PASSI CITY COLLEGE

City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

COLLEGE VISION: PASSI CITY COLLEGE - a center of academic excellence for sustainable
development and social transformation.

MISSION: PASSI CITY COLLEGE - is committed to produce globally competent

graduates who are well equipped with relevant, scientific and
technological knowledge, skills, values which enable them to become
productive citizens for social change.
GOALS:
1. Provide undergraduate education and training which meet the standard
of quality, excellence, and responsible to regional, national, and
international development needs.
2. Broaden the access of deserving and qualified Filipinos to higher
opportunities.
3. Enhance the dissemination of knowledge and skills through research,
professional and technological instruction and provide extension services.

Course Number: NET 201

Descriptive Title: Networking 1

Course Credit: 3 Units

Course Description:

This course focuses on the application of advanced networking concepts related to

management, administration and maintenance of computer networks. Topics include network
operating system administration and troubleshooting, network environment set-up, user management
and file management with Windows Server 2008 R2. (CMONO.25, seriesof2015)

Course Objective:

Chapter 3
At the end of the course, the student must have:

 Introduce the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model: the transport layer.
 Discusses how this layer prepares network layer packets for transmission, controls access to the
physical media, and transports the data across various media.
 Describe the encapsulation protocols and processes that occur as data travels across the LAN
and the WAN as well as the media use.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

GRADING SYSTEM

GRADE DISTRIBUTION FOR THE PRELIM

TERM/PERIODIC EXAM - 40%

MODULE GRADE - 60 %
100 %

MODULE GRADE = QUIZZES (20%) + ACTIVITIES/REQUIREMENTS (30%) + ATTENDANCE (10%)

FINALS TENTATIVE GRADE

OLD RATING SYSTEM (IF FACE-TO-FACE IS ALLOWED)

MAJOR EXAMS 30%

QUIZZES 30%
OUTPUT 20%
BEHAVIOR 10%
ATTENDANCE 10%
100%

NOTE: SAME GRADE DISTRIBUTION WITH THE MIDTERM IF RESTRICTIONS

CONTINUOUS

FINAL/SEM GRADE

TENTATIVE FINALS (70%) + MIDTERM (30%)

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Physical Layer Protocols

Types of Connections

 Before network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network must be
established.
 A physical connection can be a wired connection using a cable or a wireless connection using
radio waves.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Network Interface Cards

 Network Interface Cards (NICs) connect a device to a network.

 Used for a wired connection.

 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) NICs are used for wireless connections.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

The Physical Layer

• Provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame across the
network media.
• Accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as a series of signals that
are transmitted onto the local media.
• Encoded bits that comprise a frame are received by either an end device or an intermediate
device.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Physical Layer Media

Three basic
forms of
network media

Physical Layer Standards

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

 Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Association (TIA/EIA)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Physical Layer Characteristics

Functions

 Encoding
• Method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined "code”.
 Signaling Method
• Method of representing the bits.
• Physical layer standards must define what type of signal represents a "1" and what
type of signal represents a "0”.
• Long pulse might represent a 1 whereas a short pulse represents a 0.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Bandwidth

 Capacity of a medium to carry data.

 Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a
given amount of time.
 Bandwidth is sometimes thought of as the speed that bits travel, however this is not accurate.
In both 10Mb/s and 100Mb/s Ethernet, the bits are sent at the speed of electricity. The
difference is the number of bits that are transmitted per second.

Throughput

 Measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.
 Usually does not match the specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations due to
many factors.
• Amount of traffic
• Type of traffic
• Latency created by network devices encountered between source and destination
 Goodput is throughput minus traffic overhead for establishing sessions,
acknowledgments, and encapsulation.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Types of Physical Media

The figure shows different types of interfaces and ports available on a 1941 router.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Network Media
Copper Cabling

Characteristics of Copper Media

 Transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses.

 Attenuation - the longer the signal travels, the more it deteriorates.
 All copper media must follow strict distance limitations.
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI) - distorts and
corrupts the data signals being carried by copper media.
o To counter copper cables wrapped in shielding.
 Crosstalk - disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of a signal on one wire to the
signal in an adjacent wire.
o To cancel crosstalk opposing circuit wire pairs twisted together.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Copper Media

There are three main types of copper media used in networking.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

 UTP cabling is the most common networking media.

o Terminated with RJ-45 connectors.
o Used for interconnecting network hosts with networking devices such as switches.
o Consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together to help
protect against signal interference from other wires.
o Color codes aid in cable termination.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

 STP provides better noise protection than UTP.

 STP cable is significantly more expensive and difficult to install.
 Uses an RJ-45 connector.
 Combines the techniques of shielding to counter EMI and RFI, and wire twisting to
counter crosstalk.
 Uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in a foil shield, which are then wrapped in an
overall metallic braid or foil.

Coaxial Cable

 Coax consists of:

• A copper conductor used to transmit the electronic signals.
• A layer of flexible plastic insulation surrounding a copper conductor.
• The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or metallic foil,
that acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner
conductor.
• The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to prevent minor physical
damage.
 UTP cable has essentially replaced coaxial cable in modern Ethernet installations but is
used in:
• Wireless installations: Coaxial cables attach antennas to wireless devices.
• Cable Internet installations

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Copper Media Safety

Copper media are susceptible to fire and electrical hazards.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Properties of UTP Cabling

 Consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires that have been twisted together and
then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.
 Small size can be advantageous during installation.
 UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI.
• Cancellation: When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together,
their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other and cancel out any
outside EMI and RFI signals.
• Varies the number of twists per wire pair to further enhance the cancellation
effect of a paired circuit.

Notice that the

orange/orange white
pair is twisted less than
the blue/blue white pair.
Each colored pair is
twisted a different
number of times.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

UTP Cabling Standards

 UTP cabling conforms to the standards established by

TIA/EIA.
• TIA/EIA-568 stipulates the cabling standards for LAN
installations

 Cat 3 Cable
• Used for voice communication
• Most often used for phone lines
 Cat 5 and 5e Cable
• Used for data transmission
• Cat5 supports 100 Mb/s and can support 1000Mb/s, but
it is not recommended
• Cat5e supports 1000 Mb/s
 Cat 6 Cable
• Used for data transmission
• An added separator is between each pair of wires
allowing it to function at higher speeds

• Support 1000 Mb/s – 10 Gb/s, though 10 Gb/s is not

UTP Connectors

 UTP cable terminated with an

RJ-45 connector.
 TIA/EIA-568 standard describes
the wire color codes to pin
assignments (pinouts) for
Ethernet cables.
 RJ-45 connector is the male
component,
crimped at the end of the cable.

 Socket is the female component

of a network device, wall,
cubicle partition outlet, or patch
panel.
 Essential that all copper media
terminations be of high quality
to ensure optimum performance
with current and future network
technologies.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Types of UTP Cable

Testing UTP Cables

UTP Testing Parameters:

 Wire map
 Cable length
 Signal loss due to attenuation
 Crosstalk

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling

 Transmits data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths.

 Transmit signals with less attenuation and is completely immune to EMI and RFI.
 Used to interconnect network devices.
 Flexible, but extremely thin, transparent strand of very pure glass, not much bigger than a
human hair.
 Bits are encoded on the fiber as light pulses.
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used
in four types of industry:

 Enterprise Networks

o Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH)
o Long-Haul Networks
o Submarine Cable Networks

Fiber Media Cable Design

Jacket
Protects the fiber against abrasion, moisture, and
other contaminants. Composition can vary
depending on the cable usage.
Strengthening Material
Surrounds the buffer, prevents the fiber cable
from being stretched when it is being pulled.
Often the same material used to produce
bulletproof vests.
Buffer
Used to help shield the core and cladding from
damage.
Cladding
Tends to act like a mirror by reflecting light back
in the core of the fiber. Keeps light in the core as
it travels down the fiber.
Core
Light transmission element at the center of the
optical fiber. Core is typically silica or glass.
Light pulses travel through the fiber core.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Types of Fiber Media

Fiber Optic Cabling

Fiber-Optic Connectors
 Light can only travel in one direction over
optical fiber, two fibers are required to
support the full duplex operation.
 Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors
o One of the first connector types
used.
o Locks securely with a “twist-
on/twist-off”.
 Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors
o Referred to as square or standard
connector.
o Uses a push-pull mechanism to
ensure positive insertion.
o Used with multimode and single-
mode fiber.
 Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors
o Smaller version of SC and popular
due to size.
 Duplex Multimode LC Connectors
o Similar to LC but using a duplex
connector.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

 Fiber patch cords are required for

interconnecting infrastructure devices.
 Yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber
cables
 Orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber
cables.
 Fiber cables should be protected with a
small plastic cap when not in use.

Testing Fiber Cables

 Terminating and splicing fiber-
optic cabling requires special
training and equipment.
 Three common types of fiber-
optic
termination and splicing errors are:
 Misalignment: The fiber-optic
media are not precisely
aligned to one another when
joined.
 End gap: The media does not
completely
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer  touch at the splice or
(OTDR) can be used to test each fiber- connection.
 End finish: The media ends
optic cable segment are not well polished, or dirt is
present at the termination.
 Can be field tested by shining a
bright flashlight into one end
of the fiber while observing
the other end.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Fiber versus Copper

Wireless Media

Properties of Wireless Media

 Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data
communications using radio or microwave frequencies.
 Wireless areas of concern:
• Coverage area: Construction materials used in buildings and structures, and the
local terrain, will limit the coverage.
• Interference: Disrupted by such common devices as fluorescent lights, microwave
ovens, and other wireless communications.
• Security: Devices and users, not authorized for access to the network, can gain
access to the transmission.
• Shared medium: Only one device can send or receive at a time and the wireless
medium is shared amongst all wireless users.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Types of Wireless Media

 Wi-Fi: Standard IEEE 802.11

• Uses Carrier/Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
• Wireless NIC must wait till channel is clear.
 Bluetooth: Standard IEEE 802.15
• Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
• Uses a device pairing process for distances 1 to
100 meters
 WiMAX: Standard IEEE 802.16
• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access
• Wireless broadband access.

Wireless LAN

 Wireless LAN requires the following

network devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP):
Concentrates the wireless signals
from users and connects to the
existing copper-based network
infrastructure, such as Ethernet.
• Wireless NIC adapters:
Provide wireless communication
Home and small business wireless routers integrate the capability to each network host.
functions of a router, switch, and access point into one
device.

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 PASSI CITY COLLEGE
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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Data Link Protocols

The Data Link Layer

Layer 2
Data Link
Addresses

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Data Link Sublayers

 Data link layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)
o Communicates with the network
layer.
o Identifies which network layer
protocol is being used for the
frame.
o Allows multiple Layer 3 protocols,
such as IPv4 and IPv6, to utilize the
same network interface and media.
 Media Access Control (MAC)
o Defines the media access processes
performed by the hardware.
o Provides data link layer addressing
and access to
o various network technologies.
o Communicates with Ethernet to
send and receive frames over
copper or fiber-optic cable.
o Communicates with wireless
technologies such as Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.

Media Access Control

 As packets travel from the source host to the destination host, they travel over different
physical networks.
 Physical networks can consist of different types of physical media such as copper wires,
optical fibers, and wireless consisting of electromagnetic signals, radio and microwave
frequencies, and satellite links.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Providing Access to Media

 At each hop along the path, a router:

• Accepts a frame from a medium

• De-encapsulates the frame
• Re-encapsulates the packet into a new frame
• Forwards the new frame appropriate to the medium of that segment.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Data Link Layer Standards

 Engineering organizations that define

open standards and protocols that apply
to the network access layer include:
• Institute of Electrical and
Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
• International Telecommunication
Union (ITU)
• International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
• American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)

Media Access Control

Topologies

Controlling Access to the Media

 Media access control is the

equivalent of traffic rules that
regulate the entrance of
motor vehicles onto a
roadway.
 The absence of any media
access control would be the
equivalent of vehicles
ignoring all other traffic and
entering the road without
regard to the other vehicles.
 However, not all roads and
entrances are the same.
Traffic can enter the road by
merging, by waiting for its
turn at a stop sign, or by
obeying signal lights. A
driver follows a different set
of rules for each type of Sharing the Media
entrance.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

WAN Topologies
Common Physical WAN Topologies

 Point-to-Point - Permanent link

between two endpoints.
 Hub and Spoke - A central site
interconnects branch sites using
point- to-point links.
 Mesh - Provides high
availability, but requires that
every end system be
interconnected to every other
system. Administrative and
physical costs can be
significant.

Physical Point-to-Point Topology

 Frames are placed on the

media by the node at one
end and taken from the
media by the node at the
other end of the point-to-
point circuit.

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 PASSI CITY COLLEGE
City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Logical Point-to-Point Topology

• End nodes communicating in a point-to-point network can be physically connected via a

number of intermediate devices.
• However, the use of physical devices in the network does not affect the logical topology.
• The logical connection between nodes forms what is called a virtual circuit.

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 PASSI CITY COLLEGE
City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

LAN Topologies
Physical LAN Topologies
 Star - End devices are connected to a
central intermediate device. Use
Ethernet switches.
 Extended Star - Additional Ethernet
switches interconnect other star
topologies.
 Bus - Used in legacy networks. All end
systems are chained to each other and
terminated in some form on each end.
Switches are not required to
interconnect the end devices. Bus
topologies using coax cables were used
in legacy Ethernet networks because it
was inexpensive and easy to set up.
 Ring - End systems are connected to
their respective neighbour forming a
ring. Unlike the bus topology, the ring
does not need to be terminated. Ring
topologies were used in legacy Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and
Token Ring network.

Half and Full Duplex

 Half-Duplex Communication
• Both devices can transmit
and receive on the media
but cannot do so
simultaneously.
• Used in legacy bus
topologies and with
Ethernet hubs.
• WLANs also operate in
half-duplex.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

 Full-Duplex Communication
• Both devices can transmit and
receive on the media at the same
time.
• Data link layer assumes that the
media is available for
transmission for both nodes at
any time.
• Ethernet switches operate in
full- duplex mode by default,
but can operate in half-duplex if
connecting to a device such as
an Ethernet hub.
Media Access Control Methods

 Contention-Based Access
• Nodes operate in half-
duplex.
• Compete for the use of
the medium.
• Only one device can
send at a time.

 Controlled Access
• Each node has its own time
to use the medium.
• Legacy Token Ring LANs
are an example

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Contention-based Access - CSMA/CD

 Carrier Sense Multiple

Access/Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) process is used in half-
duplex Ethernet LANs.
 If two devices transmit at the
same time, a collision
 will occur.
 Both devices will detect the
collision on the network.
 Data sent by both devices will
be corrupted and will need to
be resent.

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School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Contention-based Access - CSMA/CA

 CSMA/CA
• Uses a method to detect if
the
media is clear.
• Does not detect collisions
but attempts to avoid
them by waiting before
transmitting.
 Note: Ethernet LANs using
switches do not use a
contention- based system
because the switch and the
host NIC operate in full-
duplex mode.

Data Link Frame

The Frame

 Each frame type has

three
basic parts:
• Header
• Data
• Trailer
 Structure of the frame
and the fields contained
in the header and trailer
depend on Layer 3
protocol.

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City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

Frame Fields

 Frame start and stop

indicator flags - Identifies
the beginning and end
limits of the frame.
 Addressing - Indicates the
source and destination
nodes.
 Type - Identifies the Layer
3 protocol in the data field.
 Control - Identifies special
flow control services such
as QoS.
 Data - Contains the frame
payload (i.e., packet header,
segment header, and the
data).

Layer 2 Addresses

Each data link frame contains the source data link address of the NIC card sending the frame,
and the destination data link address of the NIC card receiving the frame.

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 PASSI CITY COLLEGE
City of Passi, Iloilo

School of Information and Communication Technology

Networking 1

LAN and WAN Frames

 Layer 2 protocol used for a

topology is determined by the
technology.
 Data link layer protocols include:
• Ethernet
• 802.11 Wireless
• Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP)
• HDLC
• Frame Relay

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