Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Performance evaluation of Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) mixtures with

textile waste fibres
Wilder Rodríguez a,1,* , Julián Rivera b,2 , Miguel Sevillano c,3, Tania Torres d,4
a
Institute for Scientific Research (IDIC), University of Lima, Javier Prado Avenue Este 4600, Santiago de Surco, Lima 15023, Peru
b
LEMaC Center for Road Research UTN FRLP - CIC PBA, Argentina
c
San Ignacio de Loyola University, Lima, Peru
d
strategic business administration, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The research evaluates the performance of Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) mixtures using residual cotton fibres from
Waste textile fibres the Peruvian textile industry to address the environmental pollution caused by this sector. A reference SMA20
Stone mastic asphalt mixture was established with 0.30 % commercial fibre and 6 % asphalt. Subsequently, this fibre was replaced by
Asphalt pavement
textile fibre in the same proportions. It was found that 0.20 % textile fibre optimally met the volumetric re­
Hot mixes
Cellulose fibres
quirements and binder drainage tests. Performance tests showed that the textile fibre achieved a TSR of 95 %,
Mechanical properties compared to 82 % for the commercial fibre, and a rutting resistance of 2.82 mm compared to 2.46 mm for the
Water sensitivity commercial fibre. Additionally, the textile fibre demonstrated a better dynamic modulus at high temperatures. In
conclusion, residual Peruvian cotton fibres can efficiently replace commercial fibres in SMA20 mixtures, with
0.20 % being the optimal amount, thus promoting sustainable material reuse.

1. Introduction [13], including protection against studded tyres [14].

SMA has been widely adopted and has shown outstanding results in
The textile industry is experiencing significant annual growth [1,2], various countries. SMA has been utilized in Australia since 1993 due to
driven by fast fashion [3], which encourages frequent consumption and its high effectiveness [14]. It is a preferred choice over other asphalt
disposal of clothing, resulting in high resource consumption and adverse mixtures due to its hardness, stability, and resistance to high traffic loads
environmental effects. [4]. Cotton, the second most used fibre after [13].
polyester, accounts for 22 % of global textile production [5,6] and is of Pavement design is crucial for the strength and performance of
interest for absorbing excess binder in SMA mixtures due to its high asphalt mixtures.Therefore, SMA has gained significant attention in road
cellulose content [7]. Since the late 19th century, asphalt has been engineering research due to its ability to resist wear and plastic defor­
widely used in road construction [8], and Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) mation. This is particularly important for roads that experience high tire
mixes, introduced in Germany in the 1960s, are known for their high loads and pressures [15]. Although SMA presents challenges such as
performance and durability, making them ideal for heavy traffic pave­ binder exudation, its benefits, such as improved drainage and reduced
ments [9,10]. SMA provides fatigue resistance and long-term stability noise pollution, make it a cost-effective long-term option for high-traffic
[10]. The percentage of asphalt binder required for SMA mixes varies roads [10,16].
between 6 % and 7 %, compared to conventional mixes that require The SMA is notable for its open granulometry composition, which
between 4 % and less than 7 % [11,12]. Despite its higher cost, efforts includes a high percentage of coarse aggregate and high asphalt content,
are being made to reduce investment and leverage its superior properties resulting in a sturdy structure [17]. The use of high-quality aggregates

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: wrodrigu@ulima.edu.pe (W. Rodríguez), jrivera@frlp.utn.edu.ar (J. Rivera), miguel.sevillano@usil.pe (M. Sevillano), tania.torresa@pucp.pe
(T. Torres).
1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0756-9000
2
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7391-4469
3
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6855-4662
4
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1162-7394

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.139125
Received 19 March 2024; Received in revised form 22 July 2024; Accepted 6 November 2024
Available online 15 November 2024
0950-0618/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

with graded granulometry and modified asphalt enhances resistance to exudation, cellulose fibre derived from oil palm was introduced at a rate
plastic deformation [18], This provides the coarse aggregate with of 0.30 % in SMA mixes, in addition to ground tire rubber. This com­
structural strength and stability. Additionally, filler material and binder bination proved to be an effective strategy for improving pavement
are used to occupy voids, providing cohesion and durability [19,20]. properties and performance [40].
Fibre is essential in preventing fatigue and structural strength issues Pumice has been investigated as a substitute for cellulose fibres in
[21], making it the preferred option in high-traffic situations [22]. SMA blends. Research has shown that pumice can effectively replace
The use of polymers in asphalt binder enhances the performance of cellulose fibres in a suitable proportion of 4 %, demonstrating the po­
modified bituminous concrete [23]. It is crucial to select the appropriate tential to enhance SMA performance through the use of pumice’s unique
polymer and ensure compatibility to prevent phase separation [24]. The properties [41].
process of modification improves the durability of asphalt by reducing Previous studies have utilized recycled tire textile fibres (WTTF) as a
the release of materials [25]. It also extends the service life of pavement replacement for commercial fibre additives in SMA blends. These studies
by mitigating surface damage, and can aid in environmental preserva­ have tested different proportions of WTTF (0 %, 50 %, 75 %, 100 %)
tion by recycling plastic waste and reducing costs associated with while maintaining the design properties of the blend and achieving
commercial polymers [26]. similar mechanical performance to the reference SMA blend. [27].
SMA mixtures require stabilizing additives to prevent segregation of Finally, there are other alternatives that can be considered, such as
the binder due to its high proportion of asphalt binder [27,28]. Additives using shredded cigarette filters as a sustainable and environmentally
such as cellulose, polyester, lignin, and glass fibres improve the mix­ friendly substitute for conventional fibres in SMA mixtures. The results
ture’s dynamic modulus, resistance to permanent deformation, moisture indicate that adding these fibres does not affect the rutting resistance
tolerance, and fatigue resistance while reducing asphalt binder segre­ properties, promoting the recycling and sustainability of cigarette butts
gation [27–29]. However, mineral fibres and cellulose are preferred due in the bituminous pavement industry [42]. Various materials have been
to their high absorption capacity and significant research support. The studied for their ability to absorb excess binder in SMA mixtures and
appropriate amount of cellulose is generally around 0.30 % in relation to improve performance in tests. These materials include cellulose, mineral
the weight of the mixture, as stated in references [30,31]. The use of SBS fibres like basalt and pumice stone, vegetable fibres such as paper and
(styrene-butadiene-styrene) modified asphalt binders, in combination palm oil, and synthetic fibres like tire textile and cigarette filters.
with fibre, results in a significant enhancement of the mechanical Previous studies suggest that local materials can replace cellulose
properties of SMA at high, medium, and low service temperatures [27, fibres, but there is limited knowledge about the use of textile waste fi­
28]. Additionally, the selection and quantity of additives can reduce the bres. This document evaluates the feasibility of using textile waste fibres
drainage effect by up to 70 times [32]. as an alternative to commercial cellulose fibres in absorbing excess
binder in SMA mixtures without compromising performance. The study
2. Use of fibres in stone mastic asphalt mixtures analyses the impact of incorporating 100 % Peruvian cotton textile fibre
waste on the properties of the SMA mixture from textile waste, in
Fibres have been used for many years to improve road surfaces comparison to mixtures containing commercial cellulose fibre. Labora­
globally, and their significant benefits are increasingly acknowledged tory tests were conducted to evaluate volumetric design and perfor­
[33]. Studies have shown that fibres can greatly enhance the perfor­ mance with varying percentages of textile fibre.
mance of asphalt mixtures in various ways [34]. By acting as stabilizing
agents, reinforcements, and promoting uniform dispersion, fibres also 3. Materials
play a critical role in preventing bitumen leaching in Stone Mastic
Asphalt (SMA) mixtures [34]. Recent research has highlighted the po­ 3.1. Aggregates and filler
tential of fibres to enhance road surfaces due to their proven effective­
ness. Studies have shown that SMA mixtures containing textile waste The SMA20 mix requires crushed granite with a maximum particle
result in a notable decrease in asphalt exudation, indicating that textile size of 20 mm according to the specification of the Ministry of Transport
waste could be a viable alternative to traditional fibres in SMA pave­ and Communications of Peru (MTC) [43], as displayed in Table 1 and
ments [35]. Fig. 1. The characteristics of the coarse and fine aggregates were
Research on the hybrid modification of SMA with cellulose and detailed in Table 2. Furthermore, the mineral filler was composed of
basalt fibre has yielded promising results. The addition of cellulose has rock dust supplemented with 2.5 % hydrated lime and 5 % calcium
improved exudation capacity, ductility, and fatigue resistance, while carbonate (percentages by weight of the mixture).
basalt fibres have reduced permanent deformation and improved The hydrated lime and calcium carbonate were supplied by Molinos
deflection resistance and stress sensitivity. The study has also revealed Calcareos SAC, located in Lima, Peru. The hydrated lime has a useful
significant differences in material properties, such as thermostability, calcium oxide content of 65 % according to ASTM C25, 100 % passing
modulus, surface area, and microstructure [33]. through mesh 200, 1 % moisture, and a density of 2.24 g/cm3. While the
The use of asphalt-impregnated cellulose fibres, rather than tradi­ Calcium Carbonate passes 100 % through mesh 200, with 0.30 %
tional fibres extracted from paper and magazines, has been found to moisture and a density of 2.70 g/cm3.
decrease binder exudation. This leads to improved compactability,
compression, and rolling resistance in SMA mixtures with a cellulose
fibre content of 0.30 % by weight [36]. However, some investigations Table 1
have used a 0.60 % cellulose fibre percentage in relation to the total SMA20 Aggregate Gradation.
weight of the aggregate in SMA mixes. This achieves a homogeneous Sieve Size Percent Passing (%)
distribution with the aggregate in a dry state and determines an opti­ (mm)
Lower Limit Upper Limit Specific Selected Gradation
mum asphalt ratio of 6.5 % [37].
Specific
Blends of SMA and cellulose fibre demonstrate increased indirect
25.0 100 100 100.0
tensile strength, particularly at high temperatures, and an increased
19.0 90 100 95.0
resilient modulus of elasticity, especially when using a polymer- 12.5 45 60 52.5
modified binder [38]. There are instances where additional additives, 9.5 30 45 37.5
such as fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP), are used to enhance the per­ 4.8 20 25 22.5
formance of SMA mixes. Studies have shown that using FRP at a con­ 2.5 16 23 19.5
0.075 9 13 11.0
centration of 0.70 % can be effective. [39]. To address asphalt

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W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

mechanical and chemical methods to obtain textile fibre. The process

concluded with freeze-drying to obtain a dry sample. The resulting
textile fibre had a size of less than 250 microns and a density of 0.60 g/
cm3 (Fig. 2b).
Fig. 3 presents a thermogravimetric and differential analysis (TGA-
DTGA) of cellulose extracted from textile fibers to verify the influence of
temperature and the decomposition of cellulose. Three main stages of
mass loss are observed. The first stage, up to 100◦ C, corresponds to the
evaporation of moisture in the fibers, with a weight loss of approxi­
mately 1.4 %. The second stage, between 220 and 300◦ C, is related to
the decomposition of hemicelluloses, with a weight loss of around 20 %.
The final stage, between 300 and 370◦ C, is attributed to the degradation
of lignin and alpha cellulose, with a weight loss of approximately 62 %.
Additionally, it was detected that the percentage of residual solid mass
Fig. 1. SMA20 Mix Gradation. at the final temperature (600◦ C) was approximately 27 %. In conclusion,
at the mixing and compaction temperature of the SMA-type mixture, no
degradation of the cellulose occurs.
Table 2
Aggregate specifications. 4. Determining optimum binder and fibres in sma
Tests Value Limit Standard
specified The SMA20 standard mix was determined by varying the percentage
Sand equivalent fine aggregate (%) 87 ≥ 50 ASTM D of asphalt binder, number of compactions gyrations, particle size, and
− 2419 percentage of commercial fibre. The asphalt content in the mixes being
Los Angeles abrasion loss (%) 10.9 ≤ 30 ASTM C − 131 studied ranges from 6 % to 6.5 %, while the percentage of fibre varies
Two fractured faces (%) 97.8 ≥ 90 ASTM D
from 0.20 % to 0.60 % relative to the weight of the mixture. Mixtures
− 5821
Specific gravity fine aggregates (g/ 2.52 ≥ 2.5 ASTM C− 128 were also prepared with compaction variations of 75 and 100 gyrations.
cm3) The mixing and compacting process of the mixture was carried out ac­
Specific gravity coarse aggregates (g/ 2.72 ≥ 2.5 ASTM C− 127 cording to the procedures outlined in Section 5. The results indicated
cm3)
that using 6 % asphalt binder, 75 gyrations in the Superpave gyratory
Specific gravity filler (g/cm3) 2.70 ≥ 2.5 ASTM D− 854
Absorption fine aggregate (%) 1.61 ≤ 2.5 ASTM C − 128 compactor, intermediate gradation in the 20 mm of the MTC standard
Absorption coarse aggregate (%) 0.80 ≤2 ASTM C − 127 [43], and 0.30 % commercial fibre met the limits prescribed by the
Dirección Nacional de Vialidad Argentina (DNV Argentina SMA 2017
specification) [44] (Table 4). Furthermore, upon analysis of the data
3.2. Asphalt binder obtained from the standard sample, it was found that a 0.20 % textile
fibre was able to maintain compliance the standards specified, while
In this study, Polymer-Modified Asphalt binder PG 76–22 was uti­ also maintaining the same levels of asphalt and compaction gyrations.
lized in accordance with the ASTM standard. To prevent the need for These findings are in line with previous research on SMA mixture design
frequent heating of the asphalt during the preparation of binder tests or [37,45] (Table 4).
blending processes, it was transferred to small containers with a capacity
of approximately one litre [8]. In Table 3, the properties of the binder 5. Mixed design and experimental procedures
are illustrated.
The SMA20 mixtures with 0.30 % of commercial fibres and 0.20 % of
textile fibres were prepared for performance tests as indicated in Fig. 4.
3.3. Fibres
In the Mixing process, aggregates were heated to 180◦ C for about
2 hours. Simultaneously, the modified asphalt was also heated to 180◦ C
The commercial fibre used was the VIATOP premium brand, sup­
until it reaches apouring temperature. Subsequently, the aggregates,
plied by TDM Group, located in Lima, Peru. The commercial cellulose
asphalt binder, filler, and fibres were mixed at a temperature of 180 ± 5
was a mixture of 10 % bitumen by weight and 90 % cellulose fibre by ◦
C for about 5 minutes, followed by further heating in an oven to achieve
weight (Fig. 2a). This fibre was selected for the design of the control
a homogeneous mixture.
sample due to its proven efficiency in preventing asphalt exudation.
In the Compaction process, according to EN 12697–31[45], stan­
Textile waste made from 100 % Peruvian cotton was supplied by the
dard, the mixture and the mould of the Galileo Rotary Compactor (IPC
Textile and Apparel Laboratory of the University of Lima, located in
Global) were heated to 165◦ C. The compactor was calibrated to a
Lima, Peru. These textile wastes were processed using a combination of
compaction effort of 600 kPa, a gyration radius of 1.016 degrees, and 75
gyrations. Once this process was completed, the samples are gradually
Table 3 cooled.
Properties of Polymer-Modified Asphalt binder PG 76–22.
Test Method Unit Value 6. Methodology
Penetration at 25 ◦ C, 100gr ASTM D5 (0.1 mm) 55
Softening Point ASTM D36 ◦
C 61 6.1. Binder drainage test
Absolute Viscosity @ 60◦ C ASTM D2171 P 80453
Kinetic viscosity @ 135 ◦ C ASTM D2170 cSt 1355
In accordance with standard UNE-EN 12697–18 [46], three tests
Flash Point ASTM D92 ◦
C 289
Solubility ASTM D2042 % 99.83 were conducted for each percentage of 0.20 %, 0.30 %, 0.40 %, 0.50 %
Specific Gravity at 25 ◦ C ASTM D70 gr/cm3 1.02 and 0.60 % for both the textile fibre and the commercial fibre, with the
Rotational Viscosity @ 135 ◦ C ASTM D4402 cP 1355 average value subsequently calculated. For each test, precisely 1000 g of
Rotational Viscosity @ 145 ◦ C ASTM D4402 cP 802 the mixture sample were weighed and placed in an 850 ml beaker. The
Rotational Viscosity @ 175 ◦ C ASTM D4402 cP 232.5
beaker with the mixture was then placed in an oven at 180◦ C for

3
W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

Fig. 2. Binder stabilizing additives: a) commercial fibre; b) textile fibre.

wheel travels at 52 ± 2 passes per minute and stops when a maximum

rut depth of 20 mm is reached or after 20,000 load passes (Fig. 5b). The
data was analysed to obtain the plot of groove depth versus number of
loading passes.

6.3. Effect of moisture test

Twelve asphalt specimens were used for the study in accordance with
the ASTM D 4867 standard [48]. Six specimens contained 0.30 % of
commercial fibres, while the remaining six incorporated 0.20 % of
textile fibres. Each specimen underwent a comprehensive evaluation,
with one group exposed to ambient air at 25◦ C (±1◦ C) for 24 hours,
followed by immersion in water at the same temperature for an addi­
tional 2 hours. The second group received a more rigorous treatment,
being exposed to a controlled temperature of 60◦ C (±1◦ C) for 24 hours
before undergoing the same water immersion as the first group. After
these treatments, all specimens underwent mechanical testing at a
consistent strain rate using a Marshall press at a constant deformation
rate of 50 mm/min (Fig. 5c).
Fig. 3. TGA and dTGA curves of the textile fiber.
The tensile strength (St) and tensile strength ratio (TSR) are calcu­
lated using Eqs. 1 and 2:
Table 4 2000P
SMA20 Volumetric properties. St = (1)
π×h×d
Parameters 0.30 % Commercial 0.20 % Textile Limit
fibre value fibre value specified Stm
TSR(%) = × 100 (2)
Number of strokes 75 75 75–100 Std
Air voids content 4.6 % 4.7 % 3 %− 5 %
In this context, St represents the tensile strength (in kPa), P is the
Voids in Mineral 22.2 % 21.8 % >17 %
Aggregate maximum load (in N), h is the specimen thickness (in mm), and d is the
Binder drainage 0.016 % 0.196 % <0.30 % specimen diameter (in mm). Then, the Tensile Strength ratio (TSR) was
determined by dividing the tensile strength of the control specimen in
group 2 (R2) by the tensile strength of the control specimen in group 1
approximately one hour before being poured onto a tray. Any material (R1), according to the equation given.
adhering to the walls of the beaker weighing less than 0.20 % of the total
weight was identified and not considered part of the runoff (Fig. 5a). The
6.4. Dynamic modulus test
remaining mixture was then weighed, with a maximum binder drainage
limit of 0.30 % by weight of the material placed in the vessel.
The dynamic modulus of asphalt mixtures is a crucial factor in
determining the structural response of pavements [49]. Following the
6.2. Hamburg wheel-track test AASHTO T342–11 standard [50], six specimens of SMA20 were pro­
duced: Three with 0.30 % of commercial fibre and three with 0.20 % of
The Hamburg wheel tracking test, as described in AASHTO T 324 textile fibre. Samples were prepared as briquettes with a height of pre­
[47], was conducted using the Double Wheel Tracker (IPC global) de­ cisely 180 mm and a diameter of 150 mm. The core was extracted to
vice. The specimens were immersed in water at 50◦ C in wet mode. A ensure heights between 147.5 and 152.5 mm and diameters from 100 to
double wheel PMW wheel tracker device was used, with loaded wheels 104 mm. LVDT devices were then attached to the sides of the specimens
of 203.2 ± 2.0 mm diameter and a load of 705 ± 4.5 N. The loaded using epoxy cement. Three specimens were used for each type of

4
W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

Fig. 4. Compaction procedure for performance test specimens.

Fig. 5. Binder drainage and performance testing of asphalt mixtures.

cellulose, each equipped with three LVDTs (Fig. 5d). The specimens drainage decreased from 0.196 % to 0.033 %. Similarly, for commercial
undergo testing on the UTM-30 Servo-Hydraulic Universal Testing Ma­ fibres, the same variation from 0.20 % to 0.60 % of the total mixture
chine, with varying temperatures (-10, 4, 21, 37, and 54 ◦ C) and test weight resulted in binder drainage between 0.019 % and 0.007 %. From
frequencies (25, 10, 5, 1, 0.5, and 0.1 Hz), applying a sinusoidal axial Fig. 5, it can be seen that for all SMA20 mixtures, regardless of the fibre
compressive stress. This test evaluates the dynamic properties of mate­ type, binder drainages were lower than 0.30 %, as prescribe specifica­
rials under different environmental and loading conditions. tion in Argentina (SMA DNV 2017) [44]. Conversely, when the fibre was
completely removed from the mixture, the drainage increased to
7. Results and discussion 0.359 %. These findings demonstrated the significance of fibres in
enhancing the absorption capacity and stability of the mixture, which
7.1. Binder drainage results were crucial factors for the design and quality of asphalt mixtures [42].

The average values of the binder drainage test are illustrated in

7.2. Hamburg wheel-track performance
Fig. 6. Three specimens were tested for each percentage of commercial
or textile fibre. As expected, binder drainage decreased as the amount of
As part of the performance evaluation, rutting tests were conducted
fibres increased. It was observed that as the percentage of textile fibres
in the Hamburg wheel tracking test. These tests were carried out at a
increased from 0.20 % to 0.60 % in the SMA20 mixture, the binder
temperature of 50◦ C, and permanent deformation was evaluated after

5
W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

Table 5
Tensile strength at 25 ◦ C.
Mixture Thickness Load Tensile strength Std average tensile
(mm) (kN) (kPa) strength (kPa)

C− 1 64.89 10.26 1008.95 1161.53

C− 2 63.17 13.41 1350.39
C− 3 65.85 11.65 1125.26
T− 1 68.19 10.68 993.39 981.74
T− 2 69.71 9.59 875.08
T− 3 65.57 11.10 1075.61

Note: C-i: Sample i for 0.30 % commercial fibre; T-i: Sample i for 0.20 % textile
fibre

commercial fibre contributed to greater internal cohesion within the

blend matrix.
During the saturation test at 60◦ C, both mixtures experienced a
Fig. 6. Binder drainage depending on percentage of fibre (average of decrease in their tensile strength. The mix with commercial fibre
three specimens). recorded a value of 956.80 kPa, while the mix with textile fibre had a
recorded value of 933.83 kPa (Table 6). This is in line with the statistical
findings of the Kruskal-Wallis H Test, which suggested that the tested
10,000 cycles (20,000 passes), as shown in Fig. 7. The results indicated
mixes did not show significant differences Std (p-value = 0.127 > 0.05)
that SMA with 0.30 % of commercial fibre exhibited a deformation of
and Stm (p-value = 0.827 > 0.05). Therefore, both samples were deemed
2.46 mm, while SMA with 0.20 % of textile fibre showed a slightly
similar. The presence of water between the asphalt and the aggregate
higher deformation of 2.83 mm. According to the Kruskal-Wallis test,
reduced adhesion, leading to detachment and separation. The loss of
the obtained p-value is 0.174, which is above the significance level of
cohesion demonstrated a degree of susceptibility to moisture [52]
0.05 Therefore, it is confirmed that the results are similar in the SMA20
evidencing the joint influence of water and temperature on the prop­
mixtures with both fibers. These findings comfortably satisfy the
erties of the mixtures. The SMA mixture with commercial fibre initially
maximum allowable deformation requirements of 20 mm for 20,000
exhibited higher strength under dry conditions, but its strength was
passes (10,000 cycles), as well as significantly surpass the standards set
similarly affected as the SMA mixture with textile fibre after saturation
by the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), which dictates a
at 60 ◦ C. Therefore, it could be concluded that both blends exhibited a
maximum deformation limit of 12.50 mm after 15,000 passes (7500
cycles) at the same temperature. It was noteworthy that none of the
specimens exhibited spalling, suggesting excellent cohesion and adhe­
Table 6
sion within the mixture’s internal structure. Therefore, the fibers
Tensile strength after being saturated in water at 60◦ C for 24 hours.
demonstrated good performance as a stabilizing agent in both SMA
mixes, minimizing permanent deformation [51]. Mixture Thickness Load Tensile strength Stm average tensile
(mm) (kN) (kPa) strength (kPa)

C− 4 63.97 11.49 1145.49 956.80

7.3. Effect of moisture strenght performance C− 5 66.07 8.49 819.57
C− 6 65.11 9.28 905.35
T− 4 67.54 9.11 857.46 933.83
The water sensitivity damage of the asphalt specimens was evaluated T− 5 67.38 10.77 1016.26
using the ASTM D4867method at 25◦ C, the mixture containing 0.30 % T− 6 67.59 9.87 927.79
of commercial fibre exhibited higher St compared to the mixture con­
Note: C-i: Sample i for 0.30 % commercial fibre; T-i: Sample i for 0.20 % textile
taining 0.20 % of textile fibre, achieving a value of 1161.53 kPa and
fibre.
981.74 kPa, respectively (Table 5). These results suggested that

Fig. 7. Formation of rutting in SMA20 mixture specimens (average of two specimens).

6
W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

similar capacity to resist the high temperature saturation conditions. Table 8

Some departments of transportation in the United States established Dynamic modulus for SMA20 with 0.20 % textile fibre. (average of three
a minimum value for indirect tensile strength (ITS) to assess moisture specimens).
damage resistance potential. For instance, the Illinois Transportation Frequency Dynamic Modulus (MPa)
Center recommends a minimum ITS value of 414 kPa [53]. Based on the -10 ◦ C 4 ◦C 21 ◦ C 37 ◦ C 54 ◦ C
results obtained for both mixtures, the minimum specification would be
25 Hz 20963.00 11469.33 4935.33 1727.00 607.00
met.
10 Hz 17931.00 10533.00 4638.00 1349.00 406.33
In addition, when calculating the average tensile strength ratio after 5 Hz 16440.67 9671.33 3850.00 1104.67 335.67
saturation (TSR), it was found that the SMA20 mixtures had an ITSR of 1 Hz 14362.33 7554.33 2442.67 667.00 216.67
82 % for the mixture with commercial fibre and an TSR of 95 % for the 0.5 Hz 13515.67 6708.33 2020.00 553.33 194.67
mixture with textile fibre (Table 7). According to the AASHTO T283 0.1 Hz 11689.00 5083.33 1326.33 390.00 161.67

standard, hot mix asphalt mixtures must have a minimum moisture

resistance ratio (TSR) of approximately 80 % [54]. Therefore, the results
obtained meet this criterion. Table 9
An important aspect to highlight is the TSR of SMA20 with textile Dynamic modulus for SMA20 with 0.30 % commercial fibre (average of three
fibre, which exhibited significantly higher values than other SMA20 specimens).
with commercial fibre. This fact underscores the importance of fibres in Frequency Dynamic Modulus (MPa)
enhancing resistance to fracture and cracking. -10 ◦ C 4 ◦C 21 ◦ C 37 ◦ C 54 ◦ C

25 Hz 16170.00 9008.67 4503.67 1533.67 441.00

7.4. Dynamic modulus performance 10 Hz 15167.33 8276.00 4353.33 1337.67 422.00
5 Hz 14414.33 7703.67 3667.67 1052.00 347.33
Tables 8 and 9 show the dynamic modulus and phase angle values 1 Hz 12703.00 6142.67 2367.00 663.00 223.67
0.5 Hz 12034.33 5544.33 1974.67 550.00 193.33
corresponding to the mixtures with 0.20 % of textile fibre and 0.30 % of 0.1 Hz 10439.00 4322.33 1332.00 377.67 149.33
commercial fibre at different temperatures (-10, 4, 21, 37, and 54 ◦ C)
and various loading frequencies (25, 10, 5, 1, 0.5, 0.1 Hz). In Figs. 8 and
9, a decrease in the dynamic modulus is observed as the loading fre­
quency decreases. Likewise, an inverse relationship was observed be­
tween the dynamic modulus and temperature. The maximum value of
the dynamic modulus for both mixtures was reached at a temperature of
− 10◦ C and a frequency of 25 Hz. In contrast, the minimum value of the
dynamic modulus |E*| was obtained in the scenario of 54◦ C and 0.1 Hz.
This was consistent with the statistical findings of the Kruskal-Wallis H
Test, which suggested that the mixes were similar t (p-value = 0.548 >
0.05).
These results explain the behaviour of asphalt mixtures under
elevated temperature conditions in real situations. As the temperature
increase, the mixture tends to lose certain elastic properties and adopt
characteristics more similar to those of a viscous material [55].
For better comparison of the results, master curves were created to
show the dynamic modulus of asphalt mixtures [56]. These curves were
Fig. 8. Dynamic Modulus for SMA20 with 0.20 % textile fibre.
made by fitting data to a sigmoidal model and considering
Arrhenius-type displacement factors, as described in AASHTO TP 62.
This method allows for the comparison of materials that behave like sought to prevent susceptibility to rutting and permanent deformation
linear viscoelastic substances when tested at different stress rates [62]. Therefore, the SMA20 mixture with textile fibre stood out as the
(loading frequency) and test temperatures. The time-temperature su­ most suitable option. However, at low temperatures, the SMA20 with
perposition principle (TTS) [57] can be used to predict E* at a standard commercial fibre performed better as it had lower stiffness, facilitating
temperature of 21◦ C, which is representative for the coast of Peru. the elastic recovery of the asphalt mixture; otherwise, it became stiffer
Table 10 shows that the correlation coefficient R2 of the generalized and prone to cracking [63].
sigmoidal model exceeds 0.98 indicating good accuracy of both models
[13,58]. 8. Conclusion
The resistance to permanent deformation of an asphalt mixture is
considered good when the values of the dynamic modulus are high [59, In this current research, the feasibility of utilising textile waste fibres
60]. In this regard, Fig. 10 illustrates an enhancement in high-frequency as a substitute for commercial cellulose fibres to absorb excess binder in
performance, with the SMA containing textile fibre exhibiting a higher the SMA20 mixture was investigated. Additionally, performance tests
dynamic modulus at a reference temperature of 21◦ C. Furthermore, in were conducted to corroborate the findings. A two-stage experimental
Fig. 11 it can be observed that, at a frequency of 10 Hz, the SMA20 with investigation was carried out, varying the quantities of textile waste fi­
textile fibre was slightly superior under conditions of elevated temper­ bres (0.20 %, 0.30 %, 0.40 %, 0.50 % and 0.60 % by weight of the
atures, where asphalt mixtures are more sensitive [61] and tend to work mixture), alongside 0.30 % of well-known commercial cellulose fibres,
with their viscous component. Therefore, a greater pavement stiffness is used as a reference. Testing of the designed SMA20 mixtures in terms of
binder drainage, air void content, voids in the mineral aggregate, water
Table 7 sensitivity, rutting resistance, and dynamic modulus lead to the
ITSR average results. following conclusions:
Mixture Stm (kPa) Std (kPa) ITSR (%)
1) Considering the quality of aggregate and PG 76–22 modified asphalt
0.30 % Commercial Fibre 1161.53 956.80 82 binder, the optimum binder content for an SMA20 mixture is 6 % by
0.20 % Textile Fibre 981.74 933.83 95
weight. This percentage ensures adherence to the Argentinian

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W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

Fig. 9. Dynamic Modulus for SMA20 with 0.30 % commercial fibre.

Table 10
Dynamic Modulus master curve SMA20 (Reference temperature 21 ◦ C).
Master Curve Parameters 0.30 % commercial fibre 0.20 % textile fibre

δ 1.38 1.56
α 4.36 4.43
β − 0.67 − 0.55
γ − 0.35 − 0.39
Y 3.09 2.92
R2 0.996 0.996

Fig. 11. Master curve SMA20 (Reference frequency 10 Hz.).

3) Both the SMA20 mixture with 0.30 % commercial fibre and with
0.20 % textile fibre exhibited rutting values well below the
maximum permissible limit of 20 mm for 10,000 cycles (20,000
passes). The rutting values were 2.46 mm for the SMA20 with
commercial fibre and 2.83 mm for textile fibre. A lower rutting was
observed for the SMA20 with commercial fibre.
4) Both SMA mixtures with fibres exhibited excellent water sensitivity
behaviour. The obtained values exceeded the minimum acceptable
TSR of 80 %. Specifically, the SMA20 with 0.30 % commercial fibre
Fig. 10. Master curve SMA20 (Reference temperature 21◦ C). showed a TSR of 82 %, whereas the SMA20 with 0.20 % textile fibre
achieved a TSR of 95 %. Therefore, the SMA20 with textile fibre
specification concerning volumetric ratios. This achievement was demonstrated superior capability to withstand moisture-induced
reached after conducting various tests, varying percentages of damage.
asphalt binder, gradations, filler, and commercial cellulose 5) Overall, the SMA20 mixtures with commercial cellulose and textile
percentages. cellulose exhibited similar abilities to deform and recover under
2) Textile fibres are capable to absorb excess asphalt binder in SMA20. repeated stresses. However, the SMA20 with 0.30 % commercial
It was noted that using 0.20 % by weight of the mixture resulted in fibre demonstrated a lower dynamic modulus at low temperatures,
similar drainage levels to those achieved with 0.30 % of commercial promoting elastic recovery and counteracting asphalt stiffness,
fibre, meeting the required volumetric ratios for these mixtures. particularly at a frequency of 10 Hz, which simulates vehicle passage
Furthermore, it was confirmed that SMA20 mixtures without fibres at 60 km/h. Although the SMA20 with 0.20 % textile fibre exhibited
showed drainage exceeding permissible limits, highlighting the better behaviour at high temperatures due to its slightly higher dy­
importance of fibre inclusion in asphalt mixtures. namic modulus.

8
W. Rodríguez et al. Construction and Building Materials 455 (2024) 139125

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6653594.
[19] V. Udayabhanu, P. Jagannadharao, N.V.P. Kumar, Title: STUDY ON THE
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
MARSHALL PROPERTIES WITH SUNHEMP AND KENAF AS STABILIZER
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence ADDITIVES IN STONE MASTIC ASPHALT To Secure Your Paper As Per UGC
the work reported in this paper. Guidelines We Are Providing A Electronic Bar Code STUDY ON THE MARSHALL
PROPERTIES WITH SUNHEMP AND KENAF AS STABILIZER ADDITIVES IN STONE
MASTIC ASPHALT, 2020. 〈www.ijiemr.orghttp://www.ijiemr.org/downloads.ph
Acknowledgements p?vol=Volume-09&issue=ISSUE-05Electroniccopyavailableat:https://ssrn.com/a
bstract=3608541〉.
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