INTERNSHIP REPORT 2024-25

CHAPTR-1
INTRODUCTION

Building: A Building is a series of connected, interrelated elements that form together a

system that can resist a series of external loads effects applied to it, which includes its own
self weight, and provide adequate rigidity.

Building Components:
 Foundation
 Column
 Beam
 Slab

Foundation:
Foundation is a base of any structure. The job of a foundation is to transfer the loads of
the building safely to the ground.

Design of Foundation depends on the type of the soil, type of structure and its

loads. The foundation supports the superstructure as well as the supported soil.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION;
 Shallow Foundation
 Deep Foundation

Shallow Foundation : These are constructed where soil layer at shallow

depth(upto1.5m) is able to support the structural loads. If the width of
foundation is greater than the depth, it is called as shallow foundation.

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Types of Shallow Foundation:

 STRIP FOOTING: This is provided for a load bearing walls. A strip footing is also
provided for a row of a columns which are so closely spaced that their spread
footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case. It is more economical to
provide a strip footing than to provide a number of Spread footing in one line. A
strip footing also known as a continuous footing.

 SPREAD FOOTING OR ISOLATED FOOTING OR INDIVIDUAL FOOTING

OR PAD FOOTING: Isolated Footing is provided for an individual column. A

isolated footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. In case
the soil is adequate in strength than an isolated foundation is preferred. In most
residential building isolated footing is preferred.

 COMBINED FOOTING: A Combined footing supports two Columns. If the

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distance between isolated footings in such that the ends touch each other or they
overlap, Then this implies that the distance between the column and foundation is
small. Hence, in such case a combined footing is preferred as it makes the structure
stable and economic.

 STRAP OR CANTILEVER FOOTING: A Strap footing consists of two isolated

footing connected with a structural strap or a lever. A strap connects the two
footings such that they behave as a one unit. A strap footing is more economical
than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the
distance between the columns is large.

 MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION: This is a large slab supporting a number of

columns and walls under the entire structure or a large part of a structure. A mat is
required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are
so close that individual footing would overlap or nearly touch each other.

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 Deep Foundation: If the depth of footing greater or equal to the Width of footing,
it is known as the deep Foundation. Deep Foundation is used Where the bearing
capacity of the soil is very low. The load coming from the superstructure is further
transmitted vertically to the soil. There are Three Major Types of Deep Foundation.

Types of Deep Foundation

 PILE FOUNDATION: In this type of foundation, the load is transmitted by a

vertical member. This vertical member is known as a pile. These piles are
generally made of steel, concrete and wooden.

 PIER FOUNDATION: A pier Foundation is a vertical column of relatively larger

cross- section than a pile. The load coming from the superstructure is carried to the
hard strata through these vertical columns. They are generally cast on site. A pier is
installed in dry area by excavating a cylindrical hole. If the diameter is greater than
0.6 m or equal to 0.6 meters then it is termed as a pier.

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 WELL FOUNDATION: Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is

generally provided below the water level for bridges. Cassions or well have been in
use for foundations of bridges and other structures.

Column

 A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element

that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other
structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member.
 A column may be classified as short or long column depending on its effective
slenderness ratio.
 The ratio of effective length to least lateral dimension is referred to as effective
slenderness ratio.
 Columns having slenderness ratio less than 3 are called PEDESTALS.
 The columns are said to be SHORT when the slenderness ratio is less than 12 and the
columns are said to be LONG or SLENDER if the slenderness ratio is more then 12.
However, maximum slenderness ratio of a column should not exceed 60.

Beam
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

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bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams are characterized by their profile (shape of cross-section), their length, and their
material.

Classification of beams based on their supports:

1. Simply supported - Beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance.

2. Fixed - Beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.

3. Over hanging - Simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.

4. Double overhanging -Simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends.

5. Continuous - Beam extending over more than two supports.

6. Cantilever -A projecting beam fixed only at one end.

Slab:

A concrete slab is common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs

of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches (100 and 500 millimeters)
thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used
for exterior paving. Reinforced concrete solid slabs are constructed as one of the following
a) One-way slab

b) Two-way slab

c) Flat slabs

d) Flat plates

One Way Slab:

When the load on the slab is transferred along only one direction then the slabs are
called One-way slabs. In general when the aspect ratio Ly/Lx is greater than 2 than the slab is
designed as One-Way slab.

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Two Way Slab:

When the load on the slab is transferred along both the direction then the slabs are called
Two-way slabs. In general slabs are designed as two way slabs when the ratio Ly/Lx is less
than 2.

Flat Slabs and Flat Plates:

Flat slabs and flat plates are those multi- span slabs, which directly rest on columns
without beams. Flat slabs differ from flat plates in that they have either drop panels
(increased thickness of slab) or column capitals in regions of the columns. Flat plates have
uniform slab thickness, and the high shear resistance around the columns is obtained usually
by the special reinforcement called ‘shear- head reinforcement’ placed in the slab around the
columns.

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CHAPTER 2
SAFETY MEASURES AT SITE

2.1 CONSTRUCTION SITE SAFETY RULES

• Wear the PPE at all the times.

• Do not start work without an induction.

• Keep a tidy site.

• Do not put yourself or others at risk.

• Follow safety signs and procedure.

• Never work in unsafe areas.

• Report defects.

• Never tamper with equipment.

2.2 EQUIPMENTS USED FOR CONSTRUCION

2.2.1 CONCRETE MIXER

This is a power mechanically operated machine which is used to mix the concrete. It consists
a hollow cylindrical part with inner side wings, in which cement, sand aggregates and water
is mixed properly.

FIG 2.1 CONCRETE MIXER

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2.2.2 TRNASPORTATION
The process of carrying the concrete mix from the place of its mixing to final position of
deposition is termed as transportation of concrete.

There are various methods of transportation as mentioned belowTransport of concrete by

pans.

 Transport of concrete by wheel barrows.

 Transport of concrete by tipping Lorries.
 Transport of concrete by pumps.
 Transport of concrete by belt conveyers.
 At this site concrete was transported by pans.

COMPACTORS
PAN When the concrete has been placed, it shows a very loose structure. Hence, it must be
compacted to remove air bubbles and voids so asto make it dense and solid concrete to obtain
a high strength. There are two types methods of compaction.

1. Manual Compaction

2. Mechanical Compaction

There are four types of mechanical vibrators

1.Immersion or needle vibratory

2.Extended or shutter vibrator

3.Surface vibrator

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At our construction site needle type of vibrator was used for compaction of concrete.

FIG 2.3 NEEDLE VIBRATOR

FIG 2.4 PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT USED AT SITE

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CHAPTER 3
FOUNDATION
3.1 FOUNDATION DEFINITION
A foundation is the element of any structure which connects it to the ground and transfer
loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or
deep. Foundation is a load bearing structure which bears all the loads coming on the building
or any structure. Foundation is generally of two types:

1. Shallow foundation

2. Deep foundation

3.2 TYPES OF FOUNDATION

3.2.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The open refers to the
fact that the foundation made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing,
and then constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, entire footing is visible to
the eye, and therefore is called open foundation. The idea is that each footing takes the
concentrated load of the column and spreads it over a large area, so that the actual weight on
the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil. Types of shallow foundations
are: 3.2.1.1 STRIP FOOTING

The footing which supports long masonry or RCC wall is known as strip footing. In this type
of footing the width of footing is twice the width of wall which is rested on it, sometimes
even wider. It runs throughout the wall. If Bearing Capacity is more than width of footing is
lesser. Generally used in load bearing structures.

3.2.1.2 ISOLATED FOOTING

This type of footing supports individual column. If good soil is available then this type of
footings is economical. This type of footings is used generally when Soil Bearing Capacity is
high, loads on footings are less, columns of a building are not closely spaced. This kind of
footing is of three types:

1. Flat footing

2. Stepped footing

3. Sloped footing

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3.2.1.3 COMBINED FOOTING

Footing that supports two or more columns is known as combined footing. When one
column is closed to property line the center of gravity of column will not coincide with
footing in such cases it is necessary to provide combined footing with that of internal column,
the ultimate aim is to get uniform pressure distribution under entire area of footing.
Combined footings are further classified into following types based on there shapes:

1. Rectangular Combined footing

2. Trapezoidal combined footing

3. Strap beam combined footing

3.2.1.4 STRAP BEAM COMBINED FOOTING

Strap beam combined footing is used when one column is located on a property line, resulting
in an eccentric load on a portion of footing. In this type of footing a beam is provided to the
adjacent column footing to restrain the overturning effect.

3.2.1.5 RAFT FOOTING

It is also called as Mat footing. If loads transmitted by the columns in a structure are heavy
and allowable soil pressure is small then footing requires more area, so in order to spread the
load over the large area with less depth then footing area must be increased if Individual
footing is used then footings will overlap with each other so to avoid this a common footing
is provided which supports all columns such type of footing is called Raft footing. Raft
footing is used to support storage equipment’s, Silos, Chimneys, Towers, various industrial
structures and buildings with basement where continuous water proofing is needed.

3.2.2 DEEP FOUNDATION A deep foundation is a type of foundation which transfers

building loads to the earth further down from the surface than a shallow foundation does, to a
subsurface layer or a range of depths. This process is utilized when existing soil is not stable
enough to handle a foundation. Here the depth of foundation is greater than the width of the
foundation. Types of Deep foundation

1. Pile foundation

2. Caisson foundation

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3.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. S.B.C for foundation is 1.6 T/SQM @ 2.00m.

2. Foundation should be laid at the depth as recommended in the soil test report.

3. The foundation of the building is designed for GROUND FLOOR + 4 FLOORS.

4. PCC-M10 grade Concrete, 150mm thick.

5. Footing clear cover 50mm.

6. Footing concrete M25.

7. Type of Footing: Combined, Individual

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CHAPTER 4
COLUMN CONSTRUCTION
4.1 COLUMN DEFINITION

A column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load to the

ground through footings. Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone,
brick, block, concrete, timber, steel, and so on which have good compressive strength.

4.2 COLUMN STARTER

Fig 4.1: KEY PLAN OF COLUMN CENTRELINE

A well-reputed architect always provides the separate drawing which shows the center line or
exact positions of each column at the site according to the reference dimensions. Hence the
drawings of the column layout need to be carefully studied and checked whether the location
of the column starter is according to the reference dimensions shown in the drawing or not.
Starters are needed to cast the column in proper alignment. Column starter marking is the
process of casting the first 50-100mm height of column for the alignment of rest of the
column

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4.3 COLUMN REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is provided so that size of the column is not increased. It improves the
ductility of the member to the structure gets the stability to withstand earthquake in a superior
view. Once the column marking is done column reinforcement is carried out as per the
structural drawing. Reinforcement bars of 12# 20mm Ø are provided. Ties are used to hold
the longitudinal bars to provide to prevent it from buckling. Lateral ties or stirrups of 8mm Ø
at 200mm center to center are provided. Maximum reinforcement ratio for columns is 0.08
times the gross area of the column. It brings economy to the design of the columns and
prevent steel congestion, which otherwise hinders proper concrete placement.

4.3.1 CHECKING OF COLUMN REINFORCEMENT STEEL

Following checks for column reinforcement should be carried out before column casting. The
reinforcement steel should be free of any loose scale, rust, mud, or oil. Main reinforcement
and ring of column should be cut as per required length. The stirrups should be carefully cut
in length as extra length will result in large size of stirrups/rings resulting in less cover to
concrete, which is never advisable. In a reinforcement column, the area of longitudinal
reinforcement shall not less than 0.8% or more than 6% of the gross- sectional area of the
column as per IS code. A minimum of 4 bars shall be provided in a square or rectangular
column. The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter and spacing of the bars along the
periphery of the column shall not exceed 300mm

4.4 COLUMN SHUTTERING

This helps the structural member to gain sufficient strength to carry its self- load and load
from other members. Shuttering of columns after column reinforcement is done by using MS
sheets. Thin films of oil or grease should be applied to inner surface of the metal sheets to
enable easy removal of the column after the concrete is hardened. Proper supports are
provided using props so that it does not move. Diagonals of the shuttering are checked to
ensure dimensional accuracy using plum bomb.

FIG 4.3 COLUMN SHUTTERING

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4.5 COLUMN CONCRETING

Reinforced concrete column is a structural member designed to carry compressive loads,
composed of concrete with an embedded steel frame to provide reinforcement. Uniform
concrete mix is prepared in the ratio of 1:1:2(cement: sand: coarse aggregates). If the quantity
of concrete required is less than machine mix can be done whereas for large quantity RMC
can be made use. When concrete mix is ready is poured into column boxes or shuttering that
is fixed. It is poured in layers by giving vibrations using mechanical vibrators after each
layerto prevent the voids, so that proper compaction takes place. Excess vibration should be
avoided as nit leads to separation. 2 minutes of vibration can be provided.

4.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

MIX ; 25 Concrete

Column sizes: 230*600mm

300*600mm

230*750mm

230*600mm

Clear cover : 40mm

Día of vertical bars: 25mm,20mm

Stirrups : 8#ties @ 200c/c

FIG 4.4 COMPACTION BY MECHANICAL VIBRATOR

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CHAPTER 5
STONE MASONRY
The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone masonry where the
stones are available in an abundance in nature, on cutting and dressing to the proper shape,
they provide an economical material for the construction of various building components
such as walls, columns, footings, arches, lintels, beams etc.

5.1 SELECTION OF STONE FOR STONE MASONRY

1. Availability

2. Ease of working

3. Appearance

4. Strength and stability

5. Polishing characteristics

6. Economy

7. Durability

5.2 TYPES OF STONE MASONRY

Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction and degree of refinement in the
surface finish, the stone masonry can be classified broadly in the following two categories:
1.Rubble masonry

2. Ashlar masonry

5.2.1 RUBBLE MASONRY

1. Coursed rubble masonry

2. Un-coursed rubble masonry

3. Random rubble masonry

4. Polygonal rubble masonry

5. Flint rubble masonry

6. Dry rubble masonry

5.2.2 ASHLAR MASONRY

1. Ashlar fine masonry

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2. Ashlar rough tooled

3. Rock (or) Quarry faced

4. Ashlar chamfered masonry

5. Ashlar block in course

5.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable. The pressure
acting on stones should be vertical. The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the
requirements. The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and
not the tensile stresses. The masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of
work, for a period of 2 to 3 weeks. The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the
specified faces.The construction work of stone masonry should be raised uniformly.

5.4 MORTAR

It’s a building material (such as a mixture of cement, lime, or gypsum plaster with sand and
water) that hardens and is used in masonry or plastering.

Types of mortar as binding material:

Mortars are classified into the following five categories:

i. Cement mortar

ii. Lime mortar

iii. Surkhi mortar

iv. Gauged mortar

v. Mud mortar

At work site cement mortar is used and 1:6 ratios are used to prepare cement mortar.

FIG 5.1 SIZE STONE MASORY

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FIG 5.1 SIZE STONE MASONRY

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CHAPTER 6
6.1. DEFINITION SOIL FILLING

A filling refers to a quantity of earthen material such as murrum, soil, rock, aggregate,
shingle, and sand that is placed and compacted in trenches, foundation, and under floors for
the purpose of filling in a hole or depression.

6..2 TYPES OF FILLING MATERIALS

•SOIL OR EARTH

•MURRUM

•SAND

•SHINGLE

6.2.1 SOIL OR EARTH AS A FILLING MATERIAL

The soil used for the filling in a different type of works shall be free from salts, organic, or
other harmful matter. Black cotton soil is not recommended for use unless so specified due to
its property of high expansion and this is the material used for filling in this constructional
soil filling.

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