Class 12 NCERT History Chapter 12

Colonial Cities Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture

• Kasbah: A small town in the countryside.

• Ganj: Small size fi xed market.

• Census: Counting of population

• White Towns: Towns where only European could

live.

• Black Towns: Towns where only Indian could live.

• Civil lines: Urban areas where only white people

could settle and live. Instagram
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• Pet: A Tamil word, which means settlement.

• Purim: A Tamil word stands for a village.

• Dubhasia: Those people who speak English as

well as local language.

• Vellars: A local rural community in Madras.

• Garermath: The east India company built the Fort

William in Calcutta. From the prospective of its
security, a vast open space was left around it. It
was locally known as a garer math or maiden.
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Towns and Cities in Pre-colonial Times:
• Towns and cities before the advent of the British can be discussed
under the following heads
Nature of Towns:
• Towns represent unique form of economic activities and cultures. In
town ruler administrator, artisans, inansabdars and jagirdars, traders,
etc were living. Towns were surrounded by the fortified wall and thrived
on the surplus and taxes derived from agriculture.

• Peasants from the countryside came to the town for pilgrimage or

selling their produce during the lime of famine etc. There are also
evidences of people going to village to sell their goods, crafts etc.
People migrated to villages when towns were attacked.

• The presence of emperor, nobels and other affluent powerful persons

in town and centres meant that a wide variety of service had to be
provided and these towns were seat of power from where
administration of empire works. In the medieval times, Delhi, Agra,
Lahore, Madurai and Kanchipuram etc were famous, towns and cities.
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Changes in the 18th Century:
• In the 18th century with decline of Mughal empire, old towns also lost their
grandeur and new towns like Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringpatnam, Pune,
Nagpur, Baroda, Tanjore, etc were developed and these towns were seat of
local authority. Traders, artisans, administrators and mercenaries migrated
from old Mughal centres to these towns in search of work and patronage.
Many new qasbah (small town in the country side) and garij (small fixed
market) came into existence, but effect of political decentralisation were
uneven (Puducherry).

• European commercial companies had set up their base in different towns,

e.g., Portuguese in Panji, Dutch in Masulipatnam, British in Madras and
French in Pondicherry.

• With expansion in commercial activity towns grew further, gradually by the

end of 18th century land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the
powerful sea-based European empires. Forces of international trade,
mercantilism and capitalism defined the nature of society.

• As British took over political control in India from 1757, trade of East India
Company expanded and colonial port cities like Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras emerged as economic and political power. Instagram
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Development of Town and Cities in Colonial Times:
• A number of records and data were collected by the British as well as Indian officials which
provide information about the colonial cities. However, according to historians, the figures
can be misleading, some may have correct information and some may have ambiguity.

Colonial Records of Urban History:

• British government kept detailed records, carried regular survey, gathered statistical data and
published official records of their trading activities to regulate their commercial affairs. British
also started mapping as they believed maps help in understanding landscape topography,
planning development, maintaining security and to gauge possibilities of commercial
activities.

• British government from late nineteenth century started giving responsibilities to elect Indian
representatives to administrate basic services to towns and it started a systematic annual
collection of municipal taxes.

• First all-India census was carried in 1872 and after 1881 it was carried decennial (conducted
every ten years). But the data record generated and kept by British government cannot be
trusted blindly as it has ambiguities. People during that time gave evasive answers to officials
due to suspicion and fear.

• Many times false information were given by the locals about mortality, disease, illness.
Always these were not reported. Sometimes the reports and records kept by British
government was also biased. However, inspite of ambiguity and biasness, these records and
data helped in studying about colonial cities.
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Trends of Change:
• Urban population of India remained stagnant during 1800s. In the forty
years between 1900 and 1940 the urban population increased from
about 10 percent of the total population to about 13 percent.

• Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were became sprawling cities. They

were entry and exit points of goods from the country. Smaller towns
had little opportunity to grow. Few towns which were situated on the
bank of river like Mirzapur (which specialised in collecting cotton and
cotton goods from Deccan) were growing but with introduction of
railways its development stopped.

• Expansion of railway led to the formation of railway workshops and

railway colonies. Towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed
due to railways.
Towns: A Unique Identity:
• Colonial towns reflects a number of features These were important in
terms of economic, political and also cultural point of view, which
showed a unique identity. They also tell how power was shifted from
Indian rulers to the European elites. Instagram
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Ports, Forts and Centra for Services:
• By 18th century Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, all had important ports and
became the economic centre.

• Company built its factories and fortified these settlements for protection. Fort
St. George in Madras, Fort Wiliam in Calcutta, and the fort in Bombay were
famous settlement of that time.

• Indian traders, merchants, artisans who worked with the European merchant
lived outside these forts in their own settlement. Settlement of European was
called ‘White Town’ and settlement of Indians was known as ‘Black Town’.

• Expansion of railways connected the hinterland to these port cities. So it

became convenient to transport raw material and labour to the cities.
• In 19th century, there was expansion of cotton and jute mills in region of
Bombay and Calcutta.

• There were only two proper industrial cities. Kanpur, which was specialised in
leather, woollen and textiles and second city was Jamshedpur, which was
specialised in steel. However, Industrial development was lagging behind in
India due to discriminatory policies of the British.
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A New Urban Milieu:
• Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of English. Political power and
patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East India company.
• Indian traders, merchants, middlemen and interpreter who worked with company
also enjoyed important place in cities.
• Ghats and docks were developed. Along the ports, godowns, mercantile office,
insurance agencies, transport depots and banking developed. Racially exclusive
clubs, racecourses and theatres were built for ruling elite.
• European merchants and agents lived in palatial house in white town while
Indian
• merchants, middlemen, agents had traditional courtyard houses in Black town.
• The labouring poor provided service to European and Indian master as cook,
palanquin bearer, coachmen, guard, porters and construction and dock worker.
They lived in huts in different parts of the city.
• After revolt the British felt the need that town needed to be more secure of and
better defended. So pastureland and agricultural fields around older town were
cleared and new urban space called Civil Lines were set up and white people
used to live in it. Cantonment were developed as safe enclaves and here Indian
troops lived under European command.
• British considered black town as area characterised by chaos, anarchy, filth and
disease.
• When epidemics of Cholera and Plague spread, they decided to take stringent
measure for sanitation, public health, hygiene and cleanliness Instagram
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The Development of Hill Stations:
• British Government started developing hill stations initially because
of need of British army. Simla (present day shimla) founded during
Gurkha war (1815-16). Anglo-Maratha war led to development of
Mount Abu (1818). Darjeeling was taken from the ruler of Sikkim in
1835.
• The temperate and cool climate of hills were seen as sanitarium
(places where soldiers could be sent for rest and recovery from
illness) because these areas were free from diseases like cholera,
malaria, etc.
• Hilly regions and stations became attractive place for European
rulers and other elites. During summer season, for recreation they
visited these places regularly. Many houses, buildings, and
Churches were designed according to European style.
• Later introduction of railway made these places more accessible
and upper and middle class Indians like maharajas, lawyers and
merchants also started visiting these places regularly.
• Hilly regions were also important regarding economy as tea
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Social Life in the New Cities:
• In cities life seemed always in a flux, there was a great inequality between rich and poor.
• New transport facilities like horse drawn carriage, trains, buses had been developed. People
now started travelling, from home to work place using the new mode of transportation.
• Many public places were created, e.g. public parks, theatres, dubs, and cinema halls in 20th
century. These places provided entertainment and opportunity for social interaction.
• People started migrating to cities. There were demands of clerks, teachers, lawyers, doctors,
engineers and accountants. There were schools, colleges and libraries.
• A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged. Social norms, customs and
practices came to be questioned.
• They provided new. opportunities for women. It provided women avenues to get out of their
house and become more visible in public life.
• They entered new profession as teacher, theatre and film actress, domestic worker, factory
worker, etc.
• Middle class women started to express themselves through the medium of autobiographies,
journals and books.
• Conservatives feared these reforms, they feared breaking existing rule of society, and
patriarchal order.
• Women who went out of the household had to face opposition and they became object of
social censure in those years.
• In cities, there were a class of labourers or the working class. Poor came to cities looking for
opportunity, few came to cities to live a new way of life and desire to see the new things.
• Life in cities were expensive, jobs were uncertain and sometimes migrants leave their family
at native place to save money. Migrants also participated in the Tamashas (folk theatre) and
Swangs (satires) and in that way they tried to integrate with the life of cities.
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Settlement and Segregation in Madras:
• Company first set up its centre at Surat and then tried to occupy east
coast. British and French were engaged in Battle in South India, but with
defeat of France in 1761, Madras became secure and started to grow as
commercial centre.
• Fort St. George became the important centre where Europeans lived and
it was reserved for English men.
• Officials were not permitted to marry Indians. However, other than
English Dutch, Portuguese were allowed to live in the fort as they were
European and Christian.
• Development of Madras was done according to the need of whites. Black
town, settlement of Indians, earlier it was outside the fort but later it was
shifted.
• New Black town resembled traditional Indian town with living quarter
around temple and bazaar. There were caste specific neighbourhoods.
• Madras was developed by incorporating many nearby villages. City of
Madras provided numerous opportunities for local communities.
• Different communities perform their specific job in the Madras city, people
of different communities started competing for British Government job.
• Transport system gradually started to develop. Urbanisation of Madras
meant areas between the villages were brought within the city. Instagram
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Town Planning in Calcutta:
• Town planning required preparation of a layout of entire urban space and urban land
use.
• City of Calcutta had been developed from three villages called Sutanati, Kolkata and
Govindpur. The company cleared a site of Govindpur village for building a fort there.
• Town planning in Calcutta gradually spread from Fort William to other parts. Lord
Wellesley played very important role in town planning of Calcutta. Further work of town
planning was carried by Lottery committee with the help of government. Funds for town
planning were raised by Lotteries.
• Committee made a new map for Calcutta, made roads in the city and cleared riverbank
of encroachment. Many huts ‘bustis’ and poors were displaced to make Calcutta cleaner
and disease free and these people were shifted to outskirt of Calcutta.
• Frequent fires in the city led to making of stricter building regulation. Thatched roof were
banned and tiled roofs were made mandatory.
• By the late nineteenth century official intervention in the city became more stringent.
• British removed more huts and developed British portion of town at the expense of other
areas.
• These policies further deepened the racial divide of white town and black town and new
division of healthy and unhealthy further rised. Gradually public protest against these
policies
• strengthened anti-imperialistic feeling and nationalism among Indians.
• British wanted the cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras to represent the grandeur
and authority of the British Empire. Town planning were aimed to represent their
meticulous and rational planning and execution alongwith Western aesthetic ideas.
Architecture in Bombay:
• Although, government building primarily serving functional needs like defence,
administration and commerce but they often meant to showcase ideas of
nationalism, religious glory and power.
• Bombay has initially seven islands, later it become commercial capital of
colonial India and also a centre of international trade.
• Bombay port led to the development of Malwa, Sind and Rajasthan and many
Indian merchants also become rich.
• Bombay led to development of Indian capitalist class which came from diverse
communities like Parsi, Marwari, Konkani, Muslim, Gujarati, Bania, Bohra, Jew
and Armenian.
• Increased demand of cotton, during the time of American civil war and opening
of Suez Canal in 1869 led to further economic development of Bombay.
• Bombay was declared one of the most important city of India. Indian merchants
in Bombay started investing in cotton mills and in building activities.
• Many new buildings were built but they were built in European style. It was
thought that it would:
give familiar landscape in alien country to European, thus to feel at home in
the colony.
give them a symbol of superiority, authority and power.
help in creating distinction between Indian subjects and colonial masters.
• For public building, three broad architectural styles were used. These included
neo-classical, neo-Gothic and Indo-Saracenic styles. Instagram
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Building and Architectural Styles:
• Architecture reflected the aesthetic idea prevalent at that
time, building also expressed vision of those who build
them. Architectural styles also mould taste, popularise
styles and shape the contours of culture.

• From the late nineteenth century, regional and national

tastes were developed to counter colonial ideal. Style
has changed and developed through wider processes of
cultural conflict.

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1.To what extent are census data useful in reconstructing patterns of
urbanisation in the colonial context?(or)
“A careful study of census reveals some fascinating trends of
urbanisation in 19th century.” Support the statement with facts.

Ans. A careful study of the data collected through the census provides
us a lot of information in understanding the trend of urbanisation. It can
be examined as under:
(a) The process of urbanisation was sluggish in India after 1800.
(b) In the nineteenth century and in first two decades of the twentieth
century the proportion of the urban population was very low and
stagnant.
(c) Which recorded between 1900 and 1940, A 13% increase in the
urban population which recorded between whereas during the same
period, these was a overall 10% increase in the population of the
whole country.
(d) The data, thus, collected helps us in the enumeration of people
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2.What do the terms “White” and “Black” Town signify?
Ans.The British had white skin as they were often described ‘white’ and they
considered themselves as superior to others. On the other hand, the blacks
had brown or black skin. So they were known as the ‘black’.

The White signified their superiority over the black due to the colour of their
skin. The British symbolised the Black areas full of chaos and anarchy, filth and
disease and on the other hand, the white areas stood for cleanliness and
hygiene. In Black areas, epidemics like cholera and plague often broke out.

So the British took stringent measures to ensure sanitation and public health to
prevent diseases of the Black areas. They ensured underground piped water
supply and introduced sewerage and drainage system in White areas.

Thus, we can say, the White Towns were those parts of the colonial towns
where the White people lived. These towns had wide roads, barracks,
churches, paradeground, big bungalows and gardens, symbolised settled city
life, whereas the Indian lived in Black Towns, were said to be unorganised and
a source of filth and disease.
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3.How did prominent Indian merchants establish themselves
in the colonial city?

Ans. The prominent Indian merchants and traders settled in

colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.

They served as agents or middlemen for the British and lived

traditionally built courtyard houses in the Black Town.

They centred over large tracts of land in these cities and

heavily made investments for the future.

They wanted to impress their British masters or colonial ruler

or white people living in white towns by giving lavish parties
during festivals seasons and built temples to establish their
supremacy and prestige in society. Instagram
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4.Examine how concerns of defence and health gave shape to Calcutta.

Ans. Sirajudaula, the Nawab of Bengal in 1756, sacked the small fort from Britisher.
In this fort the British traders had built to house their goods. Consequently, when
Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British built a new fort, Fort
William which could not be easily attacked. Around this a vast open space was left.

This open space ‘ was called the Maidan or garermath. This was done for security
reasons, because there would be no obstructions to a straight time of fire from the
Fort against an advancing enemy army. Soon the British began to move out of the
Fort. They built residences along the periphery of the Maidan. This indicates that
how the English Settlement in Calcutta began to take shape. The vast open space
around the Fort William became the significant town planning measure in Calcutta
(Now Kolkata).

Lord Wellesley was more concerned about the conditions that existed in the cities.
Cities were overcrowded, and had no sanitation facilities. He issued an
administrative order in 1803 on the need for town planning and set up various
committees for this purpose open places in the city would make the city healthier.

As a result of this, many bazaars, ghats, burial ground and tanneries were cleared or
removed. After Wellesley’s departure, the Lottery Committee carried on with the work
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5.What are the different colonial architectural styles which can be seen
in Bombay city?

Ans. In the past, buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian
buildings. Gradually, Indians too got used to European architecture
and made it their own.

The British in turn adapted some Indian styles to suit their needs. One
example is the bungalow which was used by government officers in
Bombay. The colonial bungalow was set on extensive grounds which
ensured privacy.

The traditional pitched roof and surrounding veranda kept the

bungalow cool in summer months. These bungalows can still be seen
in the city. Other than that traditional styles of decoration and building
exist.

The lack of space in the city and crowding led to a type of building
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6.How were urban centres transformed during the eighteenth century?

Ans. (i)The disintegration of the mughal empire after the death of Aurangzab paved
the way of emergence of paverful regional powers. The capital cities of these regional
kingdom likes Lucknow, Poona, Nagpur and Barda now become important. Taking the
advantage of this opportunity many nobles and officials created new urban
settlements such as the qasbah and ganj.

(ii)The European companies too had set up their bases in different parts of India
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For example the Portugues (in Panaji
in 1570) and the British in Madras in 1639. With the expansion in commercial activity,
towns began to emerge as trading centres.

(iii)From the mid-eighteenth century trading. Centres like Surat and Dhakha which had
grown in the seventeenth century now began to decline as trade shifted to other
places. When the British acquired Bengal and the east Indian’s Company’s trade
hereafter expanded the colonial port cities likes Madras and Calcutta. These new part
cities began to emerge as the new economic capitals.

(iv)In these newly developed cities many new buildings were built and new
occupations developed. People flocked to these cities in large numbers. By the
nineteenth century these newly developed cities become the biggest cities in India.
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7.What were the new kinds of public places that emerged in the colonial
city? What functions did they serve?

Ans.The Indians found the new colonial cities as bewildering. They were
surpassed the new transport facilities available here. The means of
transport facilities which included horse- drawn carnages, tram11 and
buses. Enabled the people to live at far away places from the city centre.
Now they lived at some other places and served at some other places.

Emergence of new public places: The new colonial cities far away
place witnessed new public places such as the theatres, cinema-halls,
gardens, public parks, etc. Besides these were clubs and Garden
Houses.

Functions: These newly created public places were very exciting. They
were an important source of entertainment and helped increasing social
interaction. The people were able to express their opinions on society
and government. They could also question the practice of social
customs.
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8.What were the concerns that influenced town planning
in the nineteenth century?

Ans.(i)Two concerns which influenced the town planning

in the nineteenth century were defence and health.
(ii)In many towns British built forts to protect their
factories. Around the fort a vast open space was left open.
This vast space was known as the Maidan.
(iii)It was done so that there would be no obstructions to a
straight line of fire from the Fort against an advancing
enemy.
(iv)Attempts were also made to improve the sanitation and
cleanliness by creating open spaces in the city.
(v)For this purpose, in Calcutta many bazaars, ghats and
burial grounds were cleared.
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9.To what extent were social relations transformed in the new cities?
Ans.(i)There was a big contrast between extreme wealth and poverty
in the new cities. New means of transport facilities such as horse-
drawn carriages, trams, buses, etc. made travelling from home to work
an interesting experience.

(ii)Creation of public places like theatres public parks and cinema halls
provided new forms of entertainment and social interaction.

(iii)New social groups were formed people of all classes started to

migrate to the cities. With an increased demand for lawyers and
engineers the “middle class” increased. Debate and dicussion became
popular and established social norms and practices were questioned.

(iv)Cities also offered new opportunities for women. They chose new
professions in the city as factory workers, teachers, film actresses, etc.
for a long time so women remained objects of social censure.
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