História da aviação

A história da aviação abrange mais de dois milênios, desde as primeiras inovações como pipas
e tentativas de salto de torre até voos supersônicos e hipersônicos em aeronaves a jato
motorizadas e mais pesadas que o ar . O voo de pipas na China, que remonta a várias centenas
de anos a.C., é considerado o primeiro exemplo de voo feito pelo homem. [ 1 ] No século XV,
Leonardo da Vinci criou vários projetos de máquinas voadoras incorporando conceitos
aeronáuticos, mas eles eram impraticáveis ​devido às limitações do conhecimento
contemporâneo. [ 2 ]

O Wright Military Flyer a bordo de uma

carroça em 1908

Balão de reconhecimento francês

L'Intrépide de 1796, o mais antigo
dispositivo voador existente, no Museu
Heeresgeschichtliches , em Viena
 Projeto do ornitóptero de Leonardo da
Vinci

No final do século XVIII, os irmãos Montgolfier inventaram o balão de ar quente , que logo levou
a voos tripulados. Quase ao mesmo tempo, a descoberta do gás hidrogênio levou à invenção do
balão de hidrogênio . [ 3 ] Várias teorias em mecânica por físicos durante o mesmo período,
como a dinâmica dos fluidos e as leis do movimento de Newton , levaram ao desenvolvimento
da aerodinâmica moderna ; mais notavelmente por Sir George Cayley . Balões, tanto de voo livre
quanto presos, começaram a ser usados ​para fins militares a partir do final do século XVIII, com
a França estabelecendo empresas de balões durante a Revolução Francesa . [ 4 ]

No século XIX, especialmente na segunda metade, experimentos com planadores forneceram a

base para o aprendizado da dinâmica de aeronaves aladas; mais notavelmente por Cayley, Otto
Lilienthal e Octave Chanute . No início do século XX, os avanços na tecnologia de motores e
aerodinâmica tornaram possível pela primeira vez o voo controlado, motorizado e tripulado de
um avião mais pesado que o ar. Em 1903, após suas pesquisas e experimentos pioneiros com
design de asas e controle de aeronaves, os irmãos Wright incorporaram com sucesso todos os
elementos necessários para criar e voar o primeiro avião. [ 5 ] A configuração básica com sua
cauda cruciforme característica foi estabelecida em 1909, seguida por rápidas melhorias de
design e desempenho auxiliadas pelo desenvolvimento de motores mais potentes.

As primeiras embarcações aéreas foram os balões rígidos dirigíveis, idealizados por Ferdinand
von Zeppelin, que se tornaram sinônimo de dirigíveis e dominaram os voos de longa distância
até a década de 1930, quando grandes hidroaviões se popularizaram em rotas transoceânicas.
Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial , os hidroaviões foram substituídos por aviões que operavam
em terra, tornando-se muito mais eficientes, primeiro por motores a hélice aprimorados , depois
por motores a jato , que revolucionaram tanto as viagens aéreas civis quanto a aviação militar .

Na segunda metade do século XX, o desenvolvimento da eletrônica digital levou a grandes

avanços na instrumentação de voo e nos sistemas " fly-by-wire ". O século XXI testemunhou o
uso generalizado de drones sem piloto para fins militares, comerciais e recreativos. Com os
controles computadorizados, projetos de aeronaves inerentemente instáveis, como asas
voadoras , também se tornaram práticos.
Etimologia

The term aviation, is a noun of action from the stem of Latin avis "bird" with the suffix -ation
meaning action or progress. It was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel
de La Landelle (1812–1886) in Aviation ou Navigation aérienne sans ballons.[6][7]

Começos primitivos

Tower jumping

Daedalus working on Icarus' wings

Since ancient times, there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks, or
other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek
legends of Daedalus and Icarus are some of the earliest known.[8] Others originated in ancient
Asia[9] and the European Middle Ages. During this early period, the concepts of lift, stability, and
control were not well understood, and most attempts resulted in serious injuries or death.

The Andalusian scientist Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887 AD) attempted to fly in Córdoba, Spain, by
covering his body with vulture feathers and attached two wings to his arms.[10][11] The 17th-
century Algerian historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari, quoting a poem by Muhammad I of
Córdoba's 9th-century court poet Mu'min ibn Said, recounts that Firnas flew some distance
before landing with some injuries, attributed to his lacking a tail (as birds use them to land).[10][12]
In the 12th century, William of Malmesbury wrote that Eilmer of Malmesbury, an 11th-century
Benedictine monk, attached wings to his hands and feet and flew a short distance,[10] but broke
both legs while landing, also having neglected to make himself a tail.[12]
Many others made well-documented jumps in the following centuries. As late as 1811, Albrecht
Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm.[13]

Kites

Woodcut print of a kite from John Bate's

1635 book The Mysteryes of Nature and Art

The kite may have been the first form of man-made heavier-than-air aircraft.[3] It was invented in
China possibly as far back as the 5th century BC. by Mozi (Mo Di) and Lu Ban (Gongshu Ban).[14]
Evidence to support this finding stands with materials commonly found and ideal for kite
building located in China. These are materials such as "silk fabric for sail material, fine, high-
tensile-strength silk for flying line, and resilient bamboo for…framework"[1] The reason these
materials were so perfect for building kites is largely due to the structure of the materials
themselves. Bamboo being a strong, hollow material, largely resembled the hollow bones in
birds, which allow for less weight, making flight easier. Some kites were fitted with strings and
whistles to make musical sounds while flying.[15][16][17] Ancient and mediaeval Chinese sources
describe kites being used to measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate
and send messages.[18] Later designs often depicted images of flying insects, birds, and other
beasts, both real and mythical.

Kites spread from China around the world. After being introduced into the rest of Asia, the kite
further evolved into the fighter kite, which has an abrasive line used to cut down other kites. The
most notable fighter kite designs originated in India and Japan[1]

Man-lifting kites

Man-lifting kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China for civil and military
purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment. An early recorded flight was that of the
prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th century AD.[19] Stories of man-lifting kites
can be found in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh
century AD. For a period, there was a Japanese law against man-carrying kites.[20]

Rotor wings

The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter,
an ancient Chinese toy.[21][22] The similar "moulinet à noix" (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in
the 14th century AD.[23]

Hot air balloons

Since ancient times, the Chinese understood that hot air rises and applied the principle to a type
of small hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or
just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for recreation
and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were found in China since the
3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge Liang (180–234 AD), who is
said to have used them to scare the enemy troops.[24]

There is evidence that the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation" using balloons,
hundreds of years before the 18th century.[25]

Renaissance

One of Leonardo's sketches

Eventually, some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of rational
aircraft design. Most notable of these was Leonardo da Vinci, although his work remained
unknown until 1797, and so had no influence on developments over the next three hundred years.
While his designs are rational, they are not scientific.[26] He particularly underestimated the
amount of power that would be needed to propel a flying object,[27] basing his designs on the
flapping wings of a bird rather than an engine-powered propeller.[28]
Leonardo studied bird and bat flight,[27] claiming the superiority of the latter owing to its
unperforated wing.[29] He analyzed these and anticipated many principles of aerodynamics. He
understood that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object."[30]
Isaac Newton later defined this as the third law of motion in 1687.

From the last years of the 15th century until 1505,[27] Leonardo wrote about and sketched many
designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including ornithopters, fixed-wing gliders,
rotorcraft (perhaps inspired by whirligig toys), parachutes (in the form of a wooden-framed
pyramidal tent) and a wind speed gauge.[27] His early designs were man-powered and included
ornithopters and rotorcraft; however, he came to realise the impracticality of this and later turned
to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some designs powered by a spring.[31]

In an essay titled Sul volo (On flight), Leonardo describes a flying machine called "the bird" which
he built from starched linen, leather joints, and raw silk thongs. In the Codex Atlanticus, he wrote,
"Tomorrow morning, on the second day of January 1496, I will make the thong and the
attempt."[28] According to one commonly repeated, albeit presumably fictional story, in 1505
Leonardo or one of his pupils attempted to fly from the summit of Monte Ceceri.[27]

Mais leve que o ar

Beginnings of modern theories

Francesco Lana de Terzi proposed in Prodromo dell'Arte Maestra (1670) that large vessels could
float in the atmosphere by applying the principles of a vacuum. Lana designed an airship with
four huge copper foil spheres connected to support a rider's basket, a tail, and a steering rudder.
Critics argued that the thin copper spheres could not sustain ambient air pressure, and further
experiments proved that his idea was impossible.[32]

Using a vacuum to create lift is called a vacuum airship, but it is still impossible to build with the
materials available today.

In 1709, Bartolomeu de Gusmão approached King John V of Portugal and claimed to have
discovered a way for airborne flight.

Due to the King's illness, Gusmão's experiment was rescheduled from its initial 24 June 1709,
date to 8 August. The experiment was carried out in front of the king and other nobles in the
Casa da India yard, but the paper ship or device burned down before it could take flight.[33]

Balloons
 Lithographic depiction of pioneering events (1783 to 1846)

In France, five aviation firsts were accomplished between 4 June and 1 December 1783:

On 4 June, a crowd gathered in Annonay, France, to witness the unmanned hot air balloon
display by the Montgolfier brothers. Their 500-pound balloon ascended to nearly 3,000 feet and
traveled over a mile and a half. It stayed in the air for ten minutes before tipping over and
catching fire.[34][35]

On 27 August, Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers unveiled the first unmanned hydrogen
balloon from Paris' Champ de Mars. It landed almost an hour later in Gonesse, where terrified
farmers mistook it for a monster and destroyed it.[36]

On 19 October, in front of 2,000 spectators, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis
d'Arlandes boarded the Montgolfier aircraft as the first people. Later that day, Giroud de
Villette, another pilot, took to the skies much higher.[37]

On 21 November, the Montgolfiers launched the first free flight with human passengers. King
Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but Jean-
François Pilâtre de Rozier, along with the Marquis François d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned
for the honour. They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered by a wood fire.[35]

On 1 December, Jacques Charles and the Nicolas-Louis Robert launched their manned
hydrogen balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris, as a crowd of 400,000 witnessed. They
ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m)[15] and landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée
after a flight of 2 hours and 5 minutes, covering 36 km. After Robert alighted Charles decided
 to ascend alone. This time he ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 9,800 feet (3,000 m),
where he saw the sun again, suffered extreme pain in his ears, and never flew again.

Ballooning became a major interest in Europe in the late 18th century, providing the first detailed
understanding of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere.

Non-steerable balloons were employed during the American Civil War by the Union Army Balloon
Corps. The young Ferdinand von Zeppelin first flew as a balloon passenger with the Union Army
of the Potomac in 1863.

In the early 1900s, ballooning was a popular sport in Britain. These privately owned balloons
usually used coal gas as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of hydrogen so the
balloons had to be larger, however, coal gas was far more readily available and the local gas
works sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning events.[38]

Airships

La France flying in 1885

Airships were originally called "dirigible balloons" and are still sometimes called dirigibles today.

Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon continued sporadically throughout the 19th
century. The first powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air flight is believed to have taken
place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine-driven
craft.

Another advancement was made in 1884, when the first fully controllable free-flight was made in
a French Army electric-powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs. The 170-
foot (52 m) long, 66,000-cubic-foot (1,900 m3) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23 minutes with
the aid of an 8½ horsepower electric motor.

However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and extremely frail. Routine, controlled flights
did not occur until the advent of the internal combustion engine.
 Santos-Dumont's "Number 6" rounding the
Eiffel Tower in the process of winning the
Deutsch de la Meurthe Prize, October 1901

The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were non-rigid airships (sometimes called
"blimps".) The most successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft was the Brazilian
Alberto Santos-Dumont who effectively combined a balloon with an internal combustion engine.
On 19 October 1901, he flew his airship Number 6 over Paris from the Parc de Saint Cloud around
the Eiffel Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. Santos-
Dumont went on to design and build several aircraft. The subsequent controversy surrounding
his and others' competing claims with regard to aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to
the development of airships.

At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have some success, the first successful
rigid airships were also being developed. These were far more capable than fixed-wing aircraft in
terms of pure cargo-carrying capacity for decades. Rigid airship design and advancement was
pioneered by the German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin.

Construction of the first Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake
Constance in the Bay of Manzell, Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the starting
procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype airship LZ 1 (LZ for
"Luftschiff Zeppelin") had a length of 128 m (420 ft), was driven by two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) Daimler
engines and balanced by moving a weight between its two nacelles.

Its first flight, on 2 July 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake
after the winding mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon repair, the technology
proved its potential in subsequent flights, bettering the 6 m/s speed attained by the French
airship La France by 3 m/s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It was several years
before the Count was able to raise enough funds for another try.

The German airship passenger service known as DELAG (Deutsche-Luftschiffahrts AG) was
established in 1910.

Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and continue on a limited basis to this
day, their development has been largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air craft.

Mais pesado que o ar

17th and 18th centuries

Traveller Evliya Çelebi reported that in 1633, Ottoman scientist and engineer Lagari Hasan Çelebi
blasted off from Sarayburnu in a 7-winged rocket propelled by 50 okka (140 lbs) of gunpowder.
The flight was said to have been undertaken at the time of the birth of Sultan Murad IV's
daughter. As Evliya Celebi wrote, Lagari proclaimed before launching his craft "O my sultan! Be
blessed, I am going to talk to Jesus!"; after ascending in the rocket, he landed in the sea,
swimming ashore and joking "O my sultan! Jesus sends his regards to you!"; he was rewarded by
the Sultan with silver and the rank of sipahi in the Ottoman army.[39][40] Evliya Çelebi also wrote of
Lagari's brother, Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, making a flight by glider a year earlier.

Italian inventor Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court in Warsaw,
built a model aircraft with four fixed glider wings in 1647.[41] Described as "four pairs of wings
attached to an elaborate 'dragon' ", it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in 1648 but not
Burattini himself.[42] He promised that "only the most minor injuries" would result from landing
the craft.[43] His "Dragon Volant" is considered "the most elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane
to be built before the 19th Century".[44]

The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air" by Emanuel
Swedenborg published in 1716.[45] This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with
strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a horizontal axis, arranged
so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power.
Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident
that the problem would be solved. Swedenborg proved prescient in his observation that a
method of powering of an aircraft was one of the critical problems to be overcome.

"It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it
requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body. The science
of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If
these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come someone
 might know how better to utilise our sketch and cause some addition to be made
so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient
proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place without
danger, although when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the
experience, and not mind an arm or leg."

— Emanuel Swedenborg

On 16 May 1793, Spanish inventor Diego Marín Aguilera crossed the river Arandilla in Coruña del
Conde, Castile, flying 300 to 400 metres (980 to 1,310 ft) with a flying machine.[46]

19th century

Balloon jumping replaced tower jumping, also demonstrating with typically fatal results that man-
power and flapping wings were useless in achieving flight. At the same time scientific study of
heavier-than-air flight began in earnest. In 1801, the French officer André Guillaume Resnier de
Goué managed a 300-metre glide by starting from the top of the city walls of Angoulême and he
broke one leg on arrival.[47] In 1837, French mathematician and brigadier general Isidore Didion
stated, "Aviation will be successful only if one finds an engine whose ratio with the weight of the
device to be supported will be larger than current steam machines or the strength developed by
humans or most of the animals".[48]

George Cayley and the first modern aircraft

George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846.[49] During the last years of
the 18th century, he had begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and would later
design the first modern heavier-than-air craft. Among his many achievements, his most
important contributions to aeronautics include:

Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles of heavier-than-air flight.

Reaching a scientific understanding of the principles of bird flight.

Scientific aerodynamic experiments were conducted to demonstrate drag and streamlining,

movement of the center of pressure, and the increase in lift from curving the wing surface.

Defining the modern aeroplane configuration comprising a fixed-wing, fuselage and tail
assembly.

Demonstrations of manned, gliding flight.

Identified the crucial understanding that a lightweight, powerful engine would be necessary for
sustained heavier-than-air flight, now known as the power-to-weight ratio
 Recognized for establishing the theoretical foundation for engine use in airplanes and modern
aircraft design by identifying and explaining the four fundamental forces of flight: lift, thrust,
drag, and weight.

Cayley's research on the aeroplane aimed to address the four fundamental areas that are
essential to aeronautics: propulsion, structural design, aerodynamics, and stability and control.
His work laid the groundwork for a comprehensive understanding of these critical components,
which continue to be vital in the field today.[50]

Cayley's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm test
rig for use in aircraft research and using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than
attempting to fly a model of a complete design.

In 1799, he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with
separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.[51][52]

In 1804, Cayley constructed a model glider, which was the first modern heavier-than-air flying
machine. It had the layout of a conventional modern aircraft, with an inclined wing towards the
front and an adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. A movable weight allowed
adjustment of the model's centre of gravity.[53]

"Governable parachute" design of 1852

In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries, he began the publication of a
landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation" (1809–1810).[54] In it he wrote the first
scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to
make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air". He
identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight and
distinguished stability and control in his designs. He also identified and described the
importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and
contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.

In 1848, he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a triplane large and
safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen; his name is unknown.[55][56]

He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full-size manned glider or "governable parachute"
to be launched from a balloon. He then constructed a version capable of launching from the top
of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853.

Age of steam

Drawing directly from Cayley's work, Henson's 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage broke
new ground. Although only a design, it was the first in history for a propeller-driven fixed-wing
aircraft.

1843 artist's impression of John

Stringfellow's plane Ariel flying over the
Nile

1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the
world's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London,[57] where John
Stringfellow was awarded a £100 prize for the steam engine with the best power-to-weight
ratio.[58][59][60] In 1848, Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned 10 feet
(3.0 m) wingspan steam-powered monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset.
Employing two contra-rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the machine flew
ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more
successful, the machine leaving a guidewire to fly freely, achieving thirty yards of straight and
level powered flight.[61][62][63] Francis Herbert Wenham presented the first paper to the newly
formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), On Aerial Locomotion. He
advanced Cayley's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To test his ideas, from
1858 he had constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five
stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are better than bat-like ones because they have
more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the aspect ratio of a wing.

The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the
"gentleman scientists" who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among
them was the British scientist-philosopher and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who studied
lateral flight control and was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868.[64][65][66][67]

In 1871, Wenham made the first wind tunnel using a fan, driven by a steam engine, to propel air
down a 12 ft (3.7 m) tube to the model.[68]

Félix du Temple's 1874 Monoplane

Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857, Félix du Temple
proposed a monoplane with a tailplane and retractable undercarriage. Developing his ideas with
a model powered first by clockwork and later by steam, he eventually achieved a short hop with a
full-size manned craft in 1874. It achieved lift-off under its own power after launching from a
ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful
powered glide in history.

In 1865, Louis Pierre Mouillard published an influential book The Empire Of The Air (l'Empire de
l'Air).

Jean-Marie Le Bris and his flying machine,

Albatros II, 1868

In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of departure, by
having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel " pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a
height of 100 metres, over a distance of 200 metres.
 Planophore model aeroplane by Alphonse
Pénaud, 1871

Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman, advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics. He
also constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he flew
the first aerodynamically stable fixed-wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the
"Planophore", a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud's model incorporated several of Cayley's
discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The
planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a
smaller angle of incidence than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of
aeronautics.[69] Pénaud's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built,
incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin
tractor propellers, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable
undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit.

The Aeroplane of Victor Tatin, 1879.

Another theorist was Frenchman Victor Tatin. In 1879, he flew a model which, like Pénaud's
project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It
was powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, this was the first model to take off
under its own power.

In 1884, Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion),
although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly.

Clément Ader Avion III (1897 photograph)

In 1890, the French engineer Clément Ader completed the first of three steam-driven flying
machines, the Éole. On 9 October 1890, Ader made an uncontrolled hop of around 50 metres
(160 ft); this was the first manned aeroplane to take off under its own power.[70] His Avion III of
1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly:[71] Ader later claimed success and
was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report on his attempt.

Maxim's flying machine

Hiram Maxim was an American engineer who had moved to England. He built his own whirling
arm rig and wind tunnel and constructed a large machine with a wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a
length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers
were powered by two lightweight compound steam engines each delivering 180 hp (130 kW).
The overall weight was 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). It was intended as a test rig to investigate
aerodynamic lift; because it lacked flight controls it ran on rails, with a second set of rails above
the wheels to restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run it broke from the rail, became
airborne for about 200 yards at two to three feet of altitude[72] and was badly damaged upon
falling back to the ground. It was subsequently repaired, but Maxim abandoned his experiments
shortly afterwards.[73]

Manned gliders and Otto Lilienthal

The Biot-Massia glider, restored and on

display in the Musee de l'Air

Around the last decade of the 19th century, a number of key figures were refining and defining
the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine, aircraft work focused on stability and control in
gliding flight. In 1879, Biot constructed a bird-like glider with the help of Massia and flew in it
briefly. It is preserved in the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the earliest man-carrying
flying machine still in existence.
The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. He conducted
extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, proving the principles of aerodynamic lift
foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design. Between
1883 and 1886, the American John Joseph Montgomery developed a series of three manned
gliders, before conducting his own independent investigations into aerodynamics and circulation
of lift.

Otto Lilienthal, 29 May 1895

Otto Lilienthal became known as the "Glider King" or "Flying Man" of Germany. He duplicated
Wenham's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight
as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst), which is seen as one of the
most important works in aviation history.[74] He also produced a series of hang gliders, including
bat-wing, monoplane, and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring
apparatus, which is considered to be the first airplane in series production, making the
"Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal" the first airplane production company in the world.[75]

Starting in 1891, he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and
the first to be photographed flying a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest around the
world. Lilienthal's work led to him developing the concept of the modern wing.[76][77] His flights in
the year 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight[78] and because of that he is often
referred to as either the "father of aviation"[79][80][81] or "father of flight".[82]

He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best
known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glider flights until his death in 1896 from
injuries sustained in a glider crash.

Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early
retirement, and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896, his team flew
several of their designs eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, he
documented and photographed his work.

In Britain Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim, built and successfully flew several gliders
during the mid to late 1890s.
The invention of the box kite during this period by the Australian Lawrence Hargrave led to the
development of the practical biplane. In 1894, Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a
sling seat, and was the first to obtain lift with a heavier than air aircraft, when he flew up 16 feet
(4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite flying included Samuel Franklin Cody in England and
Captain Génie Saconney in France.

William Frost from Pembrokeshire, Wales started his project in 1880 and after 16 years, he
designed a flying machine and in 1894 won a patent for a "Frost Aircraft Glider". Reports say
witnesses claimed the craft flew at Saundersfoot in 1896, travelling 500 yards before colliding
with a tree and falling in a field.[83]

Langley

First failure of Langley's manned

Aerodrome on the Potomac River, 7
October 1903

After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into
aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891, he published Experiments in
Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to
achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in-flight control.[84] On
6 May 1896, Langley's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an
unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring-
actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia.
Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres
(2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). On both occasions, the
Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because, in order to save weight, it was not
equipped with landing gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the
Aerodrome No. 6. This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by
Alexander Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So
little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation.

With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to
build a full-scale man-carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the Spanish–American War, the
U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man-carrying flying machine for aerial
reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled-up version known as the Aerodrome A,
and started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on 18 June 1901, and
then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903.

With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable
engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only
8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of the 12 hp (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley's assistant, Charles M. Manly,
then reworked the design into a five-cylinder water-cooled radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at
950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the
two together with great hopes.

To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small
models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903
both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was
rescued each time. Also, the aircraft's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot
responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome's aerial stability was
marginal.[84]

Langley's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his
second abortive launch on 8 December, the Wright brothers successfully flew their Flyer. Glenn
Curtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very different aircraft in 1914.[84]
Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley's
Aerodrome was the first machine "capable of flight".[85]

Whitehead

Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to
Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915, he designed and built early flying machines and engines. On 14
August 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers' flight, he claimed to have carried
out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. The flight
was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local newspaper. About 30 years later, several
people questioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other Whitehead flights.

In March 2013, Jane's All the World's Aircraft, an authoritative source for contemporary aviation,
published an editorial which accepted Whitehead's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled
flight of a heavier-than-air craft.[86] The Smithsonian Institution (custodians of the original Wright
Flyer) and many aviation historians continue to maintain that Whitehead did not fly as
suggested.[87][88] The historians of the Royal Aeronautical Society noted that: "All available
evidence fails to support the claim that Gustave Whitehead made sustained, powered, controlled
flights predating those of the Wright brothers."[89] The editors of Scientific American agree: "The
data show that not only was Whitehead not first in flight, but that he may never have made a
controlled, powered flight at any time."[90]

Pearse

Richard Pearse was a New Zealand farmer and inventor who performed pioneering aviation
experiments. Witnesses interviewed many years afterward claimed that Pearse flew and landed
a powered heavier-than-air machine on 31 March 1903, nine months before the Wright brothers
flew. [91]: 21–30 Documentary evidence for these claims remains open to interpretation and
dispute, and Pearse himself never made such claims. In a newspaper interview in 1909, he said
he did not "attempt anything practical ... until 1904".[92] If he did fly in 1903, the flight appears to
have been poorly controlled in comparison to the Wrights'.

Wright brothers

The Wright Flyer: the first sustained flight

with a powered, controlled aircraft

Using a methodical approach and concentrating on the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers
built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1898 to 1902 before attempting to build
a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had expected based on the
experiments and writings of their predecessors. Their first full-size glider, launched in 1900, had
only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed
even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and
created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they
tested.[93] As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and
lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider with a higher aspect ratio and true three-
axis control. They flew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than
the previous models. By using a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-tunnel
testing of airfoils and flight testing of full-size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working
aircraft the following year, the Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aeronautical
engineering.
 Within weeks of the first powered flight, this Ohio
newspaper described "what the Wright Brothers'
invention has accomplished" — after years of
glider tests, four successful flights in a powered
flier that has "no balloon attachments of any kind,
but is supported in the air by a pair of aerocurves,
or wings", placing "Santos-Dumont and Lebaudys,
with their dirigible balloons ... in eclipse".[94]

This 1906 article describes how the Wrights'

experiments were conducted in "strict secrecy for
several years", with "not more than a dozen
persons" being in on the secret.[95] One insider
stated that the brothers had "not sought for
spectacular success", and instead described their
"progressive accumulation of experiences",
including gradual progression from gliders to
powered flight, and from straight flights to circuits
requiring turning the aeroplane.[95] The account
reported "some slight success in flying through
the air at the end of the Summer of 1903".[95] The
Wrights were said to have solved flight control
issues to achieve controlled turns on a one-mile
circuit on 20 September 1904, followed by five-
minute flights in the ensuing weeks, and a 24-mile,
38-minute flight in summer 1905.[95]

The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve the
power and control problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost interest. They
solved the control problem by inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with
simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they designed
and built a low-powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved wooden
propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance
from their low engine power. Although wing-warping as a means of lateral control was used only
briefly during the early history of aviation, the principle of combining lateral control in
combination with a rudder was a key advance in aircraft control. While many aviation pioneers
appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights' design was greatly influenced by the
need to teach themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving crashes.
This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was the reason for low flying speed and for taking
off in a headwind. Performance, rather than safety, was the reason for the rear-heavy design
because the canard could not be highly loaded; anhedral wings were less affected by crosswinds
and were consistent with the low yaw stability.

According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI),[96][97]

the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight at Kill
Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on 17 December
1903.[98]

The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous
photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59
seconds. The flights were witnessed by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a local businessman,
and a boy from the village, making these the first public flights and the first well-documented
ones.[98]

Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first few hundred feet were up and down, as
before, but by the time three hundred feet had been covered, the machine was under much better
control. The course for the next four or five hundred feet had but little undulation. However, when
out about eight hundred feet the machine began pitching again, and, in one of its darts
downward, struck the ground. The distance over the ground was measured to be 852 feet
(260 m); the time of the flight was 59 seconds. The frame supporting the front rudder was badly
broken, but the main part of the machine was not injured at all. We estimated that the machine
could be put in condition for flight again in about a day or two".[99] They flew only about ten feet
above the ground as a safety precaution, so they had little room to manoeuvre, and all four flights
in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and unintended "landing". Modern analysis by Professor
Fred E. C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so
unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves
in the 1902 glider.[100]

The Wrights continued flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio in 1904–05. In May 1904 they
introduced the Flyer II, a heavier and improved version of the original Flyer. On 23 June 1905, they
first flew a third machine, the Flyer III. After a severe crash on 14 July 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer
III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the elevator and rudder
and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes
(called "blinkers") between the elevators and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They
disconnected the rudder from the wing-warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on a
separate control handle. When flights resumed the results were immediate. The serious pitch
instability that hampered Flyers I and II was significantly reduced, so repeated minor crashes
were eliminated. Flights with the redesigned Flyer III started lasting over 10 minutes, then 20,
then 30. Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and needing a
launching device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting
point safely and landing without damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39
minutes 23 seconds.[101]

According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientific American magazine,[102] the Wright brothers
seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier-than-air navigation at the time.
However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in the
United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic
Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier-than-air flying machine. Glenn H.
Curtiss won the trophy in 1908 with the first pre-announced and officially recorded flight of the
June Bug.[103]

História

Pioneer Era (1903–1914)

This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes and airships and their early application,
alongside balloons and kites, for private, sport and military use.

Pioneers in Europe

The 14-bis, or Oiseau de proie

 Early Voisin biplane

Although the full details of the Wright Brothers' system of flight control had been published in
l'Aerophile in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not recognised, and European
experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to produce inherently stable machines.

Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer Traian Vuia on 18 March
and 19 August 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 metres, respectively, in a self-designed, fully self-
propelled, fixed-wing aircraft, that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage.[104][105] He was
followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a monoplane which he tested with a tether in Denmark
on 12 September 1906, flying 42 metres.[106]

On 13 September 1906, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont made a public flight in Paris with
the 14-bis, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey"). This was canard configured
with a pronounced wing dihedral, and covered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the
Chateau de Bagatelle in Paris' Bois de Boulogne before a large crowd of witnesses. This well-
documented event was the first flight verified by the Aéro-Club de France of a powered heavier-
than-air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize for the first officially
observed flight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On 12 November 1906, Santos-Dumont set the first
world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 m (720 ft) in
21.5 seconds.[107][108] Only one more brief flight was made by the 14-bis in March 1907, after
which it was abandoned.[109]

In March 1907, Gabriel Voisin flew the first example of his Voisin biplane. On 13 January 1908, a
second example was flown by Henri Farman to win the Deutsch-Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation
prize for a flight in which the aircraft flew a distance of more than a kilometre and landed at the
point where it had taken off. The flight lasted 1 minute and 28 seconds.[110]
Flight as an established technology

Alberto Santos-Dumont flying the

Demoiselle over Paris

Santos-Dumont later added ailerons between the wings in an effort to gain more lateral stability.
His final design, first flown in 1907, was the series of Demoiselle monoplanes (Nos. 19 to 22).
The Demoiselle No 19 could be constructed in only 15 days and became the world's first series
production aircraft. The Demoiselle achieved 120 km/h.[111] The fuselage consisted of three
specially reinforced bamboo booms. The pilot sat in a seat between the main wheels of a
conventional landing gear whose pair of wire-spoked mainwheels were located at the lower front
of the airframe, with a tailskid half-way back beneath the rear fuselage structure. The Demoiselle
was controlled in flight by a cruciform tail unit hinged on a form of universal joint at the aft end of
the fuselage structure to function as elevator and rudder, with roll control provided through wing
warping (No. 20), with the wings only warping "down".

In 1908, Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and starting in August gave a series of flight
demonstrations at Le Mans in France. The first demonstration, made on 8 August, attracted an
audience including most of the major French aviation experimenters, who were astonished by the
clear superiority of the Wright Brothers' aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight controlled
turns.[112] The importance of using roll control in making turns was recognised by almost all the
European experimenters: Henri Farman fitted ailerons to his Voisin biplane and shortly
afterwards set up his own aircraft construction business, whose first product was the influential
Farman III biplane.

The following year saw the widespread recognition of powered flight as something other than
the preserve of dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July 1909, Louis Blériot won worldwide fame by
winning a £1,000 prize offered by the British Daily Mail newspaper for a flight across the English
Channel, and in August around half a million people, including the President of France Armand
Fallières and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Lloyd George, attended one of the
first aviation meetings, the Grande Semaine d'Aviation at Reims.

In 1914, pioneering aviator Tony Jannus captained the inaugural flight of the St. Petersburg-
Tampa Airboat Line, the world's first commercial passenger airline.
Historians disagree about whether the Wright brothers patent war impeded development of the
aviation industry in the United States compared to Europe. The patent war ended during World
War I when the government pressured the industry into forming a patent pool, and major litigants
had left the industry.

Rotorcraft

Experimental helicopter by Enrico Forlanini

(1877), exposed at the Museo nazionale
della scienza e della tecnologia Leonardo
da Vinci of Milan, Italy

In 1877, the Italian engineer, inventor and aeronautical pioneer Enrico Forlanini developed an
unmanned helicopter powered by a steam engine. It rose to a height of 13 metres (43 feet),
where it remained for 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from a park in Milan.[113] Milan has
dedicated its city airport to Enrico Forlanini, the airport is also named Linate Airport,[114] as well
as the nearby park, the Parco Forlanini.[115] In Milan he also has an avenue named after him, Viale
Enrico Forlanini.

The first time a manned helicopter is known to have risen off the ground was on a tethered flight
in 1907 by the Breguet-Richet Gyroplane. Later the same year the Cornu helicopter, also French,
made the first rotary-winged free flight at Lisieux, France. However, these were not practical
designs.

Military use

Nieuport IV, operated by most of the

world's air forces before WW1 for
reconnaissance and bombing, including
during the Italian-Turkish war
Almost as soon as they were invented, aeroplanes were used for military purposes. The first
country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made reconnaissance,
bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the Italian-Turkish war (September 1911 –
October 1912). This war also saw Ottoman soldiers shoot down a warplane for the first time in
history. The first warplane reconnaissance mission flown on 23 October 1911 by the Italian air
force's Captain Carlo Piazza, and the first bombing mission was flown on 1 November 1911 by
Italy's Second Lieutenant Giolio Gavotti.[116][117] Bulgaria later followed this example. Its planes
attacked and reconnoitred Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War 1912–13. The first war
to see major use of aeroplanes in offensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was
World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used aeroplanes and airships extensively.

While the concept of using the aeroplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted
before World War I,[118] the idea of using it for photography was one that was not lost on any of
the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-
war sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance departments. Radiotelephones were also
being explored on aeroplanes, notably the SCR-68, as communication between pilots and ground
commander grew more and more important.

World War I (1914–1918)

German Taube monoplane, illustration from

1917
Combat schemes

It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the lack of any sort of steady
point for the gun was a problem. The French solved this problem when, in late 1914, Roland
Garros attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane. Adolphe Pegoud became known
as the first "ace", getting credit for five victories before also becoming the first ace to die in
action, it was German Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens who, on 1 July 1915, scored the
very first aerial victory by a purpose-built fighter plane, with a synchronized machine gun.

Aviators were styled as modern-day knights, doing individual combat with their enemies. Several
pilots became famous for their air-to-air combat; the most well known is Manfred von
Richthofen, better known as the "Red Baron", who shot down 80 planes in air-to-air combat with
several different planes, the most celebrated of which was the Fokker Dr.I. On the Allied side,
René Paul Fonck is credited with the most all-time victories at 75, even when later wars are
considered.

France, Britain, Germany, and Italy were the leading manufacturers of fighter planes that saw
action during the war, with German aviation technologist Hugo Junkers showing the way to the
future through his pioneering use of all-metal aircraft from late 1915.

Between the World Wars (1918–1939)

Map of record breaking flights of the 1920s

 "Map of Air Routes and Landing Places in
Great Britain, as temporarily arranged by
the Air Ministry for civilian flying",
published in 1919, showing Hounslow, near
London, as the hub

Qantas De Havilland biplane, c. 1930

Flagg biplane from 1933

The years between World War I and World War II saw great advancements in aircraft technology.
Airplanes evolved from low-powered biplanes made from wood and fabric to sleek, high-powered
monoplanes made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work of Hugo Junkers during
the World War I period and its adoption by American designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet
designer Andrei Tupolev.[119]

After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills. Many American
pilots became barnstormers, flying into small towns across the country and showing off their
flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually, the barnstormers
grouped into more organized displays. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races,
acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority.[120] The air races drove engine and airframe
development—the Schneider Trophy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker
monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S.6B.[121] With pilots competing for cash
prizes, there was an incentive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most famous of
those on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot to achieve records
such as the crossing of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Prizes for distance and speed records also drove development forwards. On 14 June 1919,
Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-piloted a Vickers Vimy non-stop from St.
John's, Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the £13,000 ($65,000).[122] Northcliffe prize.
The first flight across the South Atlantic and the first aerial crossing using astronomical
navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from
Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, using an aircraft fitted with an artificial horizon for
aeronautical use.[123] In 1924, Major General Mason Patrick led a group of U.S. Army Air Service
members to complete the first aerial circumnavigation of the world. This flight around the world
came with many logistical challenges, traveling 26,343 miles over the span of 175 days. This
flight led to improved foreign relations by promoting commercial collaboration, and greater
public interest in aviation, prompting governments to put more resources into developing their
aviation forces.[124] On 21 May 1927, Charles Lindbergh received the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for
the first solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic. This caused what was known in aviation at the
time as the "Lindbergh boom", which increased public interest in aviation.[125]

Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the first to fly across the larger Pacific Ocean in the
Southern Cross. His crew left Oakland, California to make the first trans-Pacific flight to Australia,
making three stops to complete the journey. Kingsford-Smith and his crew made their first stop in
Hawaii from Oakland, California, and from Hawaii to Suva, Fiji. During the last segment of their
journey from Fiji to Brisbane, Australia, they encountered severe thunderstorms, and were thrown
nearly 140 miles off their course. The flight concluded on 9 June 1928 after flying 7,230 miles,
Kingsford-Smith and his crew landed in Brisbane, Australia, receiving $25,000 from the Australian
government for their achievement.[126][127] Accompanying him were Australian aviator Charles
Ulm as the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and Captain Harry Lyon (who were the
radio operator, navigator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kingsford Smith and Ulm
recorded a disc for Columbia talking about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later continued
his journey being the first in 1929 to circumnavigate the world, crossing the equator twice.[128]

The first lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were made by airship in July 1919 by His
Majesty's Airship R34 and crew when they flew from East Lothian, Scotland to Long Island, New
York and then back to Pulham, England.[129] By 1929, airship technology had advanced to the
point that the first round-the-world flight was completed by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in
October, the same aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic service.[130] However,
the age of the rigid airship ended following the destruction by fire of the zeppelin LZ 129
Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on 6 May 1937, killing 35 of the 97
people aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from the Wingfoot Express disaster
(1919), the loss of the R101 (1930), the Akron (1933) and the Macon (1935) had already cast
doubt on airship safety. The disasters of the U.S. Navy's rigids showed the importance of solely
using helium as the lifting medium.[131] Following the destruction of the Hindenburg, the
remaining airship making international flights, the Graf Zeppelin was retired (June 1937). Its
replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zeppelin II, made a number of flights, primarily over Germany,
from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Germany began World War II. Both remaining
German zeppelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the German Luftwaffe air force.[132]

Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its development of
powered aircraft, developed gliding as a sport, especially at the Wasserkuppe, during the 1920s.
In its various forms, in the 21st-century sailplane aviation now has over 400,000
participants.[133][134][135]

1928 issue of Popular Aviation (now Flying

magazine), which became the largest
aviation magazine with a circulation of
100,000.[136]

In 1929, Jimmy Doolittle developed flight instruments .[137] 1929 also saw the first flight of by far
the largest plane ever built until then: the Dornier Do X with a wingspan of 48 m. On its 70th test
flight on 21 October 1929, there were 169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20
years.

In 1923, The first successful rotorcraft appeared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish
engineer Juan de la Cierva and first flown in 1919. In this design, the rotor is not powered but
spins freely as it moves through the air, while a separate engine powers the aircraft to move
forward. This was the basis of further development and prototypes that led to the creation of the
helicopter. In 1930 Corradino D'Ascanio, an Italian engineer, developed a coaxial helicopter with
the important inclusion of three small propellers on the craft, which controlled the pitch, roll, and
yaw of the aircraft. Later helicopters saw several adjustments to their rotors but the first modern
helicopter was not constructed until 1947 by Igor Sikorsky[138]

Only five years after the German Dornier Do-X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of
the 1930s era, the Maksim Gorky in the Soviet Union by 1934, as the largest aircraft ever built
using the Junkers methods of metal aircraft construction.

In the 1930s, development of the jet engines began in Germany and in Britain and they began
testing in 1939 before World War II. The jet engine saw considerable development during the war,
with a few jet powered aircraft being used in the war.[139]

First female combat pilot, Sabiha Gökçen,

reviews her Breguet 19

After enrolling in the Military Aviation Academy in Eskisehir in 1936 and undertaking training at
the First Aircraft Regiment, Sabiha Gökçen, flew fighter and bomber planes becoming the first
Turkish, female aviator and the world's first, female, combat pilot. During her flying career, she
achieved some 8,000 hours, 32 of which were combat missions.[140][141][142][143]

World War II (1939–1945)

World War II saw a great increase in the pace of development and production, not only of aircraft
but also the associated flight-based weapon delivery systems. Air combat tactics and doctrines
started being rapidly developed. Large-scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched,
fighter escorts introduced and the more flexible aircraft and weapons allowed precise attacks on
small targets with dive bombers, fighter-bombers, and ground-attack aircraft. New technologies
like radar also allowed more coordinated and controlled deployment of air defence.
 Me 262, world first operational jet fighter

The first jet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 (Germany), flown by Erich Warsitz in 1939,
followed by the world's first operational jet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262, in July 1942 and
world's first jet-powered bomber, the Arado Ar 234, in June 1943. British developments, like the
Gloster Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in World War II. The first cruise
missile (V-1), the first ballistic missile (V-2), the first (and to date only) operational rocket-
powered combat aircraft Me 163—which attained velocities of up to 1,130 km/h (700 mph) in
test flights—and the first vertical take-off a manned point-defence interceptor, the Bachem Ba
349 Natter, were also developed by Germany. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only limited
impact due to their late introduction, fuel shortages, the lack of experienced pilots and the
declining war industry of Germany.

Not only aeroplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid development in the Second World War, with
the introduction of the Focke Achgelis Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 synchropter in 1941 in Germany
and the Sikorsky R-4 in 1942 in the USA.

Postwar era (1945–1979)

D.H. Comet, the world's first jet airliner. As

in this picture, it also saw RAF service
 CC

1:23

A 1945 newsreel covering various firsts in

human flight

Following World War II, commercial aviation expanded quickly, primarily relying on former military
aircraft to carry passengers and cargo. There was an excess of large bombers, such as the B-29
and Lancaster, which were easily converted for commercial use.[144] The DC-3 specifically played
a key role, enabling longer and more efficient flights.[144]

The British de Havilland Comet became the first commercial jet airliner and was introduced into
scheduled service by 1952. The aircraft was a breakthrough in technical achievements, but had
several intense failures. The square design of the windows caused stress cracks from metal
fatigue, caused by cycles of cabin pressurization and depressurization. This eventually led to
severe structural failures in the fuel area. These issues were resolved too late, since competing
jet airliners were already flying.[145]

On 15 September 1956, the USSR's airline Aeroflot became the first to offer continuous, regular
jet services using the Tupolev Tu-104. Soon after, Boeing 707 and DC-8 also set new standards in
comfort, safety, and passenger experience. This was the beginning of the Jet Age, the
introduction of large-scale commercial air travel.[145]

In October 1947, Chuck Yeager became the first to fly faster than the speed of sound when he
piloted the rocket-powered Bell X-1 past the sound barrier.[145] The air speed record for an aircraft
was set by the X-15 at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h) or Mach 6.1 in 1967. This record was later broken
by the X-43 in 2004, excluding spacecraft.[146]

Military aircraft had a strategic advantage during the Cold War with the invention of nuclear
bombs in 1945. Even just a small fleet of bombers could inflict catastrophic damage, which
caused for the development of effective defenses. One early development was supersonic
interceptor aircraft. By 1955, the focus shifted toward guided surface-to-air missiles. This
eventually led to the emergence of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), which have nuclear
capabilities. An early example of ICBMs occurred in 1957 when the Soviet Union launched
Sputnik 1, beginning the Space Race.[147]

In 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space when he completed a single orbit around
Earth in 108 minutes aboard Vostok I. Following this, the United States sent Alan Shepard on a
suborbital flight using a Mercury program capsule. In 1963, Canada became the third nation to
enter space with the launch of its satellite, Alouette I. The space race culminated in the landing
on the moon in 1969.[148]

Apollo 11 lifts off on its mission to land a

man on the Moon

The Harrier jump jet, capable of vertical landing and takeoff, first flew in 1969. This was also the
year of the introduction of the Boeing 747. Additionally, the Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde
supersonic passenger airliner had its maiden flight. The Boeing 747 was the largest commercial
passenger aircraft ever to fly at the time, now replaced by the Airbus A380, capable of
transporting 853 passengers. Aeroflot started flying the Tu-144—the first supersonic passenger
plane in 1975. The next year, British Airways and Air France began supersonic flights over the
Atlantic.[149]

In 1979, the Gossamer Albatross achieved the status of the first human-powered aircraft to fly
over the English channel, which had been a dream for centuries.[150]

Digital age (1980–present)

Concorde, G-BOAB, in storage at London

Heathrow Airport following the end of all
Concorde flying. This aircraft flew for
22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976
and final flight in 2000
The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of emphasis. No longer was revolutionary
progress made in flight speeds, distances and materials technology. This part of the century
instead saw the spreading of the digital revolution both in flight avionics and in aircraft design
and manufacturing techniques.

In 1986, Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager flew an aircraft, the Rutan Voyager, around the world un-
refuelled, and without landing. In 1999, Bertrand Piccard became the first person to circle the
earth in a balloon.

Digital fly-by-wire systems allow an aircraft to be designed with relaxed static stability. These
systems were initially used to increase the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as the
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, however they are now being used to reduce drag on
commercial airliners.

The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999 to encourage the broadest
national and international participation in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight.[151] It
publicized and encouraged a number of programmes, projects and events intended to educate
people about the history of aviation.

século 21

21st-century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well
as low cost airlines and facilities. Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have
good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities; though severe
congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. Around 20,000 city pairs[152] are
served by commercial aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996.

There appears to be newfound interest[153] in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning
demand in the turn of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final commercial
stoppage of the Concorde due to reduced demand following a fatal accident and rising costs.

At the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to
begin eliminating the pilot in favour of remotely operated or completely autonomous unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April 2001, the unmanned aircraft Global Hawk flew from Edwards AFB
in the US to Australia non-stop and un-refuelled. This is the longest point-to-point flight ever
undertaken by an unmanned aircraft and took 23 hours and 23 minutes. In October 2003, the first
totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a computer-controlled model aircraft occurred.
UAVs are now an established feature of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under the
control of a remote operator.

Major disruptions to air travel in the 21st century included the closing of U.S. airspace due to the
September 11 attacks, and the closing of most of European airspace after the 2010 eruption of
Eyjafjallajökull.

In 2015, André Borschberg and Bertrand Piccard flew a record distance of 4,481 miles (7,211 km)
from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii in a solar-powered plane, Solar Impulse 2. The flight
took nearly five days; during the nights the aircraft used its batteries and the potential energy
gained during the day.[154]

On 14 July 2019, Frenchman Franky Zapata attracted worldwide attention when he participated
at the Bastille Day military parade riding his invention, a jet-powered Flyboard Air. He
subsequently succeeded in crossing the English Channel on his device on 4 August 2019,
covering the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Sangatte in northern France to St Margaret's Bay
in Kent, UK, in 22 minutes, with a midpoint fueling stop included.[155]

24 July 2019 was the busiest day in aviation, Flightradar24 recorded a total of over 225,000
flights that day. It includes helicopters, private jets, gliders, sight-seeing flights, as well as
personal aircraft.

On 10 June 2020, the Pipistrel Velis Electro became the first electric aeroplane to secure a type
certificate from EASA.[156]

In the early 21st Century, the first fifth-generation military fighters were produced, starting with
the F-22 Raptor. As of 2019, Russia, America and China have 5th gen aircraft.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on the aviation industry due to the resulting
travel restrictions as well as slump in demand among travellers, and may also affect the future of
air travel.[157] For example, the mandatory use of face masks on planes was common when flying
in 2020 and 2021.[158]

Mars

On 19 April 2021, NASA successfully flew its diminutive unmanned helicopter Ingenuity on Mars,
humanity's first controlled powered aircraft flight on another planet. The helicopter rose to a
height of three metres and hovered in a stable holding position for 30 seconds. A video of the
flight was made by its accompanying rover, Perseverance.[159]

Ingenuity, which was initially designed for five demonstration flights, flew 72 times traveling 11
miles in nearly three years. As a homage to all of its aerial predecessors, it carries a postage
stamp sized piece of wing fabric from the 1903 Wright Flyer.

Ingenuity's last flight was 18 January 2024, a span of 2 years, 333 days since its first takeoff (the
duration in Martian days, or sols, was 1035). Broken and damaged rotor blades suffered during
its final landing forced the helicopter's retirement.[160]
Veja também

Aviation portal

Aviation archaeology

Claims to the first powered flight

List of firsts in aviation

Timeline of aviation

Referências

1. "Kite | Aeronautics, History & Benefits" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/kite-aeronautic

s) . www.britannica.com. Retrieved 5 December 2024.

2. Botelho Parra, Rogerio (14 September 2018). "Leonardo da Vinci Interdisciplinarity" (https://
www.icas.org/icas_archive/ICAS2018/data/papers/ICAS2018_0301_paper.pdf) (PDF).
31st Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences. 1 (1): 10 – via ICAS.

3. Crouch, Tom (2004). Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age. New York, New
York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-32620-9.

4. Hallion (2003)

5. "Flying through the ages" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_ball

oon_challenge/299568.stm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141021044458/htt
p://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_balloon_challenge/299568.st
m) 21 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine BBC News. Retrieved 2024-10-18.

6. "Online Etymology Dictionary | Origin, history and meaning of English words" (http://www.ety
monline.com/index.php?term%3Daviation) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160
304061354/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aviation) from the original on 4
March 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2013.

7. Cassard, Jean-Christophe; Croix, Alain; Le Quéau, Jean-René; Veillard, Jean-Yves (2008).

Dictionnaire d'histoire de Bretagne (in French). Morlaix: Vreizh Skol. p. 77. ISBN 978-2-
915623-45-1.

8. Wells, H. G. (1961). The Outline of History: Volume 1. Doubleday. p. 153.

或言能飞, 一日千里, 可窥匈奴.莽辄试之, 取大鸟翮为

9. Book of Han, Biography of Wang Mang,
两翼, 头与身皆著毛, 通引环纽, 飞数百步堕
10. Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century
Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology
and Culture 2 (2), pp. 97–111 [101]

11. "First Flights" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080503200416/http://www.saudiaramcoworl

d.com/issue/196401/first.flights.htm) . Saudi Aramco World. 15 (1): 8–9. January–
February 1964. Archived from the original (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/19640
1/first.flights.htm) on 3 May 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2008.

12. Moolman, Valerie (1980). The road to Kitty Hawk. The Epic of flight. Time-Life Books.
Alexandria, Va: Time-Life Books. ISBN 978-0-8094-3260-8.

13. Wragg 1974.

14. Deng & Wang 2005, p. 122.

15. "Amazing Musical Kites" (http://cambodiaphilately.blogspot.com/2010/01/amazing-musica

l-kites.html) . Cambodia Philately. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2011081302302
3/http://cambodiaphilately.blogspot.com/2010/01/amazing-musical-kites.html) from the
original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2014.

16. "Kite Flying for Fun and Science" (https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/

07/21/104991903.pdf) (PDF). The New York Times. 1907. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20210802201440/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/07/21/1
04991903.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2018.

17. Sarak, Sim; Yarin, Cheang (2002). "Khmer Kites" (http://subvision.net/sky/planetkite/asia/ca

mbodia/khmer-kitebook.htm#VariousKinds) . Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, Cambodia.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150503233930/http://www.subvision.net/sky/pla
netkite/asia/cambodia/khmer-kitebook.htm#VariousKinds) from the original on 3 May
2015. Retrieved 7 January 2014.

18. Needham 1965a, p. 127.

19. Hallion (2003) page 9.

20. Pelham, D.; The Penguin book of kites, Penguin (1976)

21. Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics (https://web.archive.org/

web/20140713201846/http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~leishman/Aero/history.html) .
Cambridge aerospace. Vol. 18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-
0-521-85860-1. Archived from the original (http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~leishman/Aero/his
tory.html) on 13 July 2014.

22. Donahue, Topher (2009). Bugaboo Dreams: A Story of Skiers, Helicopters and Mountains (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=qWMmlUE7ZB0C&pg=PA249) . Rocky Mountain Books
Ltd. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-897522-11-0.
23. Wragg 1974, p. 10.

24. Deng & Wang 2005, p. 113.

25. Ege 1973, p. 6.

26. Wragg 1974, p. 11.

27. Wallace, Robert (1972) [1966]. The World of Leonardo: 1452–1519. New York: Time-Life
Books. p. 102.

28. Durant, Will (2001). Heroes of History: A Brief History of Civilization from Ancient Times to the
Dawn of the Modern Age (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/869434122) . New York: Simon &
Schuster. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7432-2612-7. OCLC 869434122 (https://search.worldcat.org/o
clc/869434122) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240307231132/https://search.
worldcat.org/title/869434122) from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 18 January
2021.

29. Da Vinci, Leonardo (1971). Taylor, Pamela (ed.). The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. New
American eLibrary. p. 107.

30. Fairlie & Cayley 1965, p. 163.

31. Popham, A.E. (1947). The drawings of Leonardo da Vinci (2nd ed.). Jonathan Cape.

32. "Francesco Lana-Terzi, S.J." (https://web.archive.org/web/20210424104423/http://www.fac

ulty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/lana.htm) 24 April 2021. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/lana.htm) on 24 April 2021. Retrieved
21 November 2024.

33. Louro, F.V.; Melo De Sousa, Joao M. (10 January 2014). "Father Bartholomeu Lourenço de
Gusmão: a Charlatan or the First Practical Pioneer of Aeronautics in History" (https://dx.doi.
org/10.2514/6.2014-0282) . 52nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Reston, Virginia: American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2014-0282 (https://doi.org/10.251
4%2F6.2014-0282) . ISBN 978-1-62410-256-1.

34. texte, Compagnie générale maritime Auteur du (23 December 1930). "L'Atlantique : journal
quotidien paraissant à bord des paquebots de la Compagnie générale transatlantique :
dernières nouvelles reçues par télégraphie sans fil" (https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5
042330w/f11.image.r=Montgolfier%20Brothers?rk=21459;2#) . Gallica. Retrieved
21 November 2024.

35. Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1983). The Montgolfier brothers and the invention of aviation,
1783-1784: with a word on the importance of ballooning for the science of heat and the art of
building railroads. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08321-6.
36. "Early Balloon Flight in Europe" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080602012700/http://www.
centennialofflight.gov/essay/Lighter_than_air/Early_Balloon_Flight_in_Europe/LTA1.htm) .
2 June 2008. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

37. Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1983). The Montgolfier brothers and the invention of aviation,
1783-1784: with a word on the importance of ballooning for the science of heat and the art of
building railroads. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08321-6.

38. Walker (1971) Volume I, Page 195.

39. Winter, Frank H. (July 1992). "Who First Flew in a Rocket?". Journal of the British
Interplanetary Society. 45: 275–280.

40. Harding, John (2006), Flying's strangest moments: extraordinary but true stories from over
one thousand years of aviation history, Robson Publishing, p. 5, ISBN 1-86105-934-5

41. Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. IV (part 2). p. 591 (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA591) . ISBN 978-0-521-05803-2.

42. Harrison, James Pinckney (2000). Mastering the Sky. Da Capo Press. p. 27 (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=JwJsr5QjkRMC&pg=PA27) . ISBN 978-1-885119-68-1.

43. Quoted in O'Conner, Patricia T. (17 November 1985). "In Short: Nonfiction; Man Was Meant
to Fly, But Not at First" (https://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/17/books/in-short-nonfiction-m
an-was-meant-to-fly-but-not-at-first.html) . The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20130615181139/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/17/books/in-short-nonfict
ion-man-was-meant-to-fly-but-not-at-first.html) from the original on 15 June 2013.
Retrieved 24 May 2009.

44. "Burattini's Flying Dragon" (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%2

00722.html) . Flight International. 9 May 1963. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016
0819221108/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%200722.htm
l) from the original on 19 August 2016.

45. Hart, Clive (4 July 2016). "Swedenborg's flying saucer" (https://www.cambridge.org/core/jo

urnals/aeronautical-journal/article/abs/swedenborgs-flying-saucer/7DEBFB59401AF7B7F3
DB098315DE346B) . The Aeronautical Journal. 84 (836): 282–284.
doi:10.1017/S0001924000031328 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0001924000031328) .

46. "American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics – History – Spain" (https://web.archive.

org/web/20161110054948/https://www.aiaa.org/Secondary.aspx?id=370) . Aiaa.org. 22
April 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.aiaa.org/Secondary.aspx?id=370) on
10 November 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
47. "Premier vol humain - Angoulême 1801 | Aérostèles" (https://www.aerosteles.net/stelefr-an
gouleme-resnier) . www.aerosteles.net (in French). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20230604050924/https://www.aerosteles.net/stelefr-angouleme-resnier) from the
original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.

48. Didion, Isidor (1 September 1837). "Rapport sur la plus grande vitesse que l'on peut obtenir
par la navigation aérienne" (https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q) . Gallica.bnf.fr
(in French). Congrès scientifique de France, 5th Session, Metz. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20230214092452/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q) from the
original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023. He answered to the 12th and last
question (https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q/f27.item) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20181022193800/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q/f27.it
em) 22 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine of the congress: "Will it be possible to
improve the aerostatic art, by a better combination of means used until now, in order to leave
up aerostats and conduct them", thus showing the interest of the scientists of that time (first
half of the 19th) century on that question.

49. Fairlie & Cayley 1965, p. 158.

50. Ackroyd, J. A. D. (2002). "Sir George Cayley, the Father of Aeronautics. Part 1. The Invention
of the Aeroplane" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557665) . Notes and Records of the Royal
Society of London. 56 (2): 167–181. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2002.0176 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2
Frsnr.2002.0176) . ISSN 0035-9149 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9149) .
JSTOR 3557665 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557665) .

51. "Aviation History" (http://www.aviation-history.com/early/cayley.htm) . Archived (https://we

b.archive.org/web/20090413155148/http://aviation-history.com/early/cayley.htm) from
the original on 13 April 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009. "In 1799 he set forth for the first time
in history the concept of the modern aeroplane. Cayley had identified the drag vector
(parallel to the flow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to the flow)."

52. "Sir George Cayley (British Inventor and Scientist)" (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecke

d/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet) . Britannica. Archived (https://archive.toda
y/20120723034932/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayl
ey-6th-Baronet) from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2009. "English
pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first
successful glider to carry a human being aloft. Cayley established the modern configuration
of an aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion,
and control as early as 1799."

53. Gibbs-Smith 2003, p. 35

54. Cayley, George. "On Aerial Navigation" Part 1 (https://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAeri
alNavigationPt1.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130511071413/http://ww
w.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt1.pdf) 11 May 2013 at the Wayback
Machine, Part 2 (https://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt2.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130511041814/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.go
v/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt2.pdf) 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Part 3 (https://w
ww.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt3.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20130511052409/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt3.pd
f) 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, 1809–
1810. (Via NASA). Raw text (http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/i/Cayley/Cayley.htm
l) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193751/http://invention.psychology.m
sstate.edu/i/Cayley/Cayley.html) 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved: 30
May 2010.

55. Wragg 1974, p. 60.

56. Angelucci & Matricardi 1977, p. 14.

57. Pettigrew, James Bell (1911). "Flight and Flying" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Ency

clop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Flight_and_Flying) . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 502–519.

58. Jarrett 2002, p. 53.

59. Stokes 2002, pp. 163–166, 167–168.

60. Scientific American (https://books.google.com/books?id=RmM9AQAAIAAJ&q=carbonic+oxi

de) . Munn & Company. 13 March 1869. p. 169. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
40307231121/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmM9AQAAIAAJ&q=carbonic+oxide#v
=snippet&q=carbonic%20oxide&f=false) from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved
20 October 2021.

61. "John Stringfellow" (http://www.flyingmachines.org/strng.html) . Flying Machines. Archived

(https://web.archive.org/web/20180228122732/http://www.flyingmachines.org/strng.htm
l) from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018.

62. Parramore, Thomas C. (1 March 2003). First to Fly: North Carolina and the Beginnings of
Aviation (https://books.google.com/books?id=zrpb67qFXUIC&dq=1857+Temple+flight&pg=
PT63) . UNC Press Books. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8078-5470-9. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20230517060335/https://books.google.com/books?id=zrpb67qFXUIC&pg=PT63&d
q=1857+Temple+flight) from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
63. "High hopes for replica plane" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1591057.stm) . BBC
News. 10 October 2001. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070315043205/http://ne
ws.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1591057.stm) from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved
4 March 2018.

64. Magoun, F. Alexander; Hodgins, Eric (1931). A History of Aircraft (https://books.google.com/

books?id=UnLVAAAAMAAJ) . Whittlesey House. p. 308.

65. "The Cross-licensing Agreement" (https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4103/ch2.htm) . NASA.

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20041113150229/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-410
3/ch2.htm) from the original on 13 November 2004. Retrieved 7 March 2009.

66. Yoon, Joe (17 November 2002). "Origins of Control Surfaces" (http://www.aerospaceweb.or
g/question/history/q0103.shtml) . AerospaceWeb. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20150921150602/http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/history/q0103.shtml) from the
original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2013.

67. Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000) [1960]. Aviation: An Historical Survey From Its Origins To The End Of
The Second World War (https://books.google.com/books?id=u4dTAAAAMAAJ) . Science
Museum. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-900747-52-3.

68. "Wind Tunnels" (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080309163035/http://media.nasaexpl

ores.com/lessons/01-007/9-12_2.pdf) (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (http://me
dia.nasaexplores.com/lessons/01-007/9-12_2.pdf) (PDF) on 9 March 2008.

69. Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. p. 56. ISBN 1-900747-52-9.

70. Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. p. 74. ISBN 1-900747-52-9.

71. Jarrett 2002, p. 87.

72. Gray, Carroll. "Hiram Stevens Maxim 1840-1916" (https://web.archive.org/web/2004081610

0229/http://www.flyingmachines.org/maxim.html) . flyingmachines.org. Archived from the
original (http://www.flyingmachines.org/maxim.html) on 16 August 2004. Retrieved
14 February 2023.

73. Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. pp. 76–8. ISBN 1-900747-52-9.

74. "Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst - Bibliothek Deutsches Museum" (https://www.deu
tsches-museum.de/forschung/bibliothek/unsere-schaetze/mobilitaet/vogelflug-als-grundla
ge-der-fliegekunst) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220227144755/https://ww
w.deutsches-museum.de/forschung/bibliothek/unsere-schaetze/mobilitaet/vogelflug-als-gr
undlage-der-fliegekunst) from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February
2022.
75. "Like a bird | MTU AEROREPORT" (https://aeroreport.de/en/good-to-know/like-a-bird) .
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220226135425/https://aeroreport.de/en/good-to-
know/like-a-bird) from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

76. "Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam" (http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/eotto.htm) .

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211220021702/http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/
olma/eotto.htm) from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

77. "The Lilienthal glider project" (https://web.archive.org/web/20220307224806/https://www.d

lr.de/content/en/dossiers/2019/lilienthal-glider-project.html) . Archived from the original
(https://www.dlr.de/content/en/dossiers/2019/lilienthal-glider-project.html) on 7 March
2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

78. "Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam" (http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/e34.htm) .

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220703015730/http://lilienthal-museum.de/olm
a/e34.htm) from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

79. "DPMA | Otto Lilienthal" (https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/

airandspacepioneers/ottolilienthal/index.html) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
220226135452/https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/airandsp
acepioneers/ottolilienthal/index.html) from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved
27 February 2022.

80. "In perspective: Otto Lilienthal" (https://www.cobaltrecruitment.co.uk/blog/2017/11/in-pers

pective-otto-lilienthal) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220226160700/https://w
ww.cobaltrecruitment.co.uk/blog/2017/11/in-perspective-otto-lilienthal) from the original
on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

81. "Remembering Germany's first "flying man" " (https://www.economist.com/prospero/2011/0

9/20/remembering-germanys-first-flying-man) . The Economist. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20210302015744/https://www.economist.com/prospero/2011/09/20/remem
bering-germanys-first-flying-man) from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved
27 February 2022.

82. "Otto Lilienthal, the Glider King" (http://scihi.org/otto-lilienthal-glider-king/) . 23 May 2020.

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220226135401/http://scihi.org/otto-lilienthal-glid
er-king/) from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.

83. "Bill Frost - the first man to fly?" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/wales/entries/5397dd9f-1cd

3-3738-b76a-855d4b8a1036) . 20 October 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0210624224430/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/wales/entries/5397dd9f-1cd3-3738-b76a-85
5d4b8a1036) from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
84. Anderson, John David (2004). Inventing Flight: The Wright Brothers & Their Predecessors (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=IYnl_XPggZYC&pg=PA145) . JHU Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-
8018-6875-0.

85. Hallion (2003) pages 294–295.

86. Jackson, Paul (8 March 2013). "Executive Overview: Jane's All the World's Aircraft:
Development & Production" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130313075911/http://www.jan
es.com/products/janes/defence-security-report.aspx?ID=1065976994) . Janes.com.
Archived from the original (http://www.janes.com/products/janes/defence-security-report.a
spx?ID=1065976994) on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2023.

87. Davisson, Budd (25 March 2013). "Who Was First? The Wrights or Whitehead?" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20131101082859/http://www.flightjournal.com/blog/2013/03/25/who-wa
s-first-the-wrights-or-whitehead/) . Flight Journal. Archived from the original (http://www.fli
ghtjournal.com/blog/2013/03/25/who-was-first-the-wrights-or-whitehead/) on 1
November 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2023.

88. "Statement Regarding The Gustave Whitehead Claims of Flight" (http://www.flyingmachine

s.org/gwinfo/statement.html) . flyingmachines.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20131208021043/http://www.flyingmachines.org/gwinfo/statement.html) from the
original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2014.

89. Gustave Whitehead: An RAeS statement regarding claims that Gustave Whitehead
successfully flew an aeroplane before the Wright brothers
http://aerosociety.com/Assets/Docs/Publications/SpecialistPapers/GustaveWhiteheadStat
ement.pdf Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190809112903/https://www.aerosoc
iety.com/Assets/Docs/Publications/SpecialistPapers/GustaveWhiteheadStatement.pdf)
9 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine

90. Schlenoff, Daniel C. (8 July 2014). "Scientific American Debunks Claim Gustave Whitehead
Was "First in Flight" " (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientific-american-debu
nks-claim-gustave-whitehead-was-first-in-flight/) . Scientific American. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20230320094330/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientifi
c-american-debunks-claim-gustave-whitehead-was-first-in-flight/) from the original on 20
March 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2024.

91. Rodliffe, C. Geoffrey (2003). Richard Pearse: Pioneer Aviator (4 ed.). Thornbury, UK: C.G.
Rodliffe.

92. O'Rourke, Paul. "Pearse flew long after Wrights" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120425035

838/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/6799761/Pearse-flew-long-after-Wrights) . Stuff.
Stuff Limited. Archived from the original (https://www.stuff.co.nz/Pearse-flew-long-after-Wri
ghts) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
 93. Dodson, MG (2005), "An Historical and Applied Aerodynamic Study of the Wright Brothers'
Wind Tunnel Test Program and Application to Successful Manned Flight" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110905162319/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/3585) , US Naval
Academy Technical Report, USNA-334, archived from the original on 5 September 2011,
retrieved 11 March 2009

94. "Machine That Flies / What the Wright Brothers' Invention Has Accomplished" (https://news
paperarchive.com/newark-advocate-dec-28-1903-p-7/) . The Newark Daily Advocate.
Newark, Ohio, U.S. 28 December 1903. p. 7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202104
17133818/https://newspaperarchive.com/newark-advocate-dec-28-1903-p-7/) from the
original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2020.

95. "Another Attempt to Solve Aerial Navigation Problem" (https://newspaperarchive.com/new-y

ork-times-jan-07-1906-p-12/) . The New York Times. 7 January 1906. p. 2. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20201106204215/https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-jan-
07-1906-p-12/) from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2020.

96. "The Wright Brothers & the Invention of the Aerial Age" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120
502100132/http://www.nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/) . airandspace.si.edu. Archived from
the original (http://www.nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/) on 2 May 2012. Retrieved
14 February 2023.

97. "100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality" (http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fa
i/000295.asp) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110113080326/http://www.fai.o
rg/news_archives/fai/000295.asp) 13 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine FAI News,
17 December 2003. Retrieved: 5 January 2007.

98. "Telegram from Orville Wright in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, to His Father Announcing Four
Successful Flights, 1903 December 17" (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11372/) . World
Digital Library. 17 December 1903. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018122512394
9/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11372/) from the original on 25 December 2018.
Retrieved 21 July 2013.

99. Kelly, Fred C. The Wright Brothers: A Biography Chp. IV, p.101–102 (Dover Publications, NY
1943).

100. Abzug, Malcolm J. and E. Eugene Larrabee."Airplane Stability and Control, Second Edition: A
History of the Technologies That Made Aviation Possible" (http://assets.cambridge.org/978
05218/09924/sample/9780521809924ws.pdf) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
160304051730/http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/09924/sample/9780521809924ws.
pdf) 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine cambridge.org. Retrieved: 21 September
2010.
101. Dayton Metro Library (http://home.dayton.lib.oh.us/archives/wbcollection/wbscrapbooks1/
WBScrapbooks10006.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090213024229/htt
p://home.dayton.lib.oh.us/archives/wbcollection/wbscrapbooks1/WBScrapbooks10006.ht
ml) 13 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine Aero Club of America press release

102. Reprinted in Scientific American, April 2007, page 8.

103. "Scientific American Trophy | National Air and Space Museum" (https://airandspace.si.edu/c
ollection-objects/scientific-american-trophy/nasm_A19730589000) . Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20230905141556/https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/scientifi
c-american-trophy/nasm_A19730589000) from the original on 5 September 2023.
Retrieved 5 September 2023.

104. "Nouveaux essais de l'Aéroplane Vuia" (http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000520243) ,

L'Aérophile v.14 1906, pp. 105–106, April 1906, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131
101154315/http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000520243) from the original on 1
November 2013, retrieved 8 March 2013

105. "L'Aéroplane à moteur de M. Vuia" (http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000520243) ,

L'Aérophile v.14 1906, pp. 195–196, September 1906, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20131101154315/http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000520243) from the original on 1
November 2013, retrieved 8 March 2013

106. "Very Earliest Early Birds" (https://www.earlyaviators.com/eearlhis.htm) .

www.earlyaviators.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230406102729/https://w
ww.earlyaviators.com/eearlhis.htm) from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 6 April
2023.

107. Jones, Ernest. "Alberto Santos Dumont in France: The Very Earliest Early Birds" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160316120252/http://earlyaviators.com/edumonb.htm) .
earlyaviators.com. Archived from the original (https://earlyaviators.com/edumonb.htm) on
16 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2023.

108. "Cronologia De Santos Dumont" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160318184616/http://sant

os-dumont.net/indexcronologia.html) . santos-dumont.net (in Portuguese). Archived from
the original (http://santos-dumont.net/indexcronologia.html) on 18 March 2016. Retrieved
14 February 2023.

109. Gibbs-Smith, C. H. (2000). Aviation: An Historical Survey. London: NMSI. p. 146. ISBN 1-
900747-52-9.

110. Gibbs-Smith, C. H. (2000). Aviation: An Historical Survey. London: NMSI. p. 154. ISBN 1-
900747-52-9.
111. Hartmann, Gérard. "Clément-Bayard, sans peur et sans reproche" (French). (http://www.hydr
oretro.net/etudegh/clement-bayard.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161101
064312/http://www.hydroretro.net/etudegh/clement-bayard.pdf) 1 November 2016 at the
Wayback Machine hydroretro.net. Retrieved: 14 November 2010.

112. Gibbs-Smith, C. H. (2000). Aviation: An Historical Survey. London: NMSI. p. 158. ISBN 1-
900747-52-9.

113. "Enrico Forlanini" (http://www.imss.fi.it/milleanni/cronologia/biografie/forlanie.html) (in

Italian). Mille anni di scienza in Italia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202001181240
28/http://www.imss.fi.it/milleanni/cronologia/biografie/forlanie.html) from the original on
18 January 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2024.

114. "L'aeroporto di Milano Linate" (https://www.milanolinate-airport.com/it/legal/airport-regulati

ons/aeroporto-linate) (in Italian). Aeroporto di Milano Linate. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20240312232355/https://www.milanolinate-airport.com/it/legal/airport-regulati
ons/aeroporto-linate) from the original on 12 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.

115. "Scheda del Parco Forlanini" (https://www.comune.milano.it/aree-tematiche/verde/verde-pu

bblico/parchi-cittadini/parco-enrico-forlanini) (in Italian). Comune di Milano. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20240421204101/https://www.comune.milano.it/aree-tematich
e/verde/verde-pubblico/parchi-cittadini/parco-enrico-forlanini) from the original on 21
April 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.

116. Ferdinando Pedriali. "Aerei italiani in Libia (1911–1912)"(Italian planes in Libya (1911–
1912)). Storia Militare (Military History), N° 170/novembre 2007, p.31–40

117. Magazine, Smithsonian; Maksel, Rebecca. "The World's First Warplane" (https://www.smiths
onianmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-worlds-first-warplane-115175678/) . Smithsonian
Magazine. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20241103010323/https://www.smithsoni
anmag.com/air-space-magazine/the-worlds-first-warplane-115175678/) from the original
on 3 November 2024. Retrieved 15 October 2024.

118. with the exception of Clément Ader, who had visionary views about this: "L'affaire de
l'aviation militaire" (Military aviation concern), 1898 and "La première étape de l'aviation
militaire en France" (The first step of military aviation en France), 1906

119. "Military aircraft - Interwar, Developments, Technology" (https://www.britannica.com:443/te

chnology/military-aircraft/Interwar-developments) . www.britannica.com. Retrieved
19 November 2024.
120. "San Diego Air & Space Museum - Historical Balboa Park, San Diego" (https://sandiegoairan
dspace.org/exhibits/online-exhibit-page/barnstormers-take-to-the-sky) .
sandiegoairandspace.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20241006063448/https://
sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/online-exhibit-page/barnstormers-take-to-the-sky) from
the original on 6 October 2024. Retrieved 19 November 2024.

121. "The Schneider Trophy" (https://pioneersofflight.si.edu/culture/air_racing/air_races/schneid

er_trophy) . pioneersofflight.si.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024080907053
7/https://pioneersofflight.si.edu/culture/air_racing/air_races/schneider_trophy) from the
original on 9 August 2024. Retrieved 19 November 2024.

122. Nevin, David (1993). "Two Daring Flyers Beat the Atlantic before Lindbergh". Journal of
Contemporary History. 28 (1): 105.

123. Swopes, Bryan (15 June 2024). "14–15 June 1919 | This Day in Aviation" (https://www.thisd
ayinaviation.com/14-june-1919/) . Retrieved 21 November 2024.

124. Head, William P. (2022). "The World Flight and Military Aviation in the 1920s" (https://www.js
tor.org/stable/48712440) . Air & Space Power History. 69 (2): 27–40. ISSN 2833-5848 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/2833-5848) . JSTOR 48712440 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/
48712440) .

125. "The First Solo, Nonstop Transatlantic Flight" (https://pioneersofflight.si.edu/content/first-s

olo-nonstop-transatlantic-flight) . pioneersofflight.si.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20240930171806/https://pioneersofflight.si.edu/content/first-solo-nonstop-transatlan
tic-flight) from the original on 30 September 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

126. "Charles Kingsford-Smith — Hawaii Aviation" (https://web.archive.org/web/2015100218391

1/http://hawaii.gov/hawaiiaviation/hawaii-aviation-pioneers/sir-charles-kingsford-smith) .
2 October 2015. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 21 November
2024.

127. "miles | 1928 | 0481 | Flight Archive" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131102175916/http://

www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1928/1928%20-%200481.html) . 2 November
2013. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

128. "First trans-Tasman flight landed 11 Sept 1928" (https://digitalnz.org/stories/64f6e51bbc24

fb0021455be1) . DigitalNZ. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20241130092748/http
s://digitalnz.org/stories/64f6e51bbc24fb0021455be1) from the original on 30 November
2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

129. "Airshipsonline : Airships : R34" (https://www.airshipsonline.com/airships/r34/index.htm

l) . www.airshipsonline.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240919195229/http
s://www.airshipsonline.com/airships/r34/index.html) from the original on 19 September
2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.
130. "Airshipsonline: Airships: LZ127 Graf Zeppelin" (https://www.airshipsonline.com/airships/LZ
127_Graf_Zeppelin/index.html) . www.airshipsonline.com. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20240416220547/https://airshipsonline.com/airships/LZ127_Graf_Zeppelin/index.h
tml) from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

131. "The Hindenburg Disaster" (https://www.airships.net/hindenburg/disaster/) . Airships.net.

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230831171029/https://www.airships.net/hindenb
urg/disaster/) from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

132. "LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II - History, Design and Development" (https://www.zeppelinhistory.co
m/list-of-zeppelins/lz-130-graf-zeppelin-2/) . www.zeppelinhistory.com. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20231001052118/http://www.zeppelinhistory.com/list-of-zeppelins/lz-
130-graf-zeppelin-2/) from the original on 1 October 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

133. U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State,

history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv13/ch14subch3. Accessed 21 Nov.
2024.

134. "Why and how we changed the badges requirements | FAI Hang Gliding and Paragliding
Commission - CIVL" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110811162150/http://www.fai.org/han
g_gliding/awards/badges/new_badges) . 11 August 2011. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.fai.org/hang_gliding/awards/badges/new_badges) on 11 August 2011. Retrieved
21 November 2024.

135. "Gliding Membership Report | FAI Gliding Commission - IGC" (https://web.archive.org/web/2

0061010170856/http://www.fai.org/gliding/membership) . 10 August 2006. Archived from
the original (http://www.fai.org/gliding/membership) on 10 October 2006. Retrieved
21 November 2024.

136. "Again, Mitchell" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130521074523/http://www.time.com/tim

e/magazine/article/0,9171,751920-2,00.html) . Time. 10 June 1929. Archived from the
original (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,751920-2,00.html) on 21
May 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2007. "Monthly magazine until this month called Popular
Aviation and Aeronautics. With 100,000 circulation it is largest-selling of U. S. air
publications." "Editor of Aeronautics is equally airwise Harley W. Mitchell, no relative of
General Mitchell."

137. Flying Blind: The Story of the First Takeoff, Flight, and Landing ...,
www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/about/history/pioneers/First_Instrument_Flight_Doolittle.p
df. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.

138. Petrescu, Relly Victoria, et al. "About Helicopters." SSRN, 29 Nov. 2017,
papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3077185.
139. "Jet Engines" (https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/ww2/projects/jet-airplane
s/planes.html) . cs.stanford.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023043013245
6/https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/ww2/projects/jet-airplanes/planes.htm
l) from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

140. "First female combat pilot" (https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fe

male-combat-pilot?fb_comment_id=847048878660727_1953127661386171) . Guinness
World Records. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210309132533/https://www.guinn
essworldrecords.com/world-records/first-female-combat-pilot?fb_comment_id=847048878
660727_1953127661386171) from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.

141. "Turkey's first woman aviator Sabiha Gökçen" (https://steemit.com/tr/@turkish-trail/turkeys-

first-woman-aviator-sahiba-goekcen) . 23 June 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20220415124710/https://steemit.com/tr/@turkish-trail/turkeys-first-woman-aviator-sahib
a-goekcen) from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2020.

142. Morris, Chris (May 2014). The New Turkey: The Quiet Revolution on the Edge of Europe (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=AfeZAwAAQBAJ&q=sabiha+gokcen+first+pilo&pg=PT10
0) . Granta Books. ISBN 978-1-78378-031-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210
625184249/https://books.google.com/books?id=AfeZAwAAQBAJ&q=sabiha+gokcen+first+
pilo&pg=PT100) from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.

143. Özyürek, Esra (18 January 2007). The Politics of Public Memory in Turkey (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=iQY6q91w8vIC&q=sabiha+gokcen+first+pilot&pg=PA114) . Syracuse
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3131-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021062
5184249/https://books.google.com/books?id=iQY6q91w8vIC&q=sabiha+gokcen+first+pilot
&pg=PA114) from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021.

144. "Post World War II" (https://www.modelers-reference.com/aircraft-docs/post-wwii/) .

Modeler's Reference. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240913184942/https://www.
modelers-reference.com/aircraft-docs/post-wwii/) from the original on 13 September
2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

145. "These vintage photos show what air travel looked like between 1930s to 1950s - Rare
Historical Photos" (https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/air-travel-vintage-photos-1930s-1950
s/) . Rare Historical Photos. 10 September 2022. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
240518133537/https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/air-travel-vintage-photos-1930s-1950s/)
from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

146. "X-15 Hypersonic Research Program - NASA" (https://www.nasa.gov/reference/x-15/) .

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20241007125045/https://www.nasa.gov/reference/
x-15/) from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.
147. "Introduction to Aerospace Aviation" (https://aerospacecareersprogramme.co.uk/wp-conten
t/uploads/2023/06/Introduction-to-Aerospace-Aviation-Part-2.pdf) (PDF). Introduction to
Aerospace Aviation. 20 October 2024. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240216131
137/https://aerospacecareersprogramme.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Introduction
-to-Aerospace-Aviation-Part-2.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2024. Retrieved
20 October 2024.

148. "April 1961 - First Human Entered Space - NASA" (https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/april-

1961-first-human-entered-space/) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202406052222
30/https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/april-1961-first-human-entered-space/) from the
original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

149. Sandeep, Mr. J; Sushma, Mrs. L (2019). "Aeronautical Engineering" (https://mrcet.com/dow

nloads/digital_notes/AE/III/Air%20Transport%20Systems.pdf) (PDF). Air Transportation
Systems. Retrieved 20 October 2024.

150. "MacCready "Gossamer Albatross" | National Air and Space Museum" (https://airandspace.s
i.edu/collection-objects/maccready-gossamer-albatross/nasm_A19810428000) .
airandspace.si.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240624005025/https://airand
space.si.edu/collection-objects/maccready-gossamer-albatross/nasm_A19810428000)
from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2024.

151. Executive Summary (https://web.archive.org/web/20060924020739/http://www.centennialo

fflight.gov/about/2004NtlPlan/sec1.htm) , U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission, archived
from the original (http://www.centennialofflight.gov/about/2004NtlPlan/sec1.htm) on 24
September 2006

152. Casey, David (5 December 2017). "Global city pairs top 20,000 for the first time" (https://ww
w.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/276059/japan-airlines-buys-into-supersonic-dr
eam/) . Routes Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171206155903/https://w
ww.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/276059/japan-airlines-buys-into-supersonic-
dream/) from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2020.

153. Casey, David (5 December 2017). "Japan Airlines buys into US start-up's supersonic dream"
(https://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/276059/japan-airlines-buys-into-s
upersonic-dream/) . Routes Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201712061559
03/https://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/276059/japan-airlines-buys-into
-supersonic-dream/) from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2020.

154. 8th leg from Nagoya to Hawaii (http://www.solarimpulse.com/leg-8-from-Nagoya-to-Hawai

i) , Solar Impulse RTW, archived (https://archive.today/20160204131924/http://www.solari
mpulse.com/leg-8-from-Nagoya-to-Hawaii) from the original on 4 February 2016, retrieved
9 July 2015
155. Aurelien Breeden (4 August 2019). "Franky Zapata Crosses English Channel on Hoverboard
on 2nd Try" (https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/04/world/europe/franky-zapata-hoverboar
d-uk-france.html) . The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191101
114847/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/04/world/europe/franky-zapata-hoverboard-uk
-france.html) from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.

156. Sarsfield, Kate (10 June 2020). "Pipistrel Velis Electro earns first all-electric aircraft type
certification" (https://www.flightglobal.com/news/pipistrel-velis-electro-earns-first-all-electri
c-aircraft-type-certification/138779.article) . Flight Global. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20200611040954/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/pipistrel-velis-electro-earns-fir
st-all-electric-aircraft-type-certification/138779.article) from the original on 11 June 2020.
Retrieved 11 June 2020.

157. Nunes, Ashley. "How Covid-19 will change air travel as we know it" (https://www.bbc.com/fu
ture/article/20200709-how-covid-19-will-change-air-travel-as-we-know-it) . BBC. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20200810083849/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200
709-how-covid-19-will-change-air-travel-as-we-know-it) from the original on 10 August
2020. Retrieved 5 August 2020.

158. "EU to make face masks compulsory on all European flights" (https://www.thelocal.at/2020
0724/eu-to-make-face-masks-compulsory-on-all-european-flights) . The Local Austria. 24
July 2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200806215906/https://www.thelocal.a
t/20200724/eu-to-make-face-masks-compulsory-on-all-european-flights) from the original
on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 5 August 2020.

159. "NASA's Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Succeeds in Historic First Flight" (https://www.nasa.gov/
press-release/nasa-s-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-succeeds-in-historic-first-flight) . 19 April
2021. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210420111238/https://www.nasa.gov/pres
s-release/nasa-s-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-succeeds-in-historic-first-flight/) from the
original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.

160. "After Three Years on Mars, NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter Mission Ends" (https://www.jpl.nas
a.gov/news/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends) . Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240125203205/https://ww
w.jpl.nasa.gov/news/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends)
from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.

Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo; Matricardi, Paolo (1977). World War II Airplanes. Vol. 2. Chicago, Illinois: Rand
McNally and Company. ISBN 0-528-88171-X.

Deng, Yinke; Wang, Pingxing (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions (https://archive.org/details/an

cientchinesein0000deng) . China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 7-5085-0837-8.
 Ege, L. (1973). Balloons and airships. Blandford.

Fairlie, Gerard; Cayley, Elizabeth (1965). The life of a genius. Hodder and Stoughton.

Hallion, Richard P. (2003). Taking Flight:Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First
World War (https://archive.org/details/takingflightinve0000hall) . New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-516035-5.

Moolman, Valerie (1980). The Road to Kitty Hawk. New York: Time-Life Books. ISBN 978-0-
8094-3260-8.

Needham, Joseph (1965a). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. IV (part 1).

White, Lynn Townsend Jr. (Spring 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A
Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition". Technology and Culture. 2
(2): 97–111. doi:10.2307/3101411 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3101411) . JSTOR 3101411
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/3101411) . S2CID 112025572 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:112025572) .

Wragg, D.W. (1974). Flight before flying. Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-165-5.

Leitura adicional

Celebrating a History of Flight (https://history.nasa.gov/SP-09-511.pdf) Archived (https://we

b.archive.org/web/20200922053458/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-09-511.pdf) 22 September
2020 at the Wayback Machine, NASA Office of Aerospace Technology HQ, United States Air
Force

Bruno, Harry (1944) Wings over America: The Story of American Aviation, Halcyon House,
Garden City, New York.

Camm, Sydney (1919) Aeroplane construction (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73566)

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240807112418/https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73
566) 7 August 2024 at the Wayback Machine, Crosby Lockwood and son, London

Hynes, Samuel (1988). Flights of Passage: Reflections of a World War II Aviator. New York:
Frederic C. Beil / Annapolis:Naval Institute Press.

Jourdain, Pierre-Roger (1908), "Aviation In Frances In 1908" (https://books.google.com/books?

id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA145) , Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution: 145–159, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220415124709/https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA145) from the original on 15 April 2022,
retrieved 7 August 2009

Post, Augustus (September 1910), "How To Learn To Fly: The Different Machines And What
They Cost" (https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrkfU461xAC&pg=PA13389) , The World's
 Work: A History of Our Time, XX: 13389–13402, retrieved 10 July 2009 Includes photos,
diagrams and specifications of many c. 1910 aircraft.

Squier, George Owen (1908), "The Present Status of Military Aeronautics" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117) , Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution: 117–144, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240307231131/htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false) from
the original on 7 March 2024, retrieved 7 August 2009 Includes photos and specifics of many
c. 1908 dirigibles and aeroplanes.

Van Vleck, Jenifer (2013). Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Ascendancy. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.

Links externos

E. C. Vivian (October 1920). History of Aeronautics (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/874/874-

h/874-h.htm) .

"The Gaston and Albert Tissandier Collection" (https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/gt.htm

l) . Rare Book & Special Collections. Library of Congress. "Publications relating to the history
of aeronautics, (1,800 titles dispersed in the collection)"

Carroll F. Gray. "Flying Machines" (http://www.flyingmachines.org) .

Peter Whalley. "History of Flight - Key events" (http://firstflight.open.ac.uk/history/index.htm

l) . Knowledge Media Institute. Open University.

"Historical archive since 1919" (https://www.aia-aerospace.org/research-center/history/) .

Aerospace Industries Association.

"Alberto Santos-Dumont Est Peut-Être Le Véritable 'Père De L'aviation'" (https://magazineaviatio

n.ca/alberto-santos-dumont-est-peut-etre-le-veritable-pere-de-laviation/) . Magazine Aviation.
(in French)

Articles
Carroll F. Gray (August 2002). "The five first flights" (http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstf
lights.html) . WW1 AERO - The Journal of the Early Aeroplane.

Jürgen Schmidhuber (2003). "First Powered Flight - Plane Truth" (http://www.idsia.ch/~juerge

n/planetruth.html) . Nature. No. 421. p. 689.

Richard Harris (December 2003). "First Flyers—They're not who you think..." (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110713071455/http://home.iwichita.com/rh1/hold/av/avhist/antique/firstfly.ht
m) In Flight USA. Archived from the original (http://home.iwichita.com/rh1/hold/av/avhist/an
tique/firstfly.htm) on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
 Richard P. Hallion (July 2008). "Airplanes that Transformed Aviation" (http://www.airspacemag.
com/history-of-flight/airplanes-that-transformed-aviation-46502830/?all) . Air & Space
Magazine. Smithsonian.

"American Aviation Heritage" (https://www.nps.gov/nhl/learn/themes/Aviation.pdf) (PDF).

National Park Service. March 2011.

Media
"Transportation Photographs - Airplanes" (http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/se
arch/collection/transportation/searchterm/air*/field/subjec/mode/all/conn/and/cosuppres
s/) . Digital Collections. University of Washington Libraries. in the Pacific Northwest region
and Western United States during the first half of the 20th century.

"Strut design airplanes" (http://digital.lib.uh.edu/search/query:Strut/fields:all/mode:all/op:and/

alias:p15195coll2/page:1) . University of Houston Digital Library. 1911.

Michael Maloney (2009). A Dream of Flight (http://www.cwideprods.co.uk/a-dream-of-flight/)

(Documentary on the first powered flight by a Briton in Britain, JTC Moore Brabazon, in 1909).
Countrywide Productions.