7.

Anomie Theory

Anomie theory was introduced by Emile Durkheim.

Durkheim defined the term anomie as a condition where social and/or

moral norms are confused, unclear, or simply not present. Durkheim felt
that this lack of norms--or pre-accepted limits on behavior in a society led
to deviant behavior.

Anomie = Lack of Regulation / Breakdown of Norms

According to Durkheim, anomie reflects a sense of normlessness, the lack

of any societal norms that spurs the tendency to act in a deviant way. In
general terms, Durkheim's theory of anomie of proposes that because of
industrialization and the need for cheap labor in this newly modern
society, the influx of immigrants inherently brought with them their own
sets of norms and values. Thus came a temporary imbalance of norms,
anomie, which enhances individual's propensity to commit crime in search
for a stable environment. In turn, Durkheim puts forth not just a theory for
the social origins of crime, but also, he theorizes about the social origins
of law and punishment.

8. DIFFERENTIAL OPPRESSION THEORY

The developmental-ecological perspective provides a means for

understanding how the oppression of children occurs within multiple social
contexts that interrelate to produce harmful outcomes for children.
Because children lack power due to their age, size, and lack of resources,
they are easy targets for adult oppression. Children are exposed to
different levels and types of oppression that vary depending on their age,
level of development, socioeconomic class, race, and the beliefs and
perceptions of their parents.

According to the theory of differential oppression, oppression leads to

adaptive reactions by children: passive acceptance, exercise of
illegitimate coercive power, manipulation of one's peers, and retaliation.
Reducing the oppressive acts of adults and alleviating the damaging
circumstances that characterize the social environment of children is
critical to reducing the prevalence of juvenile delinquency and other
problem behaviors.

One consequence of oppression and control is that people are transformed

into objects, which are acted upon by those in power, as opposed to
subjects, who act upon and transform their world. Friere (1990:51) noted
that the greater the exercise of control by oppressors, the more the
oppressed become inanimate things or objects, rather than people.
Objectification allows the dominant group to control the dialogue about
the relationship between the two groups, to establish the rules governing
the relationship, and even to create the rules for changing the rules.

9. LIFE-COURSE THEORY

As a theory, the denotation establishes the connection between a pattern

of life events and the actions that humans perform.

In the criminology field, the life-course theory is used as a backbone

factor throughout childhood is the one parent household case in which
studies have shown cause a higher risk for criminal activity later in one’s
life. The adaptation to social bonds and institutions are factors in the
adolescence phase. When adolescents are able to excel in institutions
such as schools, churches, and community centers their less likely to
resort to criminal activities to occupy their time. Adults that are involved
with their families and their careers are less likely to pursue crime
compared to those who are not. The factors, or experiences, throughout
human life aid in the life-course theory’s attempt to explain why certain
individuals are more prone to a life of crime while others have a lower
probability. Thus, these factors force consistent interaction between
individuals and their surroundings that fundamentally create a particular
lifestyle that could lead to a life of crime if these factors are negative. In
general, the accepted notion is that the factors occurring at a younger
stage in life are predominately influential on crime risk than later life
experiences.

Factors in the childhood stage would include developmental events

concerning mainly parental guidance (or lack thereof). A common factor
throughout childhood is the one parent household case in which studies
have shown because a higher risk for criminal activity later in one's life.
The adaptation to social bonds and institutions are factors in the
adolescence phase. When adolescents are able to excel in institutions
such as schools, churches, and community centers their less likely to
resort to criminal activities to occupy their time. Factors for adults include
marriage, children, and employment. Adults that are involved with their
families and their careers are less likely to pursue crime compared to
those who are not.

The factors, or experiences, throughout human life aide in the life-course

theory's attempt to explain why certain individuals are more prone to life
of crime while other's have a lower probability. Thus, these factors force
consistent interaction between individuals and their surroundings that
fundamentally create a particular life style that could lead to life of crime
if these factors are negative. In general, the accepted notion is that the
factors occurring at a younger stage in life are predominately influential
on crime risk than latter life experiences. As a result of this idea, the life-
course theory works closely with developmental theories to reinforce
explanations of crime occurrences. In regards to criticism of the theory,
the question that has arouse is "whether life-course criminology has
produced new general theories or rather represents ways of pulling in
concepts and propositions from exhausting theories at different ages or
stages of life" (Ronald, Sellers 2009).

The main study to test the validity of the life-course theory was conducted
by Laub and Sampson, who extraordinarily were able to follow the
participants for an extremely long period of time which is a difficult task to
accomplish in the social science field. Laub and Sampson were able to use
the research brought forth by criminologist Eleanor Glueck’s study on the
criminal life style in young adults io their investigation. Their goal was to
prove that in life, essential turning points (or as they called them
trajectories) are hugely influential in determining one’s risk of succumbing
to crime. The two theorists followed the same participants that were part
of Glueck’s thesis and made sure the life history of said participants was
as comprehensive as possible with particular focus on the crucial
trajectories such as marriage and employment. With this project, Sampson
and Laub ultimately ended up contradicting one of criminology’s most
popular theorists, Travis Hirschi, by stating “criminality is not a constant,
but affected by the larger social forces which change over a life-course”
(Yeager).

10. Differential Reinforcement Theory

Ronald L. Akers

Differential Reinforcement Theory, on the other hand, is a theory from the

field of behavioral psychology. It suggests that behaviors are reinforced by
being either rewarded (positive reinforcement) or punished (negative
reinforcement). The main points of this theory are:

Behaviors that are reinforced tend to be repeated and thus learned.

Reinforcement can be positive (adding a reward) or negative (removing an

unpleasant stimulus).

The timing and frequency of reinforcement can impact how quickly a

behavior is learned and how strong the behavior becomes.

Differential reinforcement can be used to reduce unwanted behaviors and

increase desirable behaviors.
Akers argued that criminal behavior is the product of normal learning.