manifestation of Consciousness and realizes that nothing except Pure

Consciousness is.1 The Nayas do not arise; the Pramâças are set at
rest; the Niksepachakra fades into nothingness; what else can we say?
When this self-luminous Absolute which transcends all is directly
realized through intuition» all duality vanishes.2 He who knows the self
as neither bound nor defiled, neither one nor many, knows the whole
teaching of the Jina.3 The essence of the self lies in the fact that it
transcends all relative view-points.4 Those who have left the partiality
of the relative view-points far behind, who ever dwell in the essential
nature of the self, who have acquired mental peace by transcending the
meshes of the categories of finite thought, they alone really drink nectar,
they alone really enjoy immortality.6 He who has realized the truth and
has arisen above the relative view-points of the intellect, always sees the
eternal consciousness and nothing but consciousness.6 Ignorance is the
cause of bondage and pure knowledge of the self which transcends all
difference is the cause of liberation.7 He who sleeps over Vyavahâra
awakes in Paramärtha, and he who is awake in Vyavahâra sleeps over
Paramartha.8 Is this not Absolutism?

V II
CATEGORIES

we have seen that substance, according to Jainism, has infinite characters

and is subject to production, destruction and permanence. The whole
universe is brought under the two everlasting, uncreated, eternal and
co-existing categories which are called Jiva and Ajiva. Jiva means
the conscious spit it and Ajiva means the unconscious non-spirit. A jiva
includes not only matter which is called ‘Pudgala’, but also space,
motion, rest and time. Spirit, matter, motion, rest and space (respec­
tively called jiva, pudgaia, dharma, adharma and äkäsha) are described
as asti-kâyà dravyas or substances which possess constituent parts
extending in space; while time (käla) is the only anasti-käya dravya
which has no extension in space.
Jiva is generally the same as the Atman or the Purusa in other plura­
listic schools with this important difference that it is identified with life
of which consciousness is said to be the essence. Like the monads o f
1 tadapi paramama rtham chichchamatkâramâtram paravirahitamantahpashyatâm
naiça kiftchit— Com . on Samayasära, p. 29. * kimaparamabhidadhmo d h àm n i
sarvankaçe smin anubhavamupayâte bhâti na dvaitameva— Ibid, p. 35. 9 jo passadi
appânam abaddhaputtham ananpamavisesam apadesasuttamajjham passadi jin asäsa-
nam savvam.— Samayasära, 15. 4 pakkhâtikkanto puna bhapndi jo so sam ayasâro.—
Ibid, 142. 9 vikalpajâlachyutashântachittâs ta eva sâkçâd amftam pibanti— C o m .
on Samayasära, p. 202. 6 yastattvavedi chyutapakçapâtas tasvâsti nityam kh alu
chichchideva. 7 ajflânameva bandhahetuh, jrtânameva mokçahetuh— Ibid, p. 223.
tato nirastasa-mastabhedam âtmasvabhâvabhütam jflânamevaikam âlam hyam — Ib id ,
291. 8 Mok-çapràbhrta, 31. C f. G itâ, II, 69.

50
Leibnitz, the Jivas of Jainism are qualitatively alike and only quanti­
tatively different and the whole universe is literally filled with them.
T h e jivas are divided first into those who are liberated (mukta) and
those who are bound (baddha). The bound souls are further divided into
mobile (trasa) and immobile (sthävara). The latter live in the atoms of
earth, water, fire and air and in the vegetable kingdom and have only
one sense— that of touch. The mobile souls are again classified as
those who have two senses (e.g. worms), three senses (e.g. ants), four
senses (e.g. wasps, bees etc.) and five senses (e.g. higher animals and
men).
Consciousness is regarded as the essence of the soul (chetanâlaksano
jivah). Every soul from the lowest to the highest possesses consciousness.
T h e degrees of consciousness may vary according to the obstacles of
karma. The lowest souls which inhabit material atoms appear to be
lifeless and unconscious, but in fact life and consciousness are prelent
in them though in a dormant form. Purest consciousness is found in the
emancipated souls where there is no shred of karma. All souls are really
alike. The degrees of consciousness are due merely to the karma-
obstacles. The soul in its intrinsic nature possesses Infinite Faith,
Infinite Knowledge, Infinite Bliss and Infinite Power.1 In the case of the
bound souls these characteristics are obscured by karma. A jiva is a real
knower (jnätä), a real agent (kartä) and a real experient (bhoktä). It is
included in the astikäya dravyas because its constituents possess exten­
sion in space. But it does not extend in space like matter. It is like the
light. Just as the light fills the space where it is burning and just as
many lights may remain in the same place without coming into conflict
with one another, similarly the soul fills the space and many souls may
remain together without any conflict. Though itself formless, it takes
the form of the body which it illuminates. The soul of an ant is as big as
the body of it and the soul of an elephant is as big as the elephant itself.
T h e soul is coextensive with the body. Though we find souls in this
world as embodied and as possessing the senses and the manas which
help the souls to know, yet really the body, the senses and the manas
are obstructions placed by karma and hinder the souls in their direct
knowledge. Knowledge is not a property of the soul ; it is its very essence.
Every soul, therefore, can directly and immediately know everything if
it is not obstructed by matter. Freedom from matter means omniscience
and emancipation.
The category of Ajiva is divided into matter (pudgaia), space (äkäsha),
motion (dharma), rest (adharma) and time (käla). They are all without
life and consciousness. Time is anastikâya because it does not extend
in space. It is infinite. It is not perceived, but inferred from its charac-
1 ananta darshana, an anta jfiâna, ananta sukha and an anta vîrya are called ananta-
chatuçtaya.

51
teristics which make possible continuity (vartanä), modification (parit­
aria), activity (kriyä), ‘now’ or ‘new* (paratva), and ‘then* or ‘old*
(aparatva). It is one and indivisible. Some Jaina writers have distin­
guished between real (pâramarthika) and empirical (vyävahärika) time.
The former makes continuity or duration possible and is infinite,
one and indivisible. The latter can be divided into moments, hours,
days, months and years and makes other changes, except duration,
possible.
Like time, space is also infinite, eternal and imperceptible. It is
inferred as the condition of extension. All substances except time have
extension and extension is afforded only by space. Space itself is not
extension; it is the locus of extension. Two kinds of space are distin­
guished. In one, motion is possible and it is called Lokäkäsha or filled
space ; in the other, motion is not possible and it is called Alokäkäsha or
empty space. The former contains all the worlds where life and move­
ment are; the latter stretches itself infinitely beyond the former. At
the summit of Lokäkäsha is Siddhashilä, the Abode of the Liberated
Souls.
Dharma and Adharma are used here not in their popular sense of
merit and demerit, but in the technical sense of the conditions of move­
ment and rest. Like space and time, these also are eternal and impercep­
tible. They are inferred as the conditions which help motion and rest
respectively. They are formless and passive. Dharma cannot generate
motion nor can Adharma arrest it. They only help or favour motion or
rest, like water helping the motion of a fish or like earth supportingthings
which rest on it.
Matter is called Pudgaia which means that which is liable to integra­
tion and disintegration (purayanti galanti cha). This word is used in
Buddhism in the sense of a soul, while in Jainism it is used for matter.
An atom (anu) is supposed to be the smallest part of matter which cannot
be further divided. Compound objects (sanghäta or skandha) of the
material world including senses, mind (manas) and breath are the com­
binations of atoms. Matter possesses the four qualities of colour, taste,
smell and touch. Sound is regarded not as a quality, as other systems
have done, but only as a modification (parinäma) of matter. These atoms
are supposed to house the souls. Like the ancient Greek atomists
Democritus and Leucippus and unlike the Nyäya-Vaishesika thinkers,
the Jainas do not maintain any qualitative difference in the atoms. All
atoms are qualitatively alike and indistinguishable. They become
differentiated by developing the qualities of colour, taste, smell and
touch. Hence the distinction of the elements of earth, water, fire and
air is secondary and transmutation of elements is quite possible. Matter
in its subtle form constitutes karma which infiltrates into the souls and
binds them to samsära.

52
 vin
BONDAGE AND L IBERA TIO N

karm a is the link which unites the soul to the body. Ignorance of
truth and four passions— anger (krodha), greed (lobha), pride (mäna)
and delusion (mäyä) which are called kasâya or sticky substances where
karmic particles stick, attract the flow of karmic matter towards the
soul. The state when karmic particles actually begin to flow towards
the soul to bind it is called Asrava or flow. The state when these particles
actually infiltrate into the soul and bind it is called Bandha or bondage.
The ideal bondage (bhäva-bandha) of the soul takes place as soon as it
has bad disposition and the material bondage (dravya-bandha) takes
place when there is actual influx of karma into the soul. In bondage, the
karmic matter unites with the soul by intimate interpenetration, just as
water unites with milk or fire unites with the red-hot iron ball. It is for
this reason that we find life and consciousness in every part of the body.
By the possession and practice of right faith, knowledge and conduct,
the influx of fresh karma is stopped. This state is called samvara or
stoppage. Then, the already existing karma must be exhausted. This
state is called Nirjarä or wearing out. When the last particle of karma has
been exhausted ‘the partnership between soul and matter is dissolved’,
and the soul shines in its intrinsic nature of infinite faith, knowledge,
bliss and power. This state is called Moksa or liberation. Here kevala-
jnäna or omniscience is attained. The liberated soul transcends samsara
and goes straight to siddha-shilä at the top of the world and dwells
there in eternal knowledge and bliss. Bondage, therefore, means union
of the soul with matter and consequently liberation means separation
of matter from the soul. We, conscious living souls, find ourselves bound
to karmic matter and the end of our life is to remove this karmic dross
and legain our intrinsic nature. Hence Jainism is primarily an ethical
teaching and its aim is the perfection of the soul. Asrava or the flow of
matter towards the soul is the cause of bondage and samvara or the
stoppage of this flow is the cause of liberation. Everything else in Jainism
is said to be the elaboration of this fundamental teaching. These five
states together with the Jiva and the Ajiva make the seven principles of
Jainism. Sometimes virtue (punya) and vice (papa) arc added to these
seven to make up the nine categories of Jainism.
Passions attract the flow of karmic matter into the souls. And passions
are due to ignorance. So ignorance is the real cause of bondage. Here
Jainism agrees with Sänkhya, Buddhism and Vedanta. Now, ignorance
can be removed only by knowledge. So right knowledge is the cause of
liberation. This right knowledge is produced by faith in the teachings

53
of the omniscient Tirthankaras. Hence faith is necessary. And it is'right
conduct which perfects knowledge since theory without practice is
empty and practice without theory is blind. Right knowledge dawns
when all the karmas are destroyed by right conduct. Hence right faith,
right conduct and right knowledge all the three together form the path
of liberation which is the joint effect of these three. Right faith (samyak
darshana), knowledge (jnäna) and conduct (chäritra) are the three
Jewels (tri-ratna) of Jainism. They are inseparably bound up and
perfection of one goes with the perfection of the other two.

IX
ET HIC S AND RELIGION

the Jaina Sangha or community contains monks and nuns, and lay-
brothers and lay-sisters. In Buddhism the clergy and the laity were not
organically connected and the former were emphasized at the expense
of the latter. In Jainism the two are organically related and the difference
between them is only one of degree and not of kind. Laymen are
afforded opportunities to rise to the spiritual height of the monks by
easy steps. There is only one fundamental five-fold spiritual discipline
in Jainism. In the case of monkdom it is extremely strict, rigid and
puritanic, while in the case of lay life it is modified. The five vows of
the clergy are called ‘Great Vows* (mahi-vrata), while those of the laity
are called ‘Small Vows* (anu-vrata). These five vows are: (i) Ahimsä
or non-injury in thought, word and deed, including negative abstention
from inflicting positive injury to any being, as well as positive help
to any suffering creature; (2) Satya or truth in thought, word and deed;
(3) Asteya or not to steal, i.e., not to take by thought, word or action,
anything to which one is not entitled; (4) Brahmacharya or abstention
from self-indulgence by thought, speech or action; and (5) Aparigraha
or renunciation by thought, word and deed. In the case of the monks,
these are to be followed very rigorously. But in the case of the laymen,
they are modified and diluted. For example, Brahmacharya is restricted
to chastity and Aparigraha to contentment.
Jainism like Buddhism is a religion without God. The Jainas are
sometimes called ‘nästikas’ or heretics. If nâstika means one who denies
the spirit, the ethical conduct and the life beyond, the Chärväka is the
only system in Indian Philosophy which can be called nâstika. Jainism,
like Buddhism and in a sense even more than Buddhism, is intensely
spiritual and ethical. The Jainas, therefore, are not atheistic in this sense.
Denial of God does not necessarily mean atheism in Indian Philosophy.
Otherwise, the Sänkhya and the Mîmâmsâ which do not believe in the
existence of God, would not have been called orthodox. The word

54
'nâstika*, therefore, is used for him who denies the authority of the Veda.
In this sense Jainism like Buddhism is nästika. Moreover, though
Jainism denies God, it does not deny godhead. Every liberated soul is
a god. The Tirthankaras who were mortal beings like us, but obtained
liberation through personal efforts, are always there to inspire us. We
are all potential Jinas, for what man has done man can do. Jainism is a
religion of self-help. There is no necessity of bringing in God to explain
creation, for the world was never created. Production, destruction and
permanence characterize all substances. Things have creation and
dissolution because of their modes. Strictly speaking, there is no room
for devotion in Jainism. The fire of asceticism must burn all emotions
and desires to ashes. But the common Jaina due to the weakness of man
has not been able to rise to this strict logic and has, under the influence
of Brahmanism, deified the Tirthankaras, has built temples for them,
has worshipped their idols, and has shown the same devotion to them
as other Hindu orthodox people have shown to their gods.

X
GENERAL ESTIMATE

w h ile criticising the doctrines of Syädväda and Anekântavâda, we

have pointed out in detail that the doctrine of relativism cannot be
logically sustained without Absolutism and that Absolutism remains
implied in Jainism as the necessary implication of its logic in spite of its
superficial protests. The same bias against Absolutism is responsible
for the pluralism of souls and material elements. Though the Jivas are
intrinsically all alike and all possess infinite faith, knowledge, bliss and
power, yet they must exist separately. All the material elements are
reduced to one category of Pudgaia and all of them and even their
atoms are all declared to be qualitative alike. When Jainism has rejected
all qualitative differences in souls as well as in atoms, why should it
inconsistently stick to numerical differences which are only nominal and
not real? No attempt is made to synthesize JIva and Pudgaia, spirit and
matter, subject and object, into a higher unity. It is very important here
to remember that while Sânkhya maintains absolute distinction between
Prakjti and Purusa which never really come into contact, Jainism does
not take this distinction as absolute. Spirit and matter are really united.
Jïva and Pudgaia imply each other. They are always found together.
But the problem before Jainism is: How can spirit and matter really
unite? Spirit is regarded as possessing pure consciousness, pure bliss,
pure power, pure faith. Matter is regarded as unconscious, lifeless
and a dangerous obstruction. Karma is supposed to be the link which
binds the soul to matter. Karma is due to passions. Passions are due

55