Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
Singapore’s Electoral System: An
Overview
Constituency Structure
Singapore's electoral system is a distinctive framework that combines elements of both
majoritarian and proportional representation, reflecting the country's unique political landscape
and governance model inherited from the British Colonial Government.1 The constituency
structure is primarily characterized by two types of electoral divisions in the unicameral
parliament: single-member constituencies (SMCs) and group representation constituencies
(GRCs). SMCs are straightforward, with one representative elected per constituency, while
GRCs comprise multiple members, typically ranging from 3 to 5 candidates, elected as a
team/group.2 This design aims to ensure minority representation in Parliament, as each GRC
must include candidates from minority ethnic groups, thereby attempting to promote inclusivity
in a multicultural society.
There are a total of 31 electoral constituencies, with 17 of the districts being GRCs and
14 SMCs.3 However, not all candidates are elected, out of the 98 members of parliament 87 are
elected, 2 are non-constituency members of parliament, and 9 members appointed by the
president.4 This provides a condition where calculating magnitude differs based on which
divisions are included: for SMCs M=1, for GRCs M=79/17=4.64, combining both directly
elected constituencies results in a district magnitude of 3.
Since gaining independence in 1965, Singapore's electoral system has undergone
significant transformations, moving from a landscape dominated by the People's Action Party
(PAP) to a more competitive electoral environment, albeit within a context that still exhibits
authoritarian traits. The electoral framework is primarily governed by the Constitution of
1
New Naratif, “Explainer: Singapore’s Electoral System,” New Naratif (blog), March 26,
2020, https://newnaratif.com/explainer-how-singapores-electoral-system-works/.
2
“White_Paper_on_the_Report_of_the_Electoral_Boundaries_Review_Committee_2020.Pdf,”
accessed September 11, 2024,
https://www.eld.gov.sg/pdf/White_Paper_on_the_Report_of_the_Electoral_Boundaries_Review
_Committee_2020.pdf.
3
“Singapore’s Electoral Boundaries: Watch These Wards,” The Business Times, July 5, 2024,
https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/singapore/singapores-electoral-boundaries-watch-these-
wards.
4
“PARL | Members of Parliament,” accessed September 11, 2024,
https://www.parliament.gov.sg/about-us/structure/members-of-parliament.
Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
Singapore and the Presidential Elections Act, which delineates the rules and procedures for
presidential elections, including eligibility criteria, nomination processes, and voting
mechanisms.5
One of the defining features of Singapore's presidential elections is the use of a unique
electoral system known as the "multiple magnitude plurality" (MMP) system. This system allows
for the election of a president through a plurality of votes, where the candidate with the most
votes wins, without the necessity of achieving an absolute majority. This mechanism has been
criticized for facilitating the ruling party's manipulation of electoral outcomes, particularly
through gerrymandering.6 The People’s Action Party (PAP) has historically leveraged its
administrative control to maintain its dominance, leading to accusations of electoral unfairness
and a lack of genuine competition.
Moreover, the role of compulsory voting in Singapore's electoral system adds another
layer of complexity. While compulsory voting is intended to enhance civic participation, it has
been argued that it does not necessarily translate into equitable representation, particularly
concerning gender dynamics. Studies have shown that compulsory voting in Singapore, similar
to other countries, may favor male candidates, thereby perpetuating existing biases within the
political landscape.7 This raises questions about the inclusivity and representativeness of the
electoral process, particularly in a society that aspires to uphold democratic principles.
The presidential elections in Singapore are also marked by a significant degree of state
control over the electoral process. The PAP's longstanding governance has resulted in an
environment where elections may be viewed as a means of legitimizing authority rather than as a
genuine contest of political ideas. This phenomenon has led to the characterization of Singapore
as an "electorally legitimized authoritarian regime," where the ruling party's ability to deliver
public goods and maintain social stability has overshadowed the need for democratic reforms. 8
5
Utkarsh Tongbram and Dr Anna Ganguly, “Electoral System in Singapore” 6, no. 2 (2024).
6
Mingxuan Yang, “The Perils of Parliamentarism in Contrast to Presidentialism in Democratic
Transition,” Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media 21 (November 20,
2023): 20–24, https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/21/20230035.
7
Bram Wauters and Robin Devroe, “Forced to Vote, but Not for Women. The Effect of
Compulsory Voting on Voting for Women,” Acta Politica 53, no. 3 (July 1, 2018): 469–87,
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-017-0065-x.
8
Michael D. Barr, “The Bonsai under the Banyan Tree: Democracy and Democratisation in
Singapore,” Democratization 21, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 29–48,
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2012.706606.
Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
The electoral system, therefore, functions within a framework that prioritizes stability and
economic growth over democratic accountability and unfettered competition.
To recap, the electoral system in Singapore is a complex amalgamation of historical
legacies, institutional frameworks, and political realities that reflect the country's unique
approach to governance. While the system has evolved to incorporate elements of competition, it
remains deeply intertwined with the PAP's dominance and the broader context of state control.
The challenges of ensuring equitable representation and fostering genuine democratic
engagement persist, underscoring the possible need for ongoing scrutiny and potential reform in
the electoral processes that shape Singapore's political landscape.
Ballot Structure
Figure 1 Ballot Example Presidential Elections; Ballot Example Voting in Singapore is
Parliamentary Elections.
conducted through a secret
ballot system, where voters select their preferred candidates on a ballot paper. The ballot
structure is relatively simple,
allowing voters to stamp an X
on their choice for either a
single candidate in an SMC or a
team of candidates in a GRC.
The presidential ballot follows
this same structure where the
names of candidates and their
allotted symbols are presented,
and voters must stamp an X or
use a pen to cross an X in the
space demarked to do so.9
9
“Parliamentary Elections Act Version in Force from 2 Jan 2019.,” accessed September 11,
2024; “Presidential Elections (Forms and Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 2011 - Singapore
Statutes Online,” accessed September 12, 2024.
Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
Formulae
The translation of votes into seats in Singapore's Parliament is governed by a plurality
voting system for SMCs, where the candidate with the highest number of votes wins. In GRCs,
the entire team of candidates must secure a majority of the votes to be elected, which can lead to
a mechanical advantage for larger parties, particularly the ruling People's Action Party (PAP). 10
This electoral formula often results in a significant disparity between the percentage of votes
received by a party and the number of seats it secures, known as disproportionality. The PAP's
dominance in the political arena is further reinforced by this system, as it allows the party to
consolidate power and maintain a legislative supermajority despite fluctuations in voter
support.11
The implications of this electoral structure extend beyond mere representation; they
shape the political dynamics and party strategies within Singapore. The GRC system, while
promoting diversity, has also been critiqued for creating "safe seats" that can hinder genuine
electoral competition, thereby entrenching the PAP's dominance.12 As such, the constituency
structure, voting mechanisms, and seat allocation formula collectively illustrate the complexities
of Singapore's electoral system, which operates within a broader context of governance that
blends elements of democracy with authoritarianism.13
Minority Representation
Singapore is a relatively ethnically diverse nations with a majority Chinese population.
According to the 2020 census from the Singaporean Department of Statistics Chinese residents
account for 75.9%, Malaysian’s account for 15%, and Indian’s account for 7.5% of the citizen
population; the rest of the population is categorized as “other” and account for just 1.6% of
citizens.14 GRCs were introduced in 1988 as to guarantee representation of racial minorities in
10
Steven Oliver and Kai Ostwald, “EXPLAINING ELECTIONS IN SINGAPORE: DOMINANT PARTY
RESILIENCE AND VALENCE POLITICS,” Journal of East Asian Studies 18, no. 2 (July 2018):
129–56, https://doi.org/10.1017/jea.2018.15.
11
Ibid
12
Netina Tan and Bernard Grofman, “Electoral Rules and Manufacturing Legislative
Supermajority: Evidence from Singapore,” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 56, no. 3
(July 3, 2018): 4–5, https://doi.org/10.1080/14662043.2018.1468238.
13
Mustafa Izzuddin, “The Rebounding of the People’s Action Party of Singapore in 2015: An
Electoral Analysis of Three Hotly Contested Constituencies,” October 19, 2016,
https://doi.org/10.1163/2667078X-01702009.
14
“Census of Population 2020 Statistical Release,” 7, accessed September 12, 2024,
https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/findings.pdf.
Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
parliament through ensuring that at least one of the candidates in the group belongs to a racial
minority. While this system doesn’t ensure a substantive representation it has allowed for a
relatively proportional level of minority representation in the legislature.15
While little contemporary research has fixated on the representation of women in
parliament there have been calls from politicians including the current Prime Minister Lawrence
Wong “hoping” to increase the number of women represented in the government. As of now
around 1/3 of PAP representatives are women compared to the 1970s and 80s where all members
were male.16 The proportion of women in parliament has remained stable since 2020 at just under
30%, showing that there is still room to improve this disproportionality possibly through
legislative measures as recommended by the Asian Development Blog.17
15
Waikeung Tam, “Political Representation of Racial Minorities in the Parliament of
Singapore,” Japanese Journal of Political Science 20, no. 4 (December 2019): 225–39,
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1468109919000094.
16
“PM Wong Hopes to Field More Women Candidates in Coming General Election,” CNA,
accessed September 12, 2024, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/prime-minister-
lawrence-wong-more-women-pap-general-election-parliament-4579026.
17
“Getting More Women into Asia’s Parliaments Is Key to Gender Equality | Asian
Development Blog,” accessed September 12, 2024, https://blogs.adb.org/blog/getting-more-
women-asia-s-parliaments-key-gender-equality.
Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
Bibliography
Barr, Michael D. “The Bonsai under the Banyan Tree: Democracy and Democratisation in
Singapore.” Democratization 21, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 29–48.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2012.706606.
“Census of Population 2020 Statistical Release.” Accessed September 12, 2024.
https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/findings.pdf.
CNA. “PM Wong Hopes to Field More Women Candidates in Coming General Election.”
Accessed September 12, 2024. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/prime-
minister-lawrence-wong-more-women-pap-general-election-parliament-4579026.
“Getting More Women into Asia’s Parliaments Is Key to Gender Equality | Asian Development
Blog.” Accessed September 12, 2024. https://blogs.adb.org/blog/getting-more-women-
asia-s-parliaments-key-gender-equality.
Izzuddin, Mustafa. “The Rebounding of the People’s Action Party of Singapore in 2015: An
Electoral Analysis of Three Hotly Contested Constituencies,” October 19, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.1163/2667078X-01702009.
Naratif, New. “Explainer: Singapore’s Electoral System.” New Naratif (blog), March 26, 2020.
https://newnaratif.com/explainer-how-singapores-electoral-system-works/.
Oliver, Steven, and Kai Ostwald. “EXPLAINING ELECTIONS IN SINGAPORE: DOMINANT
PARTY RESILIENCE AND VALENCE POLITICS.” Journal of East Asian Studies 18,
no. 2 (July 2018): 129–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/jea.2018.15.
“PARL | Members of Parliament.” Accessed September 11, 2024.
https://www.parliament.gov.sg/about-us/structure/members-of-parliament.
“Parliamentary Elections Act Version in Force from 2 Jan 2019.Pdf.” Accessed September 11,
2024. https://www.eld.gov.sg/Resources/Parliamentary%20Elections%20Act%20version
%20in%20force%20from%202%20Jan%202019.pdf.
“Presidential Elections (Forms and Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 2011 - Singapore Statutes
Online.” Accessed September 12, 2024. https://sso.agc.gov.sg:5443/SL-Supp/S448-
2011/Published?DocDate=20110802&ProvIds=pr2-.
Tam, Waikeung. “Political Representation of Racial Minorities in the Parliament of Singapore.”
Japanese Journal of Political Science 20, no. 4 (December 2019): 225–39.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1468109919000094.
Tan, Netina, and Bernard Grofman. “Electoral Rules and Manufacturing Legislative
Supermajority: Evidence from Singapore.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 56,
no. 3 (July 3, 2018): 273–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/14662043.2018.1468238.
The Business Times. “Singapore’s Electoral Boundaries: Watch These Wards,” July 5, 2024.
https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/singapore/singapores-electoral-boundaries-watch-
these-wards.
Tongbram, Utkarsh, and Dr Anna Ganguly. “Electoral System in Singapore” 6, no. 2 (2024).
Wauters, Bram, and Robin Devroe. “Forced to Vote, but Not for Women. The Effect of
Compulsory Voting on Voting for Women.” Acta Politica 53, no. 3 (July 1, 2018): 469–
87. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-017-0065-x.
“White_Paper_on_the_Report_of_the_Electoral_Boundaries_Review_Committee_2020.Pdf.”
Accessed September 11, 2024.
https://www.eld.gov.sg/pdf/White_Paper_on_the_Report_of_the_Electoral_Boundaries_
Review_Committee_2020.pdf.
Hunter Sorenson POL:254 9/12/2024
Yang, Mingxuan. “The Perils of Parliamentarism in Contrast to Presidentialism in Democratic
Transition.” Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media 21 (November 20,
2023): 20–24. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/21/20230035.
