Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education

Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb

Source: Academy of Management Learning & Education, Jun., 2005, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun.,
2005), pp. 193-212
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40214287

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®Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2005, Vol. 4, No. 2, 193-212.

Learning Styles and Learning

Spaces: Enhancing Experiential
Learning in Higher Education
ALICE Y. KOLB
Experience-Based Learning Systems
DAVID A. KOLB
Case Western Reserve University

Drawing on the foundational theories of John Dewey and Kurt Lewin, we examine recent
developments in theory and research on experiential learning and explore how this work
can enhance experiential learning in higher education. We introduce the concept of
learning space as a framework for understanding the interface between student learning
styles and the institutional learning environment We illustrate the use of the learning
space framework in three case studies of longitudinal institutional development Finally,
we present principles for the enhancement of experiential learning in higher education
and suggest how experiential learning can be applied throughout the educational
environment by institutional development programs, including longitudinal outcome
assessment curriculum development student development and faculty development

"(There is a) need of forming a theory of ex- tools and techniques to provide learners with ex-
perience in order that education may be in- periences from which they can learn. Others have
telligently conducted upon the basis of used the term to describe learning that is a mind-
experience. "-John Dewey less recording of experience. Yet experiential
learning is above all a philosophy of education
"There is nothing so practical as a good theory" based on what Dewey (1938) called a "theory of
- Kurt Lewin
experience." He argued that while traditional ed-
ucation had little need for theory since practice
Recent efforts to improve higher education, includ- was determined by tradition, the new experiential
ing reports from the National Research Council approach to education needed a sound theory of
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking 2000), the American experience to guide its conduct. In this essay we
Psychological Association (1997), and a number of examine the theory of experiential learning (Kolb,
other scholars (Baxter-Magolda, 1999; Boyatzis, Co-
1984) and related research to explore how this
wen, & Kolb 1995; Keeton, Sheckley, & Griggs 2002;
knowledge can be used to enhance learning in
King, 2003; Light, 2001; Mentkowski and Associates,
higher education.
2000; Zull 2002) have focused on improving the We begin with a brief summary of experiential
learning process in education through the applica-
tion of research from what has been called "the
learning theory (ELT) and an overview of current
research based on the theory. This is followed by
new science of learning" (Branford, Brown, & Cock-
the introduction of two new developments in ELT, a
ing, 2000). One stream of this research is focused
refinement in the assessment of experiential learn-
on the concept of experiential learning. Experien-
tial learning is often misunderstood as a set of ing styles using the Learning Style Inventory (LSI)
and the introduction of the concept of learning
space as a framework for understanding the inter-
We thank James Bailey, Sandy Bell, Richard Boyatzis, David face between student learning styles and the edu-
Justice, D. Christopher Kayes, Tony Lingham, Charalampos
cational learning environment based on Lewin's
Mainemelis, Verena Murphy, Ronald Sims, Barry Sheckley, Yo-
shi Yamazaki, and James Zull for their helpful feedback on this concept of life space. Use of the learning space
manuscript. framework is illustrated in case studies of longitu-

193

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^94 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

dinal institutional development in three diverse periences into existing concepts and accommodat-
programs in higher education, the Cleveland Insti- ing existing concepts to new experience.
tute ofArt, the Case Western Reserve University 6. Learning is the process ofcreating knowledge.
undergraduate program, and the Case Weather- ELT proposes a constructivist theory of learning
head School of Management MBA program. Fi- whereby social knowledge is created and re-
nally, we present principles forthe enhancement created in the personal knowledge ofthe learner.
ofexperiential learning in higher education and This stands in contrast to the "transmission" model
suggest how experiential learning can be applied on which much current educational practice is
throughout the educational environment by insti- based, where preexisting fixed ideas are transmit-
tutional development programs that include longi- ted to the learner.
tudinal outcome assessment, curriculum devel- ELT defines learning as "the process whereby
opment, student development, and faculty knowledge is created through the transformation
development. ofexperience. Knowledge results from the combi-
nation ofgrasping and transforming experience"
(Kolb, 1984: 41). The ELT model portrays two dialec-
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY -
tically related modes of grasping experience
Experiential learning theory draws on the work of Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptu-
prominent 20th century scholars who gave experi- alization (AC)- and two dialectically related
ence a central role in their theories of human modes oftransforming experience- Reflective Ob-
learning and development- notably John Dewey, servation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE).
Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget, William James, Carl Jung, Experiential learning is a process ofconstructing
Paulo Freire, Carl Rogers and others- to develop a knowledge that involves a creative tension among
holistic model ofthe experiential learning process the four learning modes that is responsive to con-
and a multilinear model of adult development textual demands. This process is portrayed as an
(Kolb, 1984). The theory is built on six propositions idealized learning cycle or spiral where the
that are shared by these scholars. learner "touches all the bases" - experiencing, re-
1.Learning is best conceived as a process, not in -
flecting, thinking, and acting in a recursive pro-
terms ofoutcomes. To improve learning in higher cess that is responsive to the learning situation
education, the primary focus should be on engag- and what is being learned. Immediate or concrete
ing students in a process that best enhances their experiences are the basis forobservations and re-
learning- a process that includes feedback on the flections. These reflections are assimilated and
effectiveness of their learning efforts. As Dewey distilled into abstract concepts from which new
notes, "[E]ducation must be conceived as a con- implications foraction can be drawn. These impli-
tinuing reconstruction of experience: . . . the pro- cations can be actively tested and serve as guides
cess and goal ofeducation are one and the same in creating new experiences. In The Artof Chang-
thing" (Dewey 1897: 79). ing the Brain: Enriching Teaching by Exploring the
2. All learning is relearning. Learning is best Biology of Learning, James Zull, a biologist and
facilitated by a process that draws out the stu- founding director ofCWRU's University Center for
dents' beliefs and ideas about a topic so that they Innovation in Teaching and Education (UCITE),
can be examined, tested, and integrated with new, sees a link between ELT and neuroscience re-
more refined ideas. search, suggesting that this process ofexperiential
3. Learning requires the resolution of conflicts learning is related to the process ofbrain function-
between dialectically opposed modes of adapta- ing (as shown in Fig. 1).
tion to the world. Conflict, differences, and dis-
agreement are what drive the learning process. In Put into words, the figure illustrates that con-
the process oflearning one is called upon to move crete experiences come through the sensory
back and forth between opposing modes ofreflec- cortex, reflective observation involves the in-
tion and action and feeling and thinking. tegrative cortex at the back, creating new ab-
4. Learning is a holistic process ofadaptation to stract concepts occurs in the frontal integra-
the world. Not just the result ofcognition, learning tive cortex, and active testing involves the
involves the integrated functioning ofthe total per- motor brain. In other words, the learning cycle
son- thinking, feeling, perceiving, and behaving. arises from the structure of the brain (Zull
5. Learning results from synergetic transactions 2002: 18-19).
between the person and the environment. In Pi-
aget's terms, learning occurs through equilibration The concept oflearning style describes individ-
ofthe dialectic processes ofassimilating new ex- ual differences in learning based on the learner's

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 195

Active

^T y^ Premotor /-^^ *\ ^^
W j^XFrontal and / 1 Sensory V ^
/ J motor/ J and ^J^^^. Concrete
Abstract
^^f integrate-^/ /
^postsensory^X^^" experience
hypotheses cortex (
~"^^\ J*^' ) ) I

^^^^^^^^ Reflective y^^^^

observation
FIGURE 1
The Experiential Learning Cycle and Regions of the Cerebral Cortex. Note. Reprinted with permission
from (Zull 2002).

preference for employing different phases of the particular learning style and life path- develop-
learning cycle. Because of our hereditary equip- ment of CE increases affective complexity, of RO
ment, our particular life experiences, and the de- increases perceptual complexity, of AC increases
mands of our present environment, we develop a symbolic complexity, and of AE increases behav-
preferred way of choosing among the four learning ioral complexity.
modes. We resolve the conflict between being con-
crete or abstract and between being active or re-
RESEARCH ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
flective in patterned, characteristic ways.
THEORY
ELT as defined by Kolb posits that learning is the
major determinant of human development, and ELT was developed following Lewin's plan for the
how individuals learn shapes the course of their creation of scientific knowledge by conceptualiz-
personal development. His previous research has ing phenomena through formal, explicit, testable
shown that learning styles are influenced by per- theory. In Lewin's approach, "before a system can
sonality type, educational specialization, career be fully useful the concepts in ithave to be defined
choice, and current job role and tasks (Kolb, 1984). in a way that (1) permits the treatment of both the
Yamazaki (2002, 2003) has recently identified cul- qualitative and quantitative aspects of phenom-
tural influences as well. The ELT developmental ena in a single system, (2) adequately represents
model (Kolb, 1984) defines three stages: (1) acqui- the conditional-genetic (or causal) attributes of
sition, from birth to adolescence, where basic abil- phenomena, (3) facilitates the measurement (or op-
ities and cognitive structures develop; (2) special- erational definition) of these attributes, and (4) al-
ization, from formal schooling through the early lows both generalization to universal laws and
work and personal experiences of adulthood, concrete treatment of the individual case" (Cart-
where social, educational, and organizational wright, 1951: ix). A theory developed by this pro-
socialization forces shape the development of a cess can be a powerful instrument for stimulating
particular, specialized learning style; and (3) inte- and focusing scholarly research conversation.
gration in midcareer and later life, where non- Since its first statement in 1971 (Kolb, 1971; Kolb,
dominant modes of learning are expressed in work Rubin, & Mclntyre, 1971), there have been many
and personal life. Development through these studies using ELT to advance the theory and prac-
stages is characterized by increasing complexity tice of experiential learning. The July 2005 update
and relativism in adapting to the world and by of the Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography
increased integration of the dialectic conflicts be- (Kolb & Kolb, 2005) includes 1876 entries. Because
tween AC and CE and AE and RO. Development is ELT is a holistic theory of learning that identifies
conceived as multilinear, based on an individual's learning style differences among different aca-

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196 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

demic specialties, it is not surprising to see that again in 1999. Recent critique has been more fo-
ELT research is highly interdisciplinary, address- cused on the theory than the instrument examining
ing learning and educational issues in many the intellectual origins and underlying assump-
fields. An analysis ofthe 1004 entries in the 1999 tions ofELT from what might be called a critical
bibliography (Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001) theory perspective, where the theory is seen as
shows 207 studies in management, 430 in educa- individualistic, cognitivist, and technological (e.g.,
tion, 104 in information science, 101in psychology, Vince, 1998; Holman, Pavlica, & Thorpe, 1997; Hop-
72 in medicine, 63 in nursing, 22 in accounting and kins, 1993). Kayes (2002) has reviewed these and
5 in law. About 55% ofthis research has appeared other critics ofELT and offered his own critique of
in refereed journal articles, 20% in doctoral disser- the critics. He suggests that critics have over-
tations, 10% in books and book chapters, and 15% looked the role ofVygotsky's social-constructivist
in conference proceedings, research reports, and learning theory in the ELT theory ofdevelopment
other venues. and the role of personal knowledge and social
There have been two comprehensive reviews of knowledge in experiential learning. He proposes
the ELT literature, one qualitative and one quanti- an extension ofELT based on Lacan's poststructur-
tative. In 1991 Hickcox extensively reviewed the alist analysis that elaborates the fracture between
theoretical origins of ELT and qualitatively ana- personal and social knowledge and the role that
lyzed 81 studies that focused on the application of language plays in shaping experience.
the ELT model as well as on the application ofthe
concept oflearning style in accounting and busi- LEARNING STYLE ASSESSMENT
ness education, helping professions, medical pro-
fessions, postsecondary education and teacher ed- Much ofthe research on ELT has focused on the
ucation. She concluded that overall 61.7% of the concept oflearning style using the Learning Style
studies supported ELT, 16.1% showed mixed sup- Inventory (LSI) to assess individual learning styles
port, and 22.2% did not support ELT. In 1994 Iliff (Kolb 1971, 1999a,b; see also Hickox, 1991). Although
conducted a meta-analysis of101quantitative LSI individuals tested on the LSI show many different
studies culled from 275 dissertations and 624 arti- patterns ofscores, previous research with the in-
cles that were qualitative, theoretical, and quanti- strument has identified four learning styles that
tative studies ofELT and the Kolb Learning Style are associated with different approaches to learn-
Inventory (LSI; Kolb 1971, 1985, 1999a; see also ing: diverging, assimilating, converging, and ac-
Hickox, 1991). Ilifffound that 49 studies showed commodating. The following summary ofthe four
strong support forthe LSI, 40 showed mixed sup- basic learning styles is based on both research
port, and 12studies showed no support. About half and clinical observation of these patterns ofLSI
ofthe 101studies reported sufficient data on the scores (Kolb, 1984, 1999a).
LSI scales to compute effect sizes by way ofmeta- An individual with diverging style has CE and
analysis. Most studies reported correlations that RO as dominant learning abilities. People with
fell in the .2 to .5 range forthe LSI scales. In con- this learning style are best at viewing concrete
clusion Iliff suggested that the magnitude ofthese situations from many different points ofview. The
statistics is not sufficient to meet standards ofpre- style is labeled "diverging" because a person with
dictive validity, while noting that the LSI was not itperforms better in situations that call forgener-
intended to be a predictive psychological test like ation ofideas, such as a "brainstorming" session.
IQ, GRE, or GMAT. The LSI was originally devel- People with a diverging learning style have broad
oped as a self-assessment exercise and a means cultural interests and like to gather information.
forconstruct validation ofELT. Judged by the stan- They are interested in people, tend to be imagina-
dards ofconstruct validity, ELT has been widely tive and emotional, have broad cultural interests,
accepted as a useful framework forlearning cen- and tend to specialize in the arts. In formal learn-
tered educational innovation, including instruc- ing situations, people with the diverging style pre-
tional design, curriculum development, and life- ferto work in groups, to listen with an open mind,
long learning. Academic field and job and to receive personalized feedback.
classification studies viewed as a whole also show An individual with an assimilating style has AC
a pattern ofresults consistent with the ELT struc- and RO as dominant learning abilities. People
ture ofknowledge theory. with this learning style are best at understanding
Most of the debate and critique in the ELT/LSI a wide range of information and putting it into
literature has centered on the psychometric prop- concise, logical form. Individuals with an assimi-
erties ofthe LSI. Results from this research have lating style are less focused on people and more
been ofgreat value in revising the LSI in 1985 and interested in ideas and abstract concepts. Gener-

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 197

ally, people with this style find it more important tion. "This person has difficulty in conceptualizing
that a theory have logical soundness than practi- or making meaning of experience; consequently,
cal value. The assimilating learning style is impor- the cycle runs from feelings to reflection (which
tant for effectiveness in information and science remains unconsolidated) to action. The conse-
careers. In formal learning situations, people with quence of this Northerly pattern is that the flow is
this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring ana- discontinuous and the actions are poorly or-
lytical models, and having time to think things ganized since they are not informed by the foun-
through. dation of AC meaning" (Hunt, 1987: 155).
An individual with a converging style has AC The Easterner emphasizes reflecting (RO) while
and AE as dominant learning abilities. People with balancing feeling (CE) and thinking (AC). The
this learning style are best at finding practical learning strengths of this style are a capacity for
uses for ideas and theories. They have the ability deep reflection informed by the ability to be both
to solve problems and make decisions based on feeling oriented and conceptual. "Persons with an
finding solutions to questions or problems. Individ- Easterly pattern have trouble putting plans into
uals with a converging learning style prefer to action. Consequently, they spend much time bur-
deal with technical tasks and problems rather than ied in thought. Because the action is short cir-
with social and interpersonal issues. These learn- cuited, their thoughts are about their feelings
ing skills are important for effectiveness in spe- rather than about their direct actions; this imbal-
cialist and technology careers. In formal learning anced cycle lacks the rejuvenation provided by
situations, people with this style prefer to experi- actions" (Hunt, 1987: 155).
ment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory as- The Southerner emphasizes thinking (AC) while
signments, and practical applications. balancing acting (AE) and reflecting (RO). The
An individual with an accommodating style has learning strengths of this style are highly devel-
CE and AE as dominant learning abilities. People oped conceptual and analytic capabilities that are
with this learning style have the ability to learn informed both by reflection and action. "Persons
from primarily "hands-on" experience. They enjoy with a Southerly pattern are not in touch with their
carrying out plans and involving themselves in feelings. They reflect on the mechanics of their
new and challenging experiences. Their tendency actions without benefit of emotional feedback. The
may be to act on "gut" feelings rather than on reflection may lead to reformulation of concepts
logical analysis. In solving problems, individuals but the revision is mechanical and sterile" (Hunt,
with an accommodating learning style rely more 1987: 155).
heavily on people for information than on their The Westerner emphasizes acting (AE) while
own technical analysis. This learning style is im- balancing feeling (CE) and thinking (AC). The
portant for effectiveness in action-oriented careers learning strengths of this style are highly devel-
such as marketing or sales. In formal learning sit- oped action skills that are informed both by con-
uations, people with the accommodating learning ceptual analysis and intuitive experience. "In this
style prefer to work with others to get assignments pattern, the Westerner goes directly from feelings
done, to set goals, to do field work, and to test out to conceptualizing without sorting out the concrete
different approaches to completing a project. experience. Consequently, the initial conceptual
Recent theoretical and empirical work is show- framework is likely to be unclear, with little possi-
ing that the original four learning styles- assimi- bility to correct it through reflection" (Hunt, 1987:
lating, converging, accommodating, and diverg- 155).
ing- can be expanded to show nine distinct styles. A "Balancing" learning style has been identified
David Hunt and his associates (Abby, Hunt, & by Mainemelis, Boyatzis, and Kolb (2002) that inte-
Weiser, 1985; Hunt 1987) identified four additional grates AC and CE and AE and RO. In this study we
learning styles, which they identified as North- employed the Learning Style Inventory (Kolb
erner, Easterner, Southerner, and Westerner. The 1999a), the Adaptive Style Inventory (ASI, Boyatzis
following descriptions of these styles include & Kolb 1993), and the Learning Skills Profile (LSP,
Hunt's analysis, which emphasizes the impact of Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991, 1995, 1997) to test a funda-
the style's weakest learning mode on the learner's mental ELT hypothesis: The more balanced people
learning process. are in their learning orientation on the LSI, the
The Northerner emphasizes feeling (CE) while greater will be their adaptive flexibility on the ASI.
balancing acting (AE) and reflecting (RO). The To assess a balanced LSI profile, we used two
learning strengths of this style are a capacity for indicators of a balanced learning profile, using
deep involvement while being comfortable in the absolute LSI scores on the Abstract/Concrete and
outer world of action and the inner world of reflec- Active/Reflective dimensions. The results sup-

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^98 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

ported our hypotheses, showing that people with This research that increases the "resolution" of
balanced learning profiles in both dimensions of the learning style type grid from four to nine pixels
the LSI are more adoptively flexible learners as may help to deal with a common misconception of
measured by the ASI. The relationship was stron- ELT learning styles; that is, the tendency to treat
ger forthe profile balanced on the Abstract/Con- the four learning styles as four categorical entities
crete dimension than the Active/Reflective dimen- rather than continuous positions on the dimen-
sion. Other results showed that individuals with sions ofAC-CE and AE-RO. Gould (2003) in his last
specialized LSI learning styles have a greater level book writes extensively about the bias in science
of skill development in the commensurate skill that arises from such dichotomous thinking. Al-
quadrant ofthe LSP. The study also produced some though the simple format ofthe LSI may limit em-
unexpected results. For example, although we pre- pirical identification; theoretically, there are many
dicted that specialized learning styles would show identifiable learning styles along these two di-
less adaptive flexibility on the ASI, the results mensions (not to mention other dimensions identi-
showed that this is true forthe abstract learning fied by other learning style theories). Elsewhere
styles but not forthe concrete styles. we have attempted to address this bias:
The nine learning styles outlined above can be
defined by placing them on the learning style type
grid (Kolb 1999a: 6). Instead ofdividing the grid at When it is used in the simple, straightfor-
the 50th percentiles ofthe LSI normative distribu- ward, and open way intended, the LSI usually
tions forAC-CE and AE-RO, the nine styles are provides an interesting self-examination and
defined by dividing the two normative distribu- discussion that recognizes the uniqueness,
tions into thirds. (On the AE-RO dimension the complexity and variability in individual ap-
active regions are defined by raw scores ^ 12, proaches to learning. The danger lies in the
while the reflective regions are defined by raw reification oflearning styles into fixed traits,
scores < -1. On the AC-CE dimension the con- such that learning styles become stereotypes
crete regions are defined by < - 1and the abstract used to pigeonhole individuals and their be-
regions by > 12.(See Fig 2.) havior (Kolb, 1981: 290-291).

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE

NW N NE
Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

Accommodating Northerner Diverging

ACTIVE Zm Fefung RefiLg REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feelmg-Thinking OBSERVATION
+ Reflecting Feeling-Thinking
Acting
Thinking
Westerner Balancing Easterner

SW S SE
Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

Converging Southerner Assimilating

ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 2
The Nine-Region Learning Style Type Grid

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 199

Is learning style a fixed trait or dynamic state? thing else that might have direct effect on behav-
ELT clearly defines learning style as a dynamic ior. The various factors in a given life space are to
state arising from an individual's preferential res- some degree interdependent, and Lewin strongly
olution of the dual dialectics of experiencing/con- maintains that only the dynamic concepts of ten-
ceptualizing and acting/reflecting. sion and force can deal with these sets of interde-
pendent facts. This is what led him to define psy-
The stability and endurance of these states in chological needs as tension systems and their
individuals comes not solely from fixed ge- topological representation as vectors to denote mo-
netic qualities or characteristics of human be- tion. Lewin postulated that the particular organi-
ings: nor, for that matter, does it come from zation of a person's life space was determined by a
the stable fixed demands of environmental field of forces- both internal needs and external
circumstances. Rather, stable and enduring demands- that positioned the individual in a life
patterns of human individuality arise from space composed of different regions. Using map-
consistent patterns of transaction between like representation, the life space could be de-
the individual and his or her environment . . . picted topologically. Life spaces can vary in a
The way we process the possibilities of each number of dimensions, including extension, differ-
new emerging event determines the range of entiation, integration, and level of conflict. Lewin
choices and decisions we see. The choices introduced a number of concepts for analysis of the
and decisions we make to some extent deter- life space and a person's relationship to it that are
mine the events we live through, and these applicable to the study of learning spaces, includ-
events influence our future choices. Thus, ing position, region, locomotion, equilibrium of
people create themselves through the choice forces, positive and negative valence, barriers in
of actual occasions they live through (Kolb the person and the world, conflict, and goal.
1984: 63-64). Three other theoretical frameworks inform the
ELT concept of learning space. Urie Bronfrenbren-
Nonetheless, in practice and research there is a ner's (1977, 1979) work on the ecology of human
marked tendency to treat learning style as a fixed development has made significant sociological
personality trait (e.g., Garner, 2000). Individuals contributions to Lewin's life space concept. Bron-
often refer to themselves and others as though frenbrenner defines the ecology of learning/devel-
learning style was a fixed characteristic: "I have opment spaces as a topologically nested arrange-
trouble making decisions because I am a di- ment of structures, each contained within the next.
verger." "He likes to work alone because he is an The learner's immediate setting, such as a course
assimilator." To emphasize the dynamic nature of or classroom, is called the microsystem, while
learning style, the latest version of the LSI has other concurrent settings in the person's life such
changed the style names from diverger to diverg- as other courses, the dorm, or family are referred to
ing, and so on. as the mesosystem. The exosysfem encompasses
the formal and informal social structures that in-
fluence the person's immediate environment, such
LEARNING SPACE
as institutional policies and procedures and cam-
To elaborate further the complex, dynamic nature pus culture. Finally, the macrosystem refers to the
of learning style and its formation through trans- overarching institutional patterns and values of
actions between the person and environment we the wider culture, such as the cultural values fa-
introduce the concept of learning space. The con- voring abstract knowledge over practical knowl-
cept of learning space builds on Kurt Lewin's field edge, that influence actors in the person's immedi-
theory and his concept of life space. For Lewin, ate microsystem and mesosystem. This theory
both person and environment are interdependent provides a framework for analysis of the social
variables, a concept Lewin translated into a math- system factors that influence learners' experience
ematical formula, B = f(p,e) where behavior is a of their learning spaces.
function of person and environment. As Marrow Another important contribution to the learning
puts it, "the life space is the total psychological space concept is situated learning theory (Lave &
environment which the person experiences subjec- Wenger 1991). Like ELT, situated learning theory
tively" (1969: 35). Life space includes all facts which draws on Vygot sky's (1978) activity theory of social
have existence for the person and excludes those cognition for a conception of social knowledge that
which do not. It embraces needs, goals, uncon- conceives of learning as a transaction between the
scious influences, memories, beliefs, events of a person and the social environment. Situations in
political, economic, and social nature, and any- situated learning theory such as life space and

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200 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

learning space are not necessarily physical places learning regions and integrative or balancing
but constructs of the person's experience in the learning regions. The regions of the ELT learning
social environment. These situations are embed- space offer a typology of the different types of
ded in communities of practice that have a history, learning based on the extent to which they require
norms, tools, and traditions of practice. Knowledge action versus experiencing versus
reflection,
resides not in the individual's head but in commu- thinking, thereby emphasizing some stages of the
nities of practice. Learning is thus a process of learning cycle over others.
becoming a member of a community of practice The learning process in specialized learning re-
through legitimate peripheral participation (e.g., gions, accommodating, diverging, assimilating,
apprenticeship). Situated learning theory enriches and converging, strongly emphasizes one pole of
the learning space concept by reminding us that the feeling/thinking dialectic and one pole of the
learning spaces extend beyond the teacher and the acting/reflecting dialectic. Individuals in the NW
classroom. They include socialization into a wider region learn primarily through acting and feeling.
community of practice that involves membership, In the NE region learners emphasize reflecting and
identity formation, transitioning from novice to ex- feeling. In the SE region learners emphasize re-
pert through mentorship, and experience in the flecting and thinking. In the SW region individuals
activities of the practice, as well as the reproduc- learn through thinking and acting.
tion and development of the community of practice In the integrative learning regions, N, E, S, W,
itself as newcomers replace old-timers. and C, the learning process integrates the poles of
Finally, in their theory of knowledge creation, one or both of the two dialectics. The learning
Nonaka and Konno (1998) introduce the Japanese
process in the N region integrates acting and re-
concept of ba, a "context that harbors meaning," flecting with a primary emphasis on feeling. In the
which is a shared space that is the foundation for E region the learning process integrates feeling
knowledge creation. "Knowledge is embedded in and thinking with a primary emphasis on reflect-
ba, where it is then acquired through one's own
ing. In the S region learners integrate acting and
experience or reflections on the experiences of oth-
reflecting with a primary emphasis on thinking. In
ers" (Nonaka & Konno, 1998: 40). Knowledge em-
the W region the learning process integrates feel-
bedded in ba is tacit and can only be made explicit
ing and thinking with a primary emphasis on ac-
through sharing of feelings, thoughts, and experi- tion. In the central region learners take an integra-
ences of persons in the space. For this to happen
tive approach to learning that balances feeling,
the ba space requires that individuals remove bar-
riers between one another in a climate that empha- thinking, acting, and reflecting.
The ELT learning space concept emphasizes that
sizes "care, love, trust, and commitment." Learning
learning is not one universal process but a map of
spaces similarly require norms of psychological
safety, serious purpose, and respect to promote
learning territories, a frame of reference within
which many different ways of learning can flourish
learning.
In ELT the experiential learning space is defined and interrelate. It is a holistic framework that ori-
ents the many different ways of learning to one
by the attracting and repelling forces (positive and
another. As Lewin put it,
negative valences) of the two poles of the dual
dialectics of action/reflection and experiencing/
conceptualizing, creating a two-dimensional map
of the regions of the learning space. Individuals' Actually, the term learning refers to a multi-
tude of different phenomena. The statement,
learning style positions them in one of these re-
gions depending on the equilibrium of forces "Democracy, one has to learn, autocracy is
among action, reflection, experiencing, and con- imposed on the person," refers to one type of
ceptualizing. As with the concept of life space, this learning. Ifone says that the spastic child has
position is determined by a combination of indi- to learn to relax one is speaking of a different
vidual disposition and characteristics of the learn- type of learning. Both types probably have
ing environment. The LSI measures an individual's very little to do with learning French vocabu-
preference for a particular region of the learning lary, and this type again has little to do with
space, that individual's "home region" so to speak. learning to like spinach. Have we any right to
Learners' scores on the LSI place them in one of the classify learning to high-jump, to get along
nine regions depicted in Figure 2, each of which is with alcohol, and to be friendly with people
associated with a specific process of learning from under the same term, and to expect identical
experience. These regions are named for the points laws to hold for any of these processes? (Cited
of the compass and are divided into specialized in Cartwright, 1951: 65).

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 201

Experiential learning can be viewed as a pro- dent development workshops, and faculty develop-
cess of locomotion through the learning regions ment seminars (A. Kolb & Lingham 2002; Eickmann,
that is influenced by a person's position in the A. Kolb, & D. Kolb, 2003). The Case program to
learning space. Research using the Adaptive Style enhance experiential learning in the undergradu-
Inventory (ASI; Boyatzis & Kolb, 1993) has shown ate curriculum involves longitudinal outcome as-
that individuals vary in their ability to move about sessment, curriculum development, faculty devel-
the learning space from their home region (e.g., a opment, and student development.
person scoring in the southern region moving from
the thinking-oriented southern region to the feel-
Comparing Learning Styles of Case Management
ing-oriented northern region) and that this capac- and CIA Art Students
ity to adapt flexibly to changing learning contexts
is related to higher stages of adult development Figures 3 and 4 show how the learning styles of
(Kolb, 1984, chap. 8). One's position in the learning management and art students are distributed in
space defines that person's experience and thus the learning regions. Art students are concentrated
defines their "reality". Lewin stresses the impor- in the feeling-oriented northern regions of the
tance for education of defining the learning space learning space, while management students are
in terms of the learner's experience: concentrated in the thinking-oriented southern re-
gions. Forty-two point one percent of art students
One of the basic characteristics of field theory are in the northern regions, while 23.6% are in the
in psychology, as I see it,is the demand that south. Forty-five point seven percent of manage-
the field which influences an individual ment students are in the southern regions with
should be described not in objective physical- 21.2% in the north. More art students are in the
istic terms, but in the way that it exists for eastern regions than in the western regions (35.2%
that person at that time ... A teacher will to 26.3%). More management students are in the
never succeed in giving proper guidance to a western regions than in the eastern regions (36.3%
child if he does not learn to understand the to 30.4%). Among art students the SW region is the
psychological world in which that child least populated (3.7%), while the least-populated
lives ... To substitute for that world of the region for management students is the NE (5.1%).
individual the world of the teacher, of the Ten point two percent of management students are
physicist, or of anybody else is to be, not ob- in the balancing central region, while 12.5% of art
jective, but wrong (Cited in Cartwright, 1951: students are there. Boyatzis and Mainemelis found
62). significant correlations between abstract learning
styles and grades and GMAT indicating a bias
toward abstraction in evaluation and selection
LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
practices. For BFA graduates, there was no rela-
To illustrate the concept of learning space, we tionship between grades and learning style.
present data showing the distribution of student
learning styles in three institutions of higher edu-
cation that are engaged in longitudinal institu- Comparing Learning Spaces in Management and
the Arts
tional development programs to promote learning:
the Case Weatherhead School of Management Our observations way the educational pro-
of the
MBA program, the Cleveland Institute of Art under- cess is conducted in art schools and management
graduate program, and the Case Western Reserve schools reveal some striking differences that give
University undergraduate program. The Case insight into the nature of learning in the different
Weatherhead institutional development program, learning regions. Dewey's distinction between ar-
reported in Innovation in Professional Education: tistic and scientific learning helps us understand
Steps on a Journey From Teaching to Learning the difference between the kinds of learning that
(Boyatzis, Cowen, & Kolb 1995), focused on curric- occur in art education and in management educa-
ulum development, student development, and lon- tion:
gitudinal outcome assessment (Boyatzis, Stubbs, &
Taylor, 2002). MBA student learning style data is The rhythm of loss of integration with envi-
from Boyatzis and Mainemelis (2000). The program ronment and recovery of union not only per-
at the Cleveland Institute of Art is part of a longi- sists in man, but becomes conscious with him;
tudinal study of artistic learning conducted by the its conditions are material out of which he
Ohio Consortium on Artistic learning involving a forms purposes. Emotion is the conscious sign
longitudinal study of artistic learning styles, stu- of a break, actual or impending. The discord

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202 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE

NW N NE
Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

10.1% 6% 5.1%

ACTIVE AIg ^ J*^ REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking
Acting OBSERVATION
+ ReflectingFeeling-Thinking
Thinking
13.5% 10.2% 9.3%

SW S SE
Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

12.7% 17% 16%

ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 3
Learning Styles MBA Students (N = 1286)
of

is the occasion that induces reflection. Desire tive remoteness of his end, the scientific
forrestoration of the union converts mere worker operates with symbols, words, and
emotion into interest in objects as conditions mathematical signs. The artist does his think-
of realization of harmony. With the realiza- ing in the very qualitative media he works in,
tion, material ofreflection is incorporated into and the terms lie so close to the object that he
objects as their meaning. Since the artist is producing that they merge directly into it
cares in a peculiar way forthe phase ofex- (Dewey, 1934: 15-16).
perience in which union is achieved, he does
not shun moments ofresistance and tension. awareness ofdifferences in the manage-
A first
He rather cultivates them, not fortheir own ment and arts learning spaces came as we were
sake but because of their potentialities, preparing a learning style workshop forart stu-
bringing to living consciousness an experi- dents. We asked what readings we should give
ence that is unified and total. In contrast with and the provost, Paul Eickmann, said, "You know,
the person whose purpose is esthetic, the sci- forart students learning is not text driven." This
entific man is interested in problems, in situ- stood in dramatic contrast with management edu-
ations wherein tension between the matter of cation, which is almost entirely organized around
observation and of thought is marked. Of texts that deliver an authoritative scientific dis-
course he cares fortheir resolution. But he course. The scientific basis of the management
does not rest in it; he passes on to another curriculum was established in 1959 by an influen-
problem using an attained solution only as a tial Carnegie Foundation report that sought to im-
stepping stone on which to set on foot further prove the intellectual respectability of manage-
inquires. ment education by grounding it in three scientific
The difference between the esthetic and the disciplines: economics, mathematics, and behav-
intellectual is thus one of the place where ioral science.
emphasis falls in the constant rhythm that The text-driven approach ofmanagement edu-
marks the interaction ofthe live creature with cation contrasts with the experiential learning
his surroundings . . . Because ofthe compara- process of demonstration-practice-production-

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 203

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE

NW N NE
Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

13.8% 17.2% 11.1%

ACTIVE Ac*g pJLg RefiLg REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + OBSERVATION
ActingReflecting Feeling-Thinking
Thinking
8.8% 12.5% 13%

SW S SE
Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

3.7% 8.8% 11.1%

ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 4
Learning Style Distribution ofCIA Graduating Students (N = 216)

critique that is used in most art classes (see Table spent on student performance, most of which oc-
1).This process is repeated recursively in art edu- curs on tests and papers. In art classes, the ma-
cation, while management education is primarily jority ofthe time is spent on student expression
discursive, with each topic covered in a linear se- of ideas and skills. Art education tends to be
quence with little recursive repetition. Manage- individualized, with small classes and individ-
ment education focuses on telling; art education ual attention, while management education is
emphasizes showing. Management education organized into large classes with limited indi-
tends to emphasize theory; art education empha- vidualized attention. An assistant dean at the
sizes integration oftheory and practice. Arteduca- Columbus College of Art and Design who ma-
tion focuses on the learners' inside-out expression; jored in music as an undergraduate and later got
management education on outside-in impression. an MBA, contrasted the 3 hours a week he spent
Most time in management classes is spent con- in individual tutorial with his mentor with the
veying information with relatively little time shock he experienced in entering a tiered MBA
classroom of200 students. Finally, art education
TABLE 1 tends to be represented by faculty members with
Comparison of ArtsEducation and Management diverse learning styles, whereas management
Education education tends to favor specialized faculty
members with a primarily abstract learning ori-
Arts Education Management Education entation.
Aesthetic Scientific
Text driven
Demo-practice-production-critique Longitudinal Locomotion in the Arts Learning
Recursive Discursive
Space
Theory and practice Theory
Showing Telling Longitudinal LSI scores from CIA students at the
Expression
Individualized
Impression
Batched beginning oftheir freshman and junior years show
Diverse faculty Abstract faculty
a significant movement among students from the
reflective eastern regions to the active western

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204 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

regions, perhaps indicating student growth and Skill Development and Learning Regions
development toward a more active role in their
own learning as a result of the empowering, active Table 3 shows the relationship between the posi-
structure of the CIA learning environment (see Ta- tion of Case freshmen in the learning regions and
ble 2). Longitudinal studies of LSI changes among their learning skills as measured by the Learning
undergraduates in Alverno College's program, Skills Profile. Five of the 12 learning skill areas
which emphasizes competency development show significant F values. All three conceptual
through active experiential learning, show similar skill areas, Theory Building, Quantitative Analy-
movement from the reflective to active learning sis, and Technology skills show significant differ-
regions across the freshman to senior years (Ment-
ences among regions. Tukey and Scheffe tests in-
kowski & Strait 1983; Mentkowski and Associates, dicate that theory skills are highest in the S and
2000).
SW and lowest in the NE region. Quantitative anal-
ysis skills are highest in the S and lowest in the
NW, N, and NE regions. Among the interpersonal
skill areas, only help skills were significant across
Learning Styles Case Undergraduates
of
regions, with the NW significantly higher than the
shows the distribution of Case freshmen S region. In the action skills area, only initiative
Figure 5
in the learning regions. As might be expected from
skills were significant with the NW area signifi-
a research university liberal arts program with a cantly higher than the E, SE, and C regions. None of
the information skill areas were significant among
strong emphasis on science and engineering, the
regions.
pattern of LSI scores shows a distribution across
the learning regions that is similar to the Case
MBA program in its emphasis on the abstract
southern regions. Forty-nine percent of Case fresh- Summary
men are positioned in the southern regions (vs. The portraits of institutional learning spaces pre-
47.5% MB As) and 16.8% of the freshmen are in the sented above suggest that student learning style
northern regions (vs. 21.2% MB As). As with the MBA scores may be a way to describe the institutional
students, there are significant correlations be- learning spaces experienced by students. In par-
tween abstract selection criteria, (SAT scores), and ticular the comparison between the observed edu-
abstract LSI scores (r = .32). However, the Case cational programs and teaching methods of CIA
freshmen are more similar to the CIA graduates in arts education and Case MBA education seems
their distribution in the eastern and western re- consistent with respective student LSI distribu-
gions. Thirty-five point five percent of Case fresh- tions in the nine-region learning space, with MBA
men are in the eastern regions (vs. 35.2% CIA). students primarily in the southern thinking and
Twenty-three point three percent of Case freshmen western acting regions, and arts students falling
are in the western regions (vs. 26.3% CIA). The NW mainly in the northern feeling and eastern reflec-
is the least populated learning region (3.5%), while tion regions. The corresponding discursive, telling,
the S region has the greatest number of Case fresh- educational methods of the MBA program and the
men (19.4%). recursive, showing, techniques of the art school

TABLE 2
CIA Students' Learning Style at the Beginning of the Freshman and Junior Year
Freshman (2000) Junior (2001)

LSI Scores n M SD M SD ta

Experiencing (CE) 77 26.31 6.07 26.87 6.64 -0.66

Reflecting (RO) 77 31.36 6.56 29.23 7.00 2.42**
Conceptualizing (AC) 77 28.88 6.28 29.34 7.47 -0.54
Acting (AE) 77 32.88 6.48 34.56 6.80 -1.95*
AC-CE 77 2.57 9.97 2.47 11.88 0.08
AE-RO 77 1.52 11.40 5.32 11.56 -2.61**

a
Significance levels are for paired sample t tests as two-tailed tests.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 205

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE

NW N NE
Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

3.5% 6.7% 6.6%

ACTIVE Alg FeJfag REFLECTIVE J*^

EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + OBSERVATION
ActingReflecting Feeling-Thinking
Thinking
7.6% 14.2% 11.5%

SW S SE
Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting

12.2% 19.4% 17.4%

ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 5
Case 2002 Undergraduate Freshman LSI Distribution (N = 288)

recall Dewey's description of the scientific worker lytic skills makes sense in that its mission is to
who "operates with symbols, words and mathe- prepare students for careers that require abstrac-
matical signs" and the artist who "does his think- tion and analysis. However, to learn skills outside
ing in the very qualitative media he works in." of their home region, learners need to move to
The very similar learning space distributions of other regions and the learning process for any skill
Case undergraduate and MBA students suggest requires the ability to move through the experienc-
the institutional exosystem influence of the univer- ing, reflecting, thinking, and acting cycle. To fully
sity's research mission and culture on the learning develop the whole person requires an educational
spaces experienced by students. Both students and culture that promotes diverse learning spaces and
faculty are selected for their abstract learning locomotion among them.
skills, so it is not surprising that the university
learning spaces would predominate in the south- CREATING LEARNING SPACES FOR THE
ern regions.
ENHANCEMENT OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
As the undergraduate data on learning skills
and learning regions suggest, the nine regions of The enhancement of experiential learning in
the experiential learning space are associated higher education can be achieved through the cre-
with specific learning processes. The learning pro- ation of learning spaces that promote growth-
cesses in each region are in turn most effective for producing experiences for learners. A central con-
the achievement of certain learning outcomes. For cept in Dewey's educational philosophy is the
example, the feeling-oriented northern regions are continuum of experience in which experiences that
most effective for learning interpersonal skills, promote or inhibit learning are arrayed. "The be-
while the thinking-oriented southern regions are lief that all genuine education comes about
most effective for learning analytic and quantita- through experience does not mean that all experi-
tive skills. Individuals' learning styles represent ences are genuinely educative . . . For some expe-
their preferences for particular regions of the riences are mis-educative. Any experience is mis-
learning space, their home bases so to speak. That educative that has the effect of arresting or
Case specializes in education for abstract, ana- distorting the growth of further experience . . .

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206 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 207

Hence the central problem ofan education based works which cannot be erased by a teacher's co-
on experience is to select the kind ofpresent expe- gent explanation. Instead the effective teacher
riences that live fruitfully and creatively in sub- builds on exploration of what students already
sequent experiences" (Dewey, 1938: 25-28). A know and believe, on the sense they have made of
number ofeducational principles flow from this their previous concrete experiences. Beginning
philosophy. with these or related concrete experiences allows
the learner to re-examine and modify their previ-
ous sensemaking in light ofthe new ideas.
Respect for Learners and Their Experience
A growth-producing experience in the philosophy
ofexperiential learning refers not only to a direct Creating and Holding a Hospitable Space for
Learning
experience related to a subject matter under study
but also to the total experiential life space ofthe To learn requires facing and embracing differenc-
learner. This includes the learner's physical and es; whether they be differences between skilled
social environment and quality of relationships. expert performance and one's novice status, differ-
We refer to this as the cheers/jeers experiential ences between deeply held ideas and beliefs and
continuum. At one end learners feel that they are new ideas, or differences in the life experience and
members ofa learning community who are known values of others that can lead to understanding
and respected by faculty and colleagues and them. These differences can be challenging and
whose experience is taken seriously, a space threatening, requiring a learning space that en-
"where everybody knows your name." At the other courages the expression of differences and the
extreme are "mis-educative" learning environ- psychological safety to support the learner in fac-
ments where learners feel alienated, alone, unrec- ing these challenges (Sanford, 1966). As Robert
ognized, and devalued. Learning and growth in the Kegan says, "people grow best where they contin-
jeers environment "where nobody knows your uously experience an ingenious blend ofchallenge
name" can be difficult ifnot impossible. While this and support" (1994: 42). As Kegan implies by his
principle may seem obvious or even "preachy," it use ofthe term ingenious blend, creating and hold-
is problematic foreven the finest educational in- ing this learning space is not easy. He notes that
stitutions. President Lawrence Summers of Har- while educational institutions have been quite
vard dedicated his 2003 commencement address to successful in challenging students, they have been
the introduction ofa comprehensive examination much less successful in providing support. One
ofthe undergraduate program, motivated in part reason forthis may be that challenges tend to be
by a letter he received from a top science student specific and immediate, while support must go
which contained the statement, "I am in the eighth beyond an immediate "You-can-do-it" statement.
semester ofcollege and there is not a single sci- Creating and holding a learning space requires a
ence professor here who could identify me by climate or culture ofsupport that the learner can
name." Summers concludes: "The only true mea- trust to "hold" them over time. In Conversational
sure ofa successful educational model is our stu- Learning (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002), we draw on
dents' experience ofit"(Summers, 2003: 64). the works of Henri Nouwen (1975) and Parker
Palmer (1983, 1990, 1998) to describe this challeng-
ing and supportive learning space as one that wel-
Begin Learning With the Learner's Experience of comes the stranger in a spirit ofhospitality where
the Subject Matter
"students and teachers can enter into a fearless
To learn experientially learners must first of all communication with each other and allow their
own and value their experience. Students will of- respective life experiences to be their primary and
ten say, "But I don't have any experience," mean- most valuable source of growth and maturation"
ing that they don't believe that their experience is (Nouwen, 1975: 60).
of any value to the teacher or forlearning the
subject matter at hand. The new science oflearn- Conversational Learning
Making Space for
ing (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking 2000) is based on
the cognitive constructivist theories ofPiaget and Human beings naturally make meaning from their
Vygotsky that emphasize that people construct experiences through conversation. Yet genuine
new knowledge and understanding from what they conversation in the traditional lecture classroom
already know and believe, based on their previous can be extremely restricted or nonexistent. At the
experience. Zull (2002) suggests that this prior break or end ofthe class the sometimes painfully
knowledge exists in the brain as neuronal net- silent classroom will suddenly come alive with

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208 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

spontaneous conversation among students. Signif- sions may be so related to facts that their value is
icant learning can occur in these conversations, tested and organized" (1934: 45). Yet many pro-
although it may not always be the learning the grams in higher education are much more focused
teacher intended. Making space for good conver- on impressing information on the mind of the
sation as part of the educational process provides learner than on opportunities for the learners to
the opportunity for reflection on and meaning mak- express and test in action what they have learned.
ing about experiences that improve the effective- Many courses will spend 15 weeks requiring stu-
ness of experiential learning (Keeton, Sheckley, & dents to take in volumes of information and only a
Griggs 2002; Bunker 1999). For example, the cre- couple of hours expressing and testing their learn-
ation of learning teams as part of a course pro- ing, often on a multiple-choice exam. This is in
motes effective learning when psychologically contrast to arts education built on the demonstra-
safe conditions are present (Wyss-Flamm, 2002). tion-practice-critique process where active ex-
Conversational Learning presents the dimensions pression and testing are continuously involved in
of spaces that allow for good conversation. It is the learning process. Zull (2002) suggests that ac-
more likely to occur in spaces that integrate think- tion may be the most important part of the learning
ing and feeling, talking and listening, leadership cycle because it closes the cycle by bringing the
and solidarity, recognition of individuality and re- inside world of reflection and thought into contact
latedness, and discursive and recursive processes. with the outside world of experiences created by
When the conversational space is dominated by action (cf. Dewey, 1897). Keeton, Sheckley and
one extreme of these dimensions, for example, Gross (2002) propose another level of action/reflec-
talking without listening, conversational learning tion integration, emphasizing the importance of
is diminished. active reflection in deepening learning from expe-
rience.
Making Space for Development of Expertise
With vast knowledge bases in every field that are Making Spaces for Feeling and Thinking
ever changing and growing, many higher educa- We have seen a polarization between feeling and
tion curricula consist of course after course "cover- thinking in the contrast between the feeling-
ing" a series of topics in a relatively superficial oriented learning space of CIA arts education and
factual way. Yet as the National Research Council the thinking-oriented learning spaces of the Case
in its report on the new science of learning recom- undergraduate and MBA programs. It seems that
mends on the basis of research on expert learners, educational institutions tend to develop a learning
effective learning requires not only factual knowl- culture that emphasizes the learning mode most
edge, but the organization of these facts and ideas related to their educational objectives and to de-
in a conceptual framework and the ability to re- value the opposite learning mode. Yet, Damasio
trieve knowledge for application and transfer to (1994, 2003), LeDoux (1997), Zull (2002), and others
different contexts (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking offer convincing research evidence that reason
2000). Such deep learning is facilitated by deliber- and emotion are inextricably related in their influ-
ate, recursive practice on areas that are related to ence on learning and memory. Indeed it appears
the learner's goals (Keeton, Sheckley, & Griggs that feelings and emotions have primacy in deter-
2002). The process of learning depicted in the ex- mining whether and what we learn. Negative emo-
periential learning cycle describes this recursive tions such as fear and anxiety can block learning,
spiral of knowledge development. Space needs to while positive feelings of attraction and interest
be created in curricula for students to pursue such may be essential for learning. To learn something
deep experiential learning in order to develop ex- that one is not interested in is extremely difficult.
pertise related to their life purpose.
Negative emotions such as fear and
Making Spaces for Acting and Reflecting anxiety can block learning, while
Learning is like breathing; it involves a taking in positive feelings of attraction and
and processing of experience and a putting out or interest may be essential for learning.
expression of what is learned. As Dewey noted,
"nothing takes root in mind when there is no bal- Inside-Out Learning
ance between doing and receiving. Some decisive Making Space for

action is needed in order to establish contact with David Hunt (1987, 1991) describes inside-out learning
the realities of the world and in order that impres- as a process of beginning with oneself in learning by

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2005 Kolb and Kolb 209

focusing on one's experienced knowledge, that is, their own learning by understanding how they
the implicit theories, metaphors, interests, desires learn best and the skills necessary to learn in
and goals that guide experience. Making space for regions that are uncomfortable for them. Work-
inside-out learning by linking educational experi- shops on experiential learning and learning styles
ences to the learner's interests kindles intrinsic mo- can help students to develop meta-cognitive learn-
tivation and increases learning effectiveness. Under ing skills. At CIA and the Case undergraduate
the proper educational conditions, a spark of intrin- programs, student workshops help students inter-
sic interest can be nurtured into a flame of committed pret their LSI scores and understand how to use
life purpose (Dewey, 1897). Yet learning spaces that this information to improve their learning effec-
emphasize extrinsic reward can drive out intrinsi- tiveness. John Reese at the University of Denver
cally motivated learning (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Kohn Law School conducts "Connecting with the Profes-
1993; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Long ago Dewey described sor" workshops in which students select one of four
the trend toward emphasis on extrinsic reward in teaching styles based on the four predominant
education and the consequences forthe teacher who learning styles that they have difficulty connecting
wields the carrot and stick: with. The workshop gives multiple examples of
remedial actions that the learner may take to cor-
Thus in education we have that systematic rect the misconnection created by differences in
depreciation of interest which has been teaching and learning styles. Peer group discus-
noted . . . Thus we have the spectacle of sions among law students give an opportunity to
professional educators decrying appeal to create new ideas about how to get the most from
interest while they uphold with great dig- professors with different learning and teaching
nity the need of reliance upon examina- styles (Reese, 1998).
tions, marks, promotions and emotions,
prizes and the time honored paraphernalia
of rewards and punishments. The effect of PROMOTING LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
this situation in crippling the teacher's THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
sense of humor has not received the atten-
To implement these educational learning space
tion which it deserves (1916: 336).
principles requires a holistic program of institu-
tional development that includes curriculum de-
Making Space for Learners to Take Charge of velopment, faculty development, student develop-
Their Own Learning ment, administrative and staff development, and
resource development. Programs in these areas
Many students enter higher education conditioned need to be coordinated around an institutional vi-
by their previous educational experiences to be sion and mission to promote learning. Such a co-
passive recipients of what they are taught. Making ordinated institutional approach can provide the
space for students to take control of and responsi-
synergy necessary for dramatic organizational
bility for their learning can greatly enhance their
change, while fragmented approaches in one area
ability to learn from experience. Some authors use are often frustrated by lack of interest or under-
the term self-authorship to describe this process of
standing in others. One can develop a state of the
constructing one's own knowledge versus pas- art learning-focused curriculum that is doomed to
sively receiving knowledge from others, consider- failure iffaculty members are not on board with it
ing self-authorship to be a major aim of education
philosophically and technically. If administrative
(Kegan, 1994; King, 2003; Baxter-Magolda, 1999).
Others describe this goal as increasing students' leadership has priorities focused on income and
ratings, the resources for learning promotion will
capacity for self -direction (Boyatzis, 1994; Robert- not be available in other developmental areas.
son, 1988). The Management Development and As-
sessment course in the Case MBA program aims to
develop student self-direction through assessment By developing their effectiveness as
and feedback on learning skills and competencies
and the development of a learning plan to achieve
learners (Keeton, Sheckley, & Griggs,
each student's career/life goals (Boyatzis, 1994). 2002), students can be empowered to take
Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2002) argue for the responsibility for their own learning by
development of meta-cognitive skills to promote understanding how they learn best and
active learning. By developing their effectiveness the skills necessary to learn in regions
as learners (Keeton, Sheckley, & Griggs, 2002), stu- that are uncomfortable for them.
dents can be empowered to take responsibility for

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210 Academy of Management Learning & Education June

In the last chapter ofInnovation in Professional vision that starts with a commitment to experien-
Education titled "What ifLearning Were the Pur- tial learning with rigorous scholarship in under-
pose ofEducation" (Boyatzis, Cowen, & Kolbf 1995), graduate, graduate and professional education
we proposed five design principles to help educa- -
programs to produce educated learners educated
tional institutions focus on the promotion oflearn- learners who are awake to new possibilities"
ing. (Campus News, 2003: 2).
To support the new SAGES curriculum, Case has
1. Evaluation ofeducational structures and pro- launched a 5-year faculty development program to
cesses against promotion oflearning criteria. be organized and delivered through Center forIn-
2. Longitudinal outcome studies to determine
novation in Teaching and Education (UCITE). Ac-
learning value added.
3. Becoming a learner-centered institution. cording to the plan ofthis program, a total of80
4. Continuous research and inquiry about the faculty members across the university will un-
learning process. dergo an intense development on how to develop a
5. Becoming a learning organization through
continuous stakeholder conversation. particular course or other educational experiences
based on experiential learning over the period of5
The institutional development program to pro- years. In this program, faculty members meet reg-
mote experiential learning initiated by Case West- ularly to discuss the philosophy of experiential
ern Reserve University (Case) provides an example learning, the methods ofimplementation that re-
of this holistic approach. In October 2000 the Case spond to the needs ofthe individual schools and
president and provost created the President's Com- departments, the course structure that needs to be
mission on Undergraduate Education and Life. The put in place, the teaching methods that lend them-
Commission's report recommended that Case selves to meeting the goals, and assessment tech-
adopt a philosophy of experiential learning, en- niques. In an effort to coordinate and support such
capsulated in the mission/value statement that university-wide institutional development initia-
"CWRU graduates students who have discovered tives, the new president created the Center for
and are realizing their own uncommon potential Institutional Research (CIR), a collaborative effort
through the University's uniquely transformative to expand institutional research support for all sec-
environment and its philosophy that education is tors ofthe university. Its primary role is to provide
best accomplished through experience" (Presi- information about the university's students, fac-
dent's Commission, 2001: 2). Building on the Com- ulty, staff,programs and environment to support
mission report, university faculty developed an ex- decision making, policy analysis, institutional as-
perimental undergraduate curriculum called sessment, and strategic planning. The Case initia-
Seminar Approach to General Education Studies tive to enhance experiential learning in the under-
(SAGES). The SAGES 2-year pilot program was cre- graduate curriculum integrating institutional
ated as part of curriculum revision of the under- development activities through a leadership vision
graduate General Education Requirements (GER) serves as an example forthe creation of educa-
of College of Arts and Sciences proposed by the tional learning spaces that promote learning in
commission. Following the proposed new GER rec- higher education.
ommendations, SAGES was designed to foster in
students breadth as well as specialized knowledge
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Alice Y. Kolb received her PhD David A. Kolb is professor of or-

from Case Western Reserve ganizational behavior at Case
University in organizational be- Western Reserve University,
havior. She is the president of Weatherhead School of Man-
Experience-Based Learning agement. He received his PhD
Systems, Inc., a research and in social psychology from Har-
development organization that vard University. Kolb is best
promotes experiential learning known for his research on expe-
in organizations worldwide. riential learning and learning
Her current focus is on promot- styles described in Experiential
ing learning in higher educa- Learning: Experience as the
tion through institutional devel- Source of Learning and Devel-
opment. opment. His current research
focuses on team learning and
experiential learning in con-
versation.

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