion-challenges-and-solutions 201. Compliance
Challenges – Simplicity and Proper Systems Are Still a Far Cry for Taxpayers,
https://www.gstrobo.com/blog/compliance-challenges-simplicity-and-proper-systems-are-still-a-f
ar-cry-for-taxpayers/ 202. Procedure and Problems of Income Tax Administration in India - ijrpr,
https://ijrpr.com/uploads/V5ISSUE5/IJRPR28819.pdf 203. India's Tax System Crisis: Addressing
Accountability and Efficiency ...,
https://cfo.economictimes.indiatimes.com/blog/indias-tax-system-crisis-addressing-accountabilit
y-and-efficiency-failures/112754574 204. Union Budget 2025: Tax reforms announced by
finance minister Nirmala Sitharaman; key points - The Times of India,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/union-budget-2025-tax-reforms-ann
ounced-by-finance-minister-nirmala-sitharaman-tds-tcs-new-income-tax-regime-key-points/articl
eshow/117820537.cms 205. slew of direct tax reforms proposed in union budget 2025-26 to
achieve good governance, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2098362 206. Will
2025 bring the tax simplification India needs? Experts weigh in - Economic Times Legal,
https://legal.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/law-policy/will-2025-bring-the-tax-simplification
-india-needs-experts-weigh-in/116960243 207. New Income Tax Bill: Experts push for
simplification, faster dispute resolution and tech-driven reforms - CFO News,
https://cfo.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/tax-legal-accounting/new-income-tax-bill-experts
-push-for-simplification-faster-dispute-resolution-and-tech-driven-reforms/117900967 208. A
budget for the “middle-class”: Rebalancing growth, inclusivity, and ...,
https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/a-budget-for-the-middle-class-rebalancing-growth-inclusi
vity-and-fiscal-prudence 209. Budget 2025 Highlights: Big Relief for Middle-Class! - DBS Bank,
https://www.dbs.com/digibank/in/articles/save/union-budget-2025-key-highlights 210. summary
of union budget 2025-26 - PIB, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2098352 211.
India's Budget 2025 Unveils Tax and Regulatory Reforms,
https://news.bloombergtax.com/tax-management-international/indias-budget-2025-unveils-tax-a
nd-regulatory-reforms 212. India budget tax updates: Key financial reforms in 2025 - Global VAT
Compliance,
https://www.globalvatcompliance.com/globalvatnews/india-budget-tax-updates-2025/ 213. Role
and Consequences of Goods & Services Tax (GST) on the Indian Economy - International
Journal of Financial Management and Economics,
https://www.theeconomicsjournal.com/article/view/215/6-2-9 214. CORPORATE TAX
REFORMS IN INDIA: IMPACT ON BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH -
ijrar, https://www.ijrar.org/papers/IJRAR19D5356.pdf 215. Assessing The Impact And
Sustainability Of India's Tax Reforms On Economic Growth,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390309817_Assessing_The_Impact_And_Sustainabilit
y_Of_India's_Tax_Reforms_On_Economic_Growth 216. Assessing The Impact And
Sustainability Of India's Tax Reforms On Economic Growth - Educational Administration: Theory
and Practice, https://kuey.net/index.php/kuey/article/download/9663/7341/18268 217. Analyzing
the 2025 Union budget: tax reforms, economic Impact, and sectoral opportunities,
https://www.ijfmr.com/research-paper.php?id=36804 218. impact of tax reforms on india's
economic growth - IJFANS International Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
https://www.ijfans.org/uploads/paper/6b93c167169a302843dc64430e6fc6e6.pdf 219. Full
article: Investigating the Implications of Goods and Services Tax Revenue on Economic Growth:
Empirical Insight from Indian Economy - Taylor & Francis Online,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2330443X.2024.2436196 220. Impact of Goods
and Services Tax on the Economic Growth of India,
https://gipe.ac.in/impact-of-goods-and-services-tax-on-the-economic-growth-of-india/ 221. 9
Making Tax Policy Pro-Growth in: India Goes Global - IMF eLibrary,
https://www.elibrary.imf.org/display/book/9781589065680/ch09.xml 222. Tax Performance of
Centre and states: Tax Reform and Revenue Productivity - Finance Commission,
https://fincomindia.nic.in/archive/writereaddata/html_en_files/oldcommission_html/predocs/spee
ch/PKAggarwal.pdf 223. Evaluating public perception of tax reforms and their impact on
economic growth: A survey study in India,
https://www.theeconomicsjournal.com/archives/2024.v7.i2.388 224. www.rracademy.in,
https://www.rracademy.in/comparison-of-tax-system-in-india-and-foreign/#:~:text=The%20perso
nal%20Income%20tax%20is,is%20comparatively%20low%20in%20India. 225. maximum
marginal rate - Rs 10 crore salary: How much you take home in US vs India vs UAE vs Finland?
Here's a comparison - Business Today,
https://www.businesstoday.in/personal-finance/tax/story/rs-10-crore-salary-how-much-you-take-
home-in-us-vs-india-vs-uae-vs-finland-heres-a-comparison-465557-2025-02-22 226. List of
Countries by Personal Income Tax Rate - Trading Economics,
https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/personal-income-tax-rate 227. tradingeconomics.com,
https://tradingeconomics.com/india/corporate-tax-rate 228. Corporate income tax (CIT) rates -
PwC Tax Summaries, https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/quick-charts/corporate-income-tax-cit-rates
229. List of Countries by Corporate Tax Rate - Trading Economics,
https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/corporate-tax-rate 230. Comparison of tax system in
India and Foreign - RR Academy - Best CA/ACS/ICWA coaching institute in
Chennai/TamilNadu, https://www.rracademy.in/comparison-of-tax-system-in-india-and-foreign/
231. U.S. India Tax Desk - Asena Advisors,
https://asenaadvisors.com/knowledge-centre/specialist-tax-desks/us-india-tax-desk/ 232.
Corporate Tax Rates Around the World, 2022 - Tax Foundation,
https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/global/corporate-tax-rates-by-country-2022/ 233. How Different
Is UK Taxation System From The Indian - Zell Education,
https://www.zelleducation.com/blog/how-different-is-uk-taxation-system-from-the-indian/ 234.
List of Countries by Corporate Tax Rate | Asia - Trading Economics,
https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/corporate-tax-rate?continent=asia 235. Corporate Tax
Statistics - Compare your country, https://www.compareyourcountry.org/corporate-tax-statistics
236. Doing Business in India VS Germany | Why Choose India? - 3E Accounting India,
https://www.3ecpa.co.in/resources/why-choose-india/doing-business-in-india-vs-germany/ 237.
Corporate Tax Rates Around the World, 2024 - Tax Foundation,
https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/global/corporate-tax-rates-by-country-2024/ 238. GST in India
vs GST in other countries – how India differs - ClearTax,
https://cleartax.in/s/gst-india-and-other-countries-comparison 239. How do UK tax revenues
compare internationally? | Institute for Fiscal Studies - IFS,
https://ifs.org.uk/taxlab/taxlab-key-questions/how-do-uk-tax-revenues-compare-internationally
240. Economic Issues No. 27 -- Tax Policy for Developing Countries,
https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/issues/issues27/ 241. India Tax Revenue: % of GDP, 1997 –
2025 | CEIC Data, https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/india/tax-revenue--of-gdp 242.
Tax-to-GDP Ratio - Economic and Political Weekly,
https://www.epw.in/journal/2023/25-26/commentary/tax-gdp-ratio.html 243. Taxes Collected
Relative to GDP Size in Every Major Economy : r/IndiaTax - Reddit,
https://www.reddit.com/r/IndiaTax/comments/1enkuar/taxes_collected_relative_to_gdp_size_in_
every/ 244. Tax revenue (% of GDP) - India - World Bank Open Data,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GC.TAX.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=IN 245. List of sovereign
states by tax revenue to GDP ratio - Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_tax_revenue_to_GDP_ratio 246.
Understanding India's Tax to GDP Ratio: A Look at Revenue Collection,
https://cleartax.in/s/tax-to-gdp-ratio 247. 'We're over-taxing our people': Economist Surjit Bhalla
slams India's tax rates, says it's higher than US, Korea - Business Today,
https://www.businesstoday.in/union-budget/story/were-over-taxing-our-people-economist-surjit-b
halla-slams-indias-tax-rates-says-its-higher-than-us-korea-462252-2025-01-28 248. CHAPTER
6 DIRECT AND INDIRECT TAXES 6.1 Changing Scenario & Tax Reforms - MoSPI,
https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Statistical_year_book_india_chapters/Taxes.pdf 249. Tax
Revenues | India | 2013 - 2024 | Data, Charts and Analysis | The ...,
https://www.themirrority.com/data/tax-revenues 250. Gross direct tax collections grow 20.32%
this year to ₹19.21 lakh crore - Hindustan Times,
https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/gross-direct-tax-collection-records-20-32-year-on-y
ear-jump-101734530959270.html 251. Direct vs indirect taxes: What's adding to centre's tax
revenue and states' woes?,
https://www.cbgaindia.org/opinion/direct-vs-indirect-taxes-whats-adding-to-centres-tax-revenue-
and-states-woes/ 252. Chapter I: Indirect Taxes Administration and Revenue Trend - CAG,
https://cag.gov.in/uploads/download_audit_report/2022/3-%20Chapter-1-062f0e3be7c82f0.0016
1787.pdf 253. Budget 2024: Direct taxes bigger, grosser than indirect taxes - A look at tax
collection data from past 10 years - The Financial Express,
https://www.financialexpress.com/budget/budget-2024-direct-taxes-bigger-grosser-than-indirect-
taxes-a-look-at-tax-collection-data-from-past-10-years-3557498/ 254. www.nao.org.uk,
https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/n0708930_international_review.pdf 255.
International Tax Competitiveness Index 2024 - Tax Foundation,
https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/global/2024-international-tax-competitiveness-index/ 256.
2024 report on tax administration includes comparative data on 58 jurisdictions,
https://www.taxathand.com/article/37124/OECD/2024/2024-report-on-tax-administration-include
s-comparative-data-on-58-jurisdictions 257. A Comprehensive Approach to Understanding Tax
Gap | ATI,
https://www.addistaxinitiative.net/news/comprehensive-approach-understanding-tax-gap 258. a
comparative study of indian tax policies with global tax systems - IJFANS International Journal
of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
https://www.ijfans.org/uploads/paper/af10bdf78289a6dfe6273cd86ec25fd0.pdf