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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF LAFIA

CENTRE FOR GENERAL STUDIES

GST 111: COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH

MODULE

OCTOBER 2024

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 FOREWORD

Federal University of Lafia provides high-quality education that encompasses knowledge, skills, character,
and wisdom, needed for positive socio-economic transformation of the society. To ensure the sustainable
delivery of quality education, in tandem with the core values of this Institution – integrity, innovation, and
excellence, the Centre for General Studies developed this Lecture Module to serve as a reference material
for teaching and learning of general courses in the University and other tertiary institutions.
As Vice Chancellor, I am delighted to introduce this essential module designed to equip undergraduate
students with proficiency in English communication skills. Thus, I Welcome to GST 111 - Communication
in English, a foundational course in General Studies at Federal University of Lafia.
In today's globalized world, effective communication in English is a vital tool for academic, professional,
and personal success. This course is carefully crafted to enhance your abilities in reading comprehension
and critical thinking, writing coherent and well-structured texts, speaking confidently and articulately, as
well as listening actively and responsively.
Through interactive lectures, group discussions, and practical exercises, our experienced lecturers will guide
you in developing, clarity and precision in expression, fluency and accuracy in language use, confidence in
presenting ideas and opinions, and effectiveness in interpersonal and intercultural communication.
As you embark on this journey, I encourage you to engage actively with course materials, practice
consistently to improve skills, embrace diverse perspectives and cultures, and strive for excellence in
communication. By mastering communication skills in English, you will unlock opportunities for academic
excellence, global connectivity, and professional advancement.
Thank you.

Professor Shehu Abdul Rahman, FNAAE, FHORTSON, FASI

Vice-Chancellor, Federal University of Lafia.

NOTE FROM THE DIRECTOR

The Centre for General Studies was established in 2012. The mandate of the Centre is to teach undergraduate
students of the University those courses that are geared towards ensuring that every graduate has the basic
knowledge in other disciplines in the University.

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On behalf of the Centre for General Studies, I am pleased to introduce GST 111: Communication in English,
a foundational course designed to equip undergraduate students of Federal University of Lafia with essential
communication skills in English.
This course is carefully crafted to address the complexities of effective communication in the 21st century.
Our objective is to empower students with the ability to express themselves confidently, accurately, and
persuasively in various contexts.

This course, (GST 111: Communication in English) is designed to:

i. Enhance reading comprehension and critical thinking

ii. Develop writing skills for academic and professional purposes
iii. Foster effective speaking and listening strategies
iv. Promote intercultural communication and collaboration.
Through a student-centered approach, our experienced instructors will guide you in developing a strong
foundation in English communication skills. Course materials and activities are designed to:

i. Encourage active participation and engagement

ii. Foster critical thinking and analytical skills
iii. Develop problem-solving and creativity
iv. Cultivate lifelong learning habits
As Director of the Centre for General Studies, I encourage you to:

i. Approach this course with an open mind and willingness to learn

ii. Engage actively with course materials and activities
iii. Seek guidance from instructors and peers when needed
iv. Apply communication skills beyond the classroom
By mastering communication skills in English, you will enhance your academic performance, interpersonal
relationships, and future career prospects. I wish you a successful and enriching learning experience.

Sincerely,

Abdulkareem Alhassan, PhD,

Ag. Director, Centre for General Studies
Federal University of Lafia.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................................. 1

NOTE FROM THE DIRECTOR .................................................................................................................... 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS 4

CONTRIBUTORS 5

MODULE ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 6

MODULE TWO: THE ENGLISH SOUND PATTERNS .............................................................................. 8

MODULE THREE: THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR ...................................................................................... 19

MODULE FOUR: CONTINUOUS WRITING ............................................................................................ 38

MODULE FIVE: FORMS OF WRITING .................................................................................................... 48

MODULE SIX: OTHER FORMS OF WRITING ........................................................................................ 52

MODULE SIX: READING COMPREHENSION ....................................................................................... 69

MODULE SEVEN: PUBLIC SPEAKING ................................................................................................... 78

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CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. O. B. Orji-Mba – Coordinator

Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

Dr A. A. Agantiem
Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

Mr. S. A. Adigun
Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

Dr. J. Alagbe
Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

Dr A. A. Abdullahi
Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

Dr. A. M. Abashi
Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

Dr. (Mrs) B. Adamu

Department of English and Modern Language, Federal University Lafia

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 MODULE ONE: INTRODUCTION

This course guides students through the rudiments of using the English language for communication.
Generally, several descriptions and explanations have been given to the term language. In some contexts,
the concept entails verbal and non-verbal means of meaning creation. Anagbogu P. N. et al define language
as ‘a means by which human beings have for communicating ideas, feelings, emotions, desires, etc through
complex vocal and written symbols’ (2010, p. 1). Similarly, Sapir (1921, p. 8) views language as a “purely
human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of voluntarily
produced vocal symbols”. In the opinion of Hall (1968, p. 158) language is “the institution whereby humans
communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols”. On the other
hand, Bolinger (1968, p. 12) sees language as “a system of vocal auditory communication using conventional
signs composed of arbitrary pattern sound units and assembled according to set rules interaction with the
experience of its users”.

The above, are some of the many definitions offered by linguists and language scholars on the term
language. The definitions reveal varied opinions, views, and perceptions about the multifaceted nature of
language. These varied definitions cropped up because whichever way one words the definition of the term,
it may be difficult to capture all the characteristics of language in one rendition or interpretation. Based on
the preoccupation of this course, language is described as a ‘system of human expression by means of words’.
Here, the goal is to present the system of the structural and functional composition of words to form sentence
structures and have a clear representation of meaning for appropriate communication in the English language
for study. It is a course designed as English for Academic Purposes.

It is important to note that, language is vital to man, and it is the only trait that distinguishes man from other
animals, as it is only man that uses language systematically as a medium of communication. No matter how
primitive, no human community has ever existed without language. It has been with man for a very long
time. This means of communication is a major cultural phenomenon in human society that regulates human
consciousness and social interactions. Man uses language to express thoughts, ideas, and opinions, give
information, describe events, and narrate happenings in society. It is important to note that language is a
system of rules, that is, it has structural properties, and it is also a form of behaviour.

The English language is known to originate from Britain but has become the official language in Nigeria. It
is the language used in Nigeria to serve communicative purposes. It is designated the language of education,
trade and commerce, as well as the language of politics. All official affairs are documented in English. It is

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taught from the primary education level to senior secondary school. As such it is imperative to explore the
structure and patterns of the English language in communication. At the end of this course, students should
be able to
1. identify possible sound patterns in the English Language,
2. list notable language skills,
3. classify word formation processes,
4. construct simple and fairly complex sentences in English,
5. apply logical and critical reasoning skills for meaningful presentations,
6. comprehend and reason suitably about the content of a passage
7. summarize large text correctly without losing out on the message,
8. demonstrate an appreciable level of the art of public speaking and listening,
9. write essays, simple and technical reports

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 MODULE TWO: THE ENGLISH SOUND PATTERNS

UNIT ONE: THE ENGLISH PHONEMES

INTRODUCTION
Most language learners feel that pronunciation is a crucial part of language learning. Students
believe the best way to improve their pronunciation is to practice, and many pronunciation experts
agree that pronunciation teaching and learning must be situated in communicative contexts. A
major objective of the pronunciation segment of the course will be to improve your
communicative competence by working on troublesome sound segments such as stress, rhythm,
and intonation.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this section students should be able to:

1. pronounce and list out all the English vowel sounds

2. pronounce and list out all the English consonant sounds
3. give examples of words in which each phoneme occurs.

MAIN CONTENT
PHONEMES
Phonemes can simply be described as the individual sounds in a language and their phonetic
representation by speech flow is realized by. Given this, it is safe to say, that the English phonemes
are the speech sounds in the language. Based on their patterns and system of articulation, the
English phonemes are further grouped into the major headings as described below.
THE ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS
A vowel can be defined as a sound during the production of which there is no form of obstruction
of the air stream. Thus, it is a sound that is produced with a free flow of air expelled by the lungs.
Vowels are generally voiced, having no noise component but rather a characteristic patterning of
formants. The vowel phonemes are classified into major areas: monophthongs or pure vowels,
diphthongs, and thriphthongs.
Monopthtongs: A monopthong is a vowel sound with a single nucleus and it is represented by
only one symbol. They are also referred to as pure vowels. Below are the phonetic symbols of
monophthongs and examples of words in which they occur:

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Monophthongs
/i:/ sea, sheep, peak, deceive, tree, free
/i/ pit, sit, merit, pocket, colony, coffee

/e/ bed, head, many, dress, said, tense.

/æ/ acid, act, bag, pack, sack, back

/a:/ answer, pass, march, plait, heart.

/ͻ/ odd, office, cot, pot, melody, hostel.

/ͻ:/ court, caught, want, record.

/u/ put, cook, would, full, took, wood.

/u:/ food, moon, spoon, soup, woo, blue.

/٨/ under, umbrella, cup, cut, son, come

/ᴈ:/ word, world, mercy, verse, first.

/ₔ / above, across, admit, better, teacher, color.

DIPHTHONGS:
Diphthongs are vowels with double sounds. Their productions involve glides from one vowel to
another. A diphthong is one indivisible vowel sound that consists of two parts. The first part is the
main strong component (the nucleus); the second part is short and weak (the glide). A diphthong
is always stressed on its first component: [au], [ou]. Below are phonetic symbols of English vowels
and examples of words in which they occur.
Diphthongs
/ei/ aid, age, name, nail, bake, cake, parade.

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/әu/ over, ovary, goat, pole, coke, slow, follow.
/ai/ isolate, item, time, five, style, guide.
/ͻi/ oil, boy, soil, voice, noise, toil.
/au/ out, sound, mouth, town, now, house.
/iә/ ear, pear, here, dear, deer, steer.
/eә/ share, bare, stare, chair, scarce, hair.
/uә/ poor, pour, tour, sure.
Triphthongs : “A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced
rapidly and without interruption.” (Roach 2000:24) They are:

/eiә/ layer, prayer etc.

/αiә / tyre, higher, fire etc.

/ↄiә/ royal, loyal etc.

/әuә / lower, mower etc.

/αuә/tower, hour, power etc.

THE ENGLISH CONSONANT SOUNDS

A consonant sound is a speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air
stream by any of the various constructions of the speech organs, such as (p), (f), (r), (w), and (h).
In other words, any speech sound in the production of which the speaker completely stops and then
releases the air stream is a consonant. A consonant is the result of audible friction, squeezing, or
stopping of the breath in some part of the mouth (or occasionally of the throat). The main
distinction between vowels and consonants is, that while in the former the mouth configuration
merely modifies the vocalized breath, which is, therefore, an essential element of the vowels, in
consonants, the narrowing or stopping of the oral passage is the foundation of the sound, and the
state of glottis is something secondary. Below are phonetic symbols of consonants and examples
of words in which they occur:
1. /p/ pot heap whisper
2. /b/ black table cob
3. /f/ face chief suffer

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 4. /v/ veil avenge grave
5. /t / two utter street
6. /d/ doubt bundle would
7. /k / calm tackle task
8. /g / green language plague
9. /s/ swiss conceal mass
10. /z/ zealous husband pause
11. /m/ man small fume
12. /n/ noon snail tune
13. /ŋ/ lung evening wrong
14. /ʧ/ chew merchant munch
15. /ʤ/ joy injure judge
16. /ʃ/ shine ocean wash champagne
17. /ʒ/ azure measure massage
18. /θ/ thumb author path
19. /ƌ/ these gather loathe
20. /l/ leave blood thrill
21. /r/ rat press carry
22. /w/ what exquisite want
23. /j/ yam stew ewe
24. /h/ house high height

The consonant sounds are also grouped based on their MANNERS OF ARTICULATION,
STATE OF THE GLOTTIS (VOICED OR VOICELESS SOUNDS) and PLACES OF
ARTICULATION. The chart below gives the description of each consonant sound, stating the
position of the glottis, place and manner of articulation. The voiceless sounds are placed on the
left whereas the voiced ones are on the right in the chart.

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RP CONSONANT PHONEME CHART

MANNER PLACE OF ARTICULATION

OF
ARTICUL
ATION

BIL LABIO- INTER- ALVE POST- PALA PAL VE GLOT

ABI DENTA DENTAL OLAR ALVE TO- ATA LA TAL
AL L OLAR ALVE L R
OLAR

PLOSIVE p t k
b d g

AFFRICA tʃ ʤ
TE

FRICATI f θ s z ʃ Ʒ h
VE v ð

NASAL N
m ŋ

LATERA L
L

FRICTIO
NLESS r
CONTIN
UANT

SEMI- W j
VOWEL

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 UNIT TWO: STRESS, INTONATION AND ACCENT

INTRODUCTION: After learning the individual sounds, their articulation, as well as example
words in which they occur, here we take a step further towards what is referred to as supra-
segmental phonetics. This implies exploring the system that accounts for how sounds are combined
to form a unit of its own. The supra-segmental level shows how the English sounds are put together
as a unit and how these patterns relate systematically.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

I. Define syllable and break down words into their various syllable structure.
II. Define stress
III. Identify the stressed syllables of English words from the unstressed ones
IV. Define intonation and the intonation patterns of various sentence types.
V. Define accent

MAIN CONTENT
SYLLABLE:
The English words are said to have a structure. A syllable is a group of sounds within a word which
are produced in one breath. This implies that a word can comprise of one or more syllables.
Consider the following words.
1. Room force sit sound take
2. Re/cord ac/cent pro/duce bet/ween force/ful
3. a/no/ther e/xam/ple im/por/tant pro/noun/cing
4. in/for/ma/tion e/co/no/mic/ i/mu/ni/ty com/po/si/tion

The words in number 1 above are called MONOSYLLABIC WORDS since they comprise only
one syllable. Those in 2 comprise two syllables and are categorized as DISYLLABIC words.
Words in 3 are made of three words, while those in 4 are made of four syllables. Words with more
than two syllables like the ones in 3 and 4 above are categorized as MULTI-SYLLABIC words.
The end of the syllables in the above examples is marked by a slash here.
STRESS

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Stress is the sound difference achieved by pronouncing one syllable more forcefully than another.
For example, the difference between ‘record (noun) and re’cord (verb). Thus, stress is the force
with which a syllable is produced. It should be noted that syllables do not have the same force of
articulation. There are two syllables- stressed and unstressed syllables. Let us consider the stress
patterns of different syllable types in English.
MONOSYLLABIC WORDS: these are one-syllabic words and they are usually stressed, e.g.
dog, run, sit, play, kind etc.
DISYLLABIC WORDS: the stress can be observed at the first or the second syllable.
• First syllable stressed- ‘fe ver, ‘tea cher, dri ver, ‘mar ket, ‘far mer etc.
• Second syllable stressed- be’hind, de’mand, re’deem, in’sist, I’dea.
MULTI-SYLLABIC WORDS: They may also be stressed on the first, second and third syllables
• First syllables stressed, e.g. ‘ar ro gant, ‘for ti fy, ‘he sit ant, ‘mi ni ster, ‘cla ri fy, ‘chlo
ro quine etc.
• Second syllable stressed, e.g. di vi sion, e lec tric, di rection, al lo wance, in tern al, ex
ter nal, imp or tant, be lie ver, de co der, un ti dy etc.
• Third syllable stressed, de tain nee, in sin cere, ci ga rette, un der stand, re fe ree, gua
ran tee, com man dant, ma ga zine etc.

INTONATION
Intonation refers to the rise and fall in the pitch of a speaker’s voice. Tone and pitch are usually
observed during speech production. Pitch usually fluctuates in high and low directions. The
variations created in these fluctuations that affect the meaning of words are referred to as tone. In
linguistics, intonation is a variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words; instead,
it is used for a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the speaker,
signaling the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of
question, focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also helping to
regulate conversational interaction.

INTONATIONAL PATTERNS OR FEATURES

It is a clear fact that intonation patterns determine the meaning of most expressions. The kinds of
intonation are:

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i. The falling tone

ii. The rising tone

iii. The rise-fall tone

iv. The fall-rise tone

The falling tone is usually represented with a falling arrow (↘) while the rising tone is with a

rising arrow (↗).

It is important, however, to stress here that the rise and fall in pitch of the intonation patterns in
terms of functions could be either GRAMMATICAL or ATTITUDINAL. In terms of grammatical
functions, it is through intonation that we observe when a sentence is a command or exclamation,
a question, or a statement. Conversely, the attitudinal intonation enables you to know the mood
and the attitude of a particular speaker- whether the attitude of the speaker is that of worry, love,
anger, doubt, surprise, uncertainty, or indifference.

THE FALLING TONE

The falling tone of the intonation pattern is usually used for:

1. STATEMENTS. Examples are:

i. I am going home.↘

ii. Uche is my friend. ↘

2. WH QUESTIONS: Examples are:

i. Who is that man? ↘

ii. When are you coming? ↘

iii. What is your name? ↘

3. EXCLAMATIONS: Examples are:

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 i. Holy God! ↘

ii. Oh my God! ↘

4. COMMANDS: Examples are:

i. Go away from here. ↘

ii. Shut up your mouth. ↘

THE RISING TONE

The rising tone on the other hand is mostly used for:

POLAR QUESTIONS: (They are questions that demand yes or no as their answers) Examples are:

i. Did you see him?↗

ii. ii. Is she your sister? ↗

a. iii. Are you ready for the test? ↗

POLITE REQUEST OR PERMISSION: Examples are:

i. Can I go with you, honey? ↗

ii. ii. Do I introduce them to you? ↗

iii. iii. Can I make use of your pen, please? ↗

INCOMPLETE EXPRESSIONS: Examples are:

i. When I graduate…↗
ii. ii. As she saw her…↗

LIST OF ITEMS IN SERIES: Examples are:

↗ ↗ ↗

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i. Bola bought oranges, tomatoes, pepper and salt. ↘

↗ ↗ ↗

ii. First, second, third, fourth, fifth. ↘

THE RISE-FALL TONE

The rise-fall tone, as earlier mentioned, features in expressions or sentences with two or more
clauses.

Examples are:

a. Before the end of the year, Bolanle will certainly travel to the village. ↘

ii. Next year, I shall visit you. ↘

-They are also used for question tags.

i. He is doing well, isn’t he? ↗

ii. We are progressing, aren’t we? ↗

ACCENT

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Accent refers to differences in pronunciations. It refers to the way words are pronounced, e.g. in
the south of England, it is normal to pronounce the word path as p-ar-th, but in the Midlands and
North, the phoneme ‘a’ is articulated as a short vowel and pronounced as in ‘cat’. In countries like
Nigeria, where English is a second language, the accent known as ‘Received Pronunciation’ (RP)
is considered as a prestige accent and is one frequently heard on television and radio news
bulletins. RP is believed to be generally accepted. It is believed to be the language of the elite, of
authority and power. Accents are characterized by differences in the quality of the voice,
pronunciation, and distinction of vowels and consonants, as well as stress.
FURTHER READING

Awonusi, S. (2001) Coping with English pronunciation: A text for schools,

colleges, and university. Obaroh and Ogbinaka Publishers Limited.

Gimson, A. C. (1980) An introduction to the pronunciation of English.

Edward Arnold

Jones, D. (2003) Cambridge English pronouncing dictionary. Cambridge

University Press

Jones, D. (1950) The pronunciation of English. Cambridge University Press

O’Connor, J. D. (1967) Better English pronunciation. Cambridge University

Press

Onuigbo, S. (2003) Oral English for schools and colleges. Africana First

Publishers Limited

Onwuchekwa, P. (2008) Test of orals: The practice of spoken English.

Africana First Publishers Ltd.

Roach, P. (2009) English phonetics and phonology: A practical course.

Cambridge University Press.

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 MODULE THREE: THE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

UNIT ONE: WORD CLASS

INTRODUCTION: The millions of words in the English language fall under different kinds of
word categories which are called parts of speech. These parts of speech are eight and they are:
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Highlight the English word parts of speech and their categorization
ii. Use them in example sentences
iii. Identify them in passages
iv. State their grammatical functions in sentence construct
MAIN CONTENT
NOUNS
Nouns are used to nominate. They are names of persons, animals, places, things, concepts, and
measurements. e.g. Sam, lion, Kano, table, hunger, a yard, etc.
Types of Nouns
1. Proper Nouns: they are the particular names of persons, places, or things. Proper nouns
always begin with capital letters e.g. Ade, Lagos, Easter, etc. Note that days of the week
(e.g. Monday, Sunday, etc.), months of the year (e.g. January, December, etc.), names of
important places, rivers, states, countries, mountains, and book titles are all proper nouns
and must start with capital letters. Examples:
✓ Ade will travel to Lagos on Easter.
✓ The wedding is on Sunday.
✓ His birthday is in January.
✓ Things Fall Apart was written by Chinua Achebe.
✓ River Benue cuts across Kogi and many other states in Nigeria.
2. Common Nouns: these are names of general creatures. e.g. cat, table, teacher, girls, book,
ball, etc. Common nouns unlike proper nouns are not specific. Examples:

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 ✓ The cat is on the table.
✓ The teacher advised the girls last week.
3. Abstract Nouns: they are names of things we neither touch nor see but can feel sometimes
e.g. hunger, death, air, thirst, anger, love, hatred, honesty, evil, etc.
✓ There is so much hunger and death in the land.
✓ There is not much air in the room.
4. Collective Nouns: refer to the names of a group or a collection of people, things, or
animals. e.g. clergy, congregation, flock, army, forest, gang, bunch of keys. etc.
✓ The clergy preached to the congregation last Sunday.
✓ The forest is full of wildlife.

NOTE: Common nouns are further divided into count nouns and non-count nouns. Count nouns
are concrete things we can see, touch and count e.g. table, book, and egg. Non-count nouns are
things we cannot count hence they are called uncountable nouns e.g. water, oil, sand, milk, etc.

PRONOUNS
These words substitute nouns in sentences. They are words that are used in place of nouns in
sentences e.g. you, he, she, it, her, himself, etc.

Types of Pronouns

i. Personal Pronouns: these pronouns stand for persons. They have singular and plural
forms e.g. she, them, you, I, we, they, me, etc.
ii. Possessive Pronouns: they show ownership of something or an object e.g. mine, yours,
hers, theirs, etc.
iii. Reflexive Pronouns: they show that the action done by someone or something has its
effects on the person or thing that did it e.g. himself, yourself, myself, etc.
iv. Relative Pronouns: they perform both the work of pronouns and conjunctions e.g. who,
that, whom, whose etc.
v. Interrogative Pronouns: these are relative pronouns that are used to ask questions e.g.
what, which, whose, which, whom, etc.
vi. Demonstrative Pronouns: these pronouns point at something or somebody e.g. this, that,
these, those.

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vii. Reciprocal Pronouns: here, two things or people are brought together. The only two
examples are each other and one another.
viii. Indefinite Pronouns: these pronouns are used to refer to people or things without
specifying the number e.g. someone, anything, everybody, anybody, everyone, much,
some, little, many, etc.

VERBS
These are words that indicate action in sentences. They tell what a subject does in a sentence.
Verbs are the most important words in sentences. Without verbs, we cannot describe any action,
situation, or state of affairs. See examples below:
✓ Tom sings a song.
✓ The children ate all the food.
✓ Frank has been running since morning.
✓ We shall dance at the party tonight.
✓ The class is silent.
All the underlined words in the above sentences are verbs as they indicate action and state of
affairs.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Transitive Verbs: they take direct objects. That is they allow objects to come after them. E.g. (a)
Peter ate the fish.

(b) Wuese sang a song.

(c) Sam killed the dog.

Intransitive Verbs: they have no objects. That is they do not allow objects to come after them.
e.g.

(a) The cow died.

(b) Shater ran.

(c) The pastor preached.

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FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERBS
Finite Verbs: These verbs agree with the subject in number and person e.g.

(a) We have two books (plural subj. + plural verb)

(b) She has a school bag (sing. Subj. + sing. Verb)

Non-finite Verbs: they are known as infinitives. Such verbs do not change to agree with the
number and person of the subject. There are three forms of non-finite verbs. These are:

1. Verbs that end in the “-ing” suffix e.g. giving, dancing, running, singing, etc.
2. Any verb that takes “to” is a non-finite verb e.g. to give, to go, to sing, to have, etc.
3. The past participle of any verb is non-finite e.g. given, taken, eaten, etc.

NOTE: if there are many verbs in a sentence occurring in a sequence, the first is finite and the rest
are non-finites e.g. (a) We are coming with you (b) she has been trying to call Paul, etc.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Regular Verbs: these verbs form their past tense and the past participle by just adding “ed”, “d”,
“t”, to the present tense e.g.

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

Cook cooked cooked

Dance danced danced

Start started started

Burn burnt burnt

Dream dreamt dreamt

Irregular Verbs: these verbs change their past tense and past participle by changing their vowel
sound or adding letters as the case may be e.g.

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PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
Grow grew grown

Know knew known

Has/have had had

Cost cost cost

Come came come

Begin began begun

Go went gone

TENSES
Tense refers to changes that occur in the structure or appearance of a verb to reflect the time of an
action. The tense may reflect to show action:
• Taking place now: present tense
• That has happened in the past: past tense
• That will occur in the future: future tense
Thus, we have three types of tenses in English, the present tense, the past tense, and the future
tense. The three tenses have subdivisions as we examine them below.

Simple Present Tense

It is used to express:

i. What happens at the moment e.g. She settles down and eats her food.
ii. Situations that are eternal and unchanging e.g. God is the creator of the whole universe.
iii. Habitual or repeated action e.g. GST 111 holds from 7-9 am every Friday.
iv. An intended or future action e.g. The class starts at 2. pm and ends at 4. pm today.

Present Continuous Tense

It is used to describe an ongoing verb action in which the continuing state is expressed using the
‘ing’ form of the verb. Examples:

✓ I am dancing to the music,

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 ✓ Arsenal is playing at the Emirate Stadium.

Present Perfect Tense

It is used to describe an action that has recently been completed. Examples:

✓ She has finished her homework.

✓ They have paid the electricity bills.

Simple Past Tense

It is used to express a past action. Examples:

✓ She ate all the food.

✓ The child died yesterday.

Past Perfect Tense

It is used to express a completed action in the past before another past action commenced or took
place. Examples:

✓ She had come before the book got lost.

✓ After Henry had left the house, the thieves broke in.

Past Continuous Tense

It is used to describe an action that was going on at a time in the past. Examples:

✓ The boy has been writing a book.

✓ I was eating yesterday when he arrived.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to express how long an action lasted to a particular time in the past. Examples:

✓ The boy had been writing a book.

✓ He had been sleeping since morning.

Future Tense
It is used to express a future action using ‘shall’ and ‘will’. Examples:

✓ We shall travel to Kano next week.

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 ✓ I will complete my assignment this evening.

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express a future action that will be continuous.

✓ The boy will be writing five novels this year.

✓ We shall be singing in the next competition.

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action that one hopes to complete at a particular time in the future.
Examples:

✓ The students shall have completed their examinations by noon.

✓ The president will have signed the bill before 2. pm today.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to express the duration of action up to a certain time in the future. Examples:

✓ By March, I shall have been writing my last examination.

✓ He will have been eating by the time you arrive home.

AUXILIARY VERBS
These are small verbs that help or facilitate the main verbs to put across a complete meaning in a
sentence (Idyu, 2016). There are two types of auxiliary verbs, namely: primary auxiliary verbs and
modal auxiliary verbs.

Primary Auxiliary Verbs

(a) The Auxiliary Verb to be: they are eight (am, is, are, was, were, being, been, be) and all
of them are used with the main verbs as helpers. However, some of them can still stand on
their own in a sentence to serve as linking verbs.
(b) The Auxiliary Verb have: it has four basic forms: have, has, having, and had. They can
be sensibly used in the sentence on their own with the exception of having.
(c) The Auxiliary Verb do: this verb also functions as full verb. Its basic forms are: does, do,
did, done, and doing. Like the main verbs, it takes the ‘s’ in the third person singular of the
present simple tense.

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Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Modal auxiliary verbs help main verbs but can also stand on their own as full verbs in sentences.
See the table below for the various uses of the modals:

Modals Uses Example Sentences

Can Ability I can defeat the enemy.

Request/Permission Can you kindly turn on the lights?

Possibility We can check on you at 5. pm today.

May/Might Possibility We may join them in the class.

I might have sung the song before.

Permission You may suspend the work till noon.

Speculation You might lose your savings on that project.

Shall/Should Future Tense I shall go home next year.

Obligation You should pass all your examinations.

Will/Would Future Tense He will come later.

Willingness She will teach them the right thing.

Possibility That would be his car.

Used to Habit in the past I used to run fast when I was young.

Must Compulsion Proper nouns must begin with capital letters.

Supposition He must have rounded up by now.

Ought to Moral Obligation You ought to have remained calm.

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 Guess She ought to have finished cooking by now.

Need to Necessity You need to hurry up so as to catch the train.

Dare not Warning You dare not lie to me.

ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs in sentences. They add to the meaning of the verbs thereby giving us more
information about the action being done in the sentence e.g. slowly, quickly, late, soon, today,
since, twice, usually, etc.

Tom walks quickly but Ada walks slowly. In this sentence, quickly and slowly tell us the manner
in which Tom and Ada walk respectively.

Types of Adverbs
1. Time: these adverbs tell when an action occurs. e.g.
a. She went to school yesterday.
b. I was here two hours ago.
2. Place: they tell us where an action occurs. e.g.
a. I am going to school.
b. The party holds in Lagos.
3. Degree/Manner: these adverbs tell us how an action takes place e.g.
a. Tom ate the food greedily.
b. I shall run very quickly to the market.
4. Reason/Cause: they tell us why an action occurs. e.g.
a. She was punished because she came late.
b. He died young since he suffered from sickle cell anemia.
5. Purpose: these adverbs tell us the purpose for which an action takes place. e.g.
a. I left early so as to catch the train.
b. I could not sleep last night in order to do my assignment.
6. Frequency: they tell us how often or how frequent an action occurs. e.g.
a. Wuese goes to Mecca twice a year.
b. Joy usually goes to school.

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ADJECTIVES

These words qualify nouns or pronouns in sentences. They limit the meanings of nouns or
pronouns thereby giving us a clearer picture of what they qualify. e.g.

a. Henater sings beautifully.

b. Frank is shy.
c. Anna is a good woman.

COMPARISON IN ADJECTIVES
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
Positive: this is the basic form of the adjective e.g. wide, big, handsome.

Comparative: it is used to compare two things or creatures. Comparative adjectives are formed
by adding “-er” and “more” to the short forms and long forms of the adjectives respectively. e.g.
wider, bigger, more handsome.

Superlative: this expresses the extreme degree of a quality. It is used to compare more than two
things or creatures. Like the comparative adjectives, superlative adjectives are formed by adding
“-est” and “most” to the short forms and long forms of the adjectives respectively while, “the” is
usually added at the beginning of the word. e.g. widest, biggest, most handsome.

Note: Adjectives such as good, bad, more, etc. have irregular forms.

PREPOSITIONS
These words are used to show a relationship between nouns or pronouns and other words in
sentences. They are functional words that link nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence. e.g.
to, by, for, on, at, under, outside, beside, etc.

Classes of Prepositions
a. Simple prepositions: they are made up of one syllabic word e.g. of, through, on, with, by,
etc.
b. Double Prepositions: here, two simple prepositions are combined e.g. in+side, out+side,
with+in, etc.

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 c. Compound Prepositions: here, two or more simple prepositions are strung together. They
are often connected with nouns, adjectives, and verbs e.g. in line with, in connection with,
on behalf of etc.

CONJUNCTIONS
These are functional words that are often described as connectives. They join words, phrases and
clauses together in sentences e.g. but, and, or, that, since etc.

Classes of Conjunctions
a. Coordinating Conjunctions: they join two equally important related ideas. The words,
phrases and clauses so joined are of equal grammatical standing. e.g.
ix. Shater and Henater are coming
ii. Are you sleeping or reading?
b. Correlative Conjunctions: they are used to compare or contrast two words or group of
words. These conjunctions always occur in pairs e.g.
x. Neither Wuese nor Shater are ready.
ii. Either Paul or James is attending the wedding.
c. Subordinate Conjunctions: these words are mostly used to connect subordinate clauses
with the main clauses in sentences. They are useful in paragraph development too. e.g. as
if, unless, in order that, although, since, provided that etc.

INTERJECTIONS

These words are used to express strong feelings or emotions which could be laughter, surprise,
joy, disgust, or sorrow. Such words are mostly accompanied with the exclamation mark e.g. What
a pity! (Sorrow) hush! (Silence), goodbye! (Salutation) Oh! (Surprise) etc.

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 UNIT TWO: THE ENGLISH PHRASE, CLAUSE AND SENTENCE PATTERNS

INTRODUCTION: In this unit, you will be guided on structures of English grammar higher in
rank than the word. These are grammar forms that constitute in their compositions one or more
words. Here we shall explore the English phrase, clause, and sentence forms.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Describe the English Phrase

ii. State their types and give examples
iii. Describe the English clause
iv. State their types and give examples
v. Describe the English sentence
vi. State their types and give examples

THE PHRASE

A phrase is a group of related words usually within a sentence, not containing a finite verb and
which do not make complete sense. A given phrase is named after its head. That is, the head word
of a phrase determines the name of the phrase. This indicates that a phrase having a noun as its
head word is called a noun phrase, and the one with an adverb or adjective as the head word is
termed as an adverbial phrase or an adjectival phrase respectively.

TYPES OF PHRASES

THE NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase is a group of words that has a noun or a pronoun as the headword. The headword
could be pre-modified by an article (a, an, and the), a possessive pronoun (such as my, your, or
their), a demonstrative pronoun (such as that, this, those, and these), or an adjective (such as good,
bad, nice, ugly, etc.). In the following sentences, the words written in bold are noun phrases:

30
 1. The man at the back door is her uncle.
2. This woman made that dress.
3. Their performance is my motivation.
4. Good people need nice treatment.

In the above sentences, the nouns are pre-qualified by either an article as ‘the’ in ‘the man’ and
‘the back’ in sentence 1, a demonstrative pronoun as ‘this’ and ‘that’ in ‘this woman’ and ‘that
dress’ in sentence 2, a possessive pronoun as ‘her’, ‘their’ and ‘my’ in ‘her uncle’, ‘their
performance’ and ‘my motivation’ in sentence 1 and 3 respectively, or by an adjective as ‘good’
and nice’ in ‘good people’ and ‘nice treatment’ in sentence 4.

Underlined in the sentences below are more examples of noun phrases:

1. I want my food.
2. You destroyed my trust in you.
3. They bought some oranges and one watermelon.
4. The tall girl fell by the road.
5. The tall girl in the picture is my cousin.
6. They fell into a big ditch.
7. These are the best students of this class.
8. The children are in the garden.
9. He died on the spot.
10. He climbed down the hole.

THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

A prepositional phrase is a phrase which has a preposition as its headword. It is a group of words
that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.

EXAMPLES:

1. The boys are in the house.

2. You can find the book under the table.
3. The thief ran out through the window.
4. You can buy a book across the street.

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 5. You cannot achieve success by behaving stupidly.
6. This is one of his schemes.
7. For spying on me, I am beginning to distrust her.
8. He planted a mango tree by the road.
9. She gave birth at midnight.
10. He was rewarded for his effort.

THE ADJECTIVAL PHRASE

Like an adjective, an adjectival phrase is a group of words that having an adjective as the
headword, modifies a noun or a pronoun. They give more information about a noun in a sentence.
They are formed by joining sub-modifiers with adjectives.

EXAMPLES

1. The injury is quite painful.

2. The most pleasant experience I ever had is this one.
3. That girl is wearing a very pretty dress.
4. The dress is wonderfully made.

an adjectival phrase can also be a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

EXAMPLES:

1. The boys in the neighborhood formed a baseball team.

2. The players on their varsity are bigger than your players.
3. I met some students from Asia.

THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE

An adverbial phrase is phrase that has an adverb as the head word and acts like an adverb.

EXAMPLES:

1. She did the work quite carefully.

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 2. He drove very recklessly.
3. She spoke to the men too softly.
4. She treated her old father extremely nicely.

An adverbial phrase is also a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

EXAMPLES:

1. This belongs to the girl in the classroom.

2. The punishment depends on the teacher’s judgments.
3. He came for the lesson in the evening.

THE CLAUSE

Clauses are a group of words that form a part of a sentence, and which contain a finite verb and a
subject. It is different from a phrase as it must have a subject and a finite verb while phrases do
not contain a finite verb and sometimes do not have a subject. The underlined parts of the sentences
below are examples of clauses as they contain subjects and predicates.

1. The man wearing the blue shirt is the hero.

2. He rode the horse which was limping.
3. That the man is dead shocked me.

CATEGORIES OF CLAUSES

Clauses are categorized into two: Independent and Dependent clauses.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

An independent clause is a clause that can stand as a simple sentence. It is a clause that can stand
on its own and express a complete thought. When they stand alone, they are called sentences but
when found within a sentence they are referred to as independent clauses.

EXAMPLES:

1. I cooked some rice because I was hungry.

33
 2. When you are humble, you are “on the ground”.
3. If you arrive late to school, you will be punished.

DEPENDENT CLAUSE

Though having a subject and a finite verb, a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete
thought or express a complete sense. It needs to depend on an independent clause for it to make
complete sense. Dependent clauses are usually introduced by words like since, because, if, as, who,
which, and that, which stop them from being able to stand alone.

EXAMPLES:

1. The girl was punished because she was late.

2. As she couldn’t make the dress, she gave up.
3. The man who was talking rapidly is a liar.
4. If you live in that house, you will have to be humble.

TYPES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

THE ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE

An adjectival clause is a clause that acts like an adjective. Like an adjective, an adjectival clause
modifies a noun or a pronoun in a sentence. That is, it talks more about a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence. This type of dependent clause is usually introduced by the relative pronouns: who,
whom, whose, which, and that.

EXAMPLES:

1. Everything that could be done has been done.

2. The lady whose birthday is being celebrated just turned 40.
3. This is my bag that was stolen.

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

34
The adverbial clause simply does the work of an adverb which is to modify a verb, an adjective or
other adverb. An adverbial clause may tell how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what
conditions the action of the verb is done. The adverbial clause may come at various positions in
the sentence. When it comes at the beginning, it is usually followed by a comma.

EXAMPLES:

1. We need cold drinks since the day is so hot.

2. When the weather turns cold, many animals hibernate.
3. The truck moves as if it has a heavy load.

THE NOUN CLAUSE

A noun clause is a clause within a sentence that behaves like a noun in that sentence.

EXAMPLES:

1. The girl standing over there is very brilliant.

2. Her success depends on who teaches her.
3. God has made him what he is.

THE SENTENCE

A sentence is a combination of words systematically that expresses a complete thought or makes

complete sense. A sentence can be made up of more than one phrase or one or more clauses. It can
consist of one independent clause alone or a combination of independent and dependent clauses.

1. The food which I like best is rice.

2. In the most dramatic scene of one production of Romeo and Juliet, the female lead prepared
to kill herself with a dagger, but unfortunately there was no dagger for her to use.

Since the ballads that have come down to us are usually sad, ballad singers often dress in black or
other somber colors. Sentences are classified based on their functions and internal syntactic
structures.

TYPES OF SENTENCES

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Functional Classification of Sentences

(i) Declarative Sentences: These types of sentences simply make statements e.g.
✓ Today is Monday
✓ She is a nice girl
✓ There are seven days in a week.
(ii) Interrogative Sentences: They ask questions. They always end with question marks e.g.
✓ Who are you?
✓ What do you want?
✓ Where are you going?
(iii) Imperative Sentences: They issue out commands, orders, or make firm requests e.g.
✓ Come here at once!
✓ Shut up your mouth.
✓ Please, leave us now.
(iv) Exclamatory Sentences: They express strong emotional feelings e.g.
✓ What a great pity!
✓ Oh! God.

Structural Classification of Sentences

Simple sentence: It has one independent clause. This implies that a simple sentence has one subject
and predicate. e.g.

✓ My name is Peter.
✓ Paul and Mary sang a song.

Compound Sentence: It has two or more independent clauses. Any number of simple sentences
can be coordinated to form a compound sentence e.g.

✓ Sam is getting better in English but Paul is doing better in Science.

✓ This is my opinion but I welcome criticisms.

Complex Sentence: It consists of one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. e.g.

✓ I shall be at the gate when you arrive.

✓ The goats I was raising for the wedding were stolen just a night ago

36
The multiple sentence comprises at least three main clauses without any dependent clause e.g.

✓ He was taught and attentive but he failed the examination.

The multiple complex sentence has at least three main clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Examples are:

✓ I came, I saw and I conquered although it was tasking.

✓ The girl attended lectures regularly, did her assignments on time, engaged in group
discussions, and bought all relevant textbooks but she failed woefully because she
misunderstood and misinterpreted all the questions
FURTHER READING
Adejare, O. and Adejare, R. A. (1997) Tertiary English grammar. Difamo
Book
Adetugbo, A. (1997) Communicative English and study skills. University of
Lagos Press
Fakuade, G. (2000) English grammar for schools and colleges. Paraclate
Publishers
Omorodion, G. N. (2011) The basic grammar of English. Spectrum Books
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1973) A university grammar of English.
English Language Book Society and Longman Group Limited.
Young, D. (1984) Introducing English grammar. Hutchinson.
Tomori, S. H. O. (1977) The Morphology and syntax of present day English
Heinemann

37
 MODULE FOUR: CONTINUOUS WRITING

UNIT ONE: WRITING ACTIVITIES

INTRODUCTION: Continuous writing is an activity that engages students in putting
down their thoughts. It serves as proof of the knowledge a student has acquired. Students
will frequently be required to write in their course of study. Consequently, they must master
the rudiments of communicating effectively through writing.
OBJECTIVE: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
i. Describe the term writing
ii. List and explain the qualities of good writing
iii. List and explain the structure of a good essay
iv. Enumerate and describe stages of writing
WRITING

Writing can be defined as the act of putting down on paper one’s ideas, feelings, and emotions
using symbols (These symbols can be written or printed). This means that writing is a way of
communication. It is considered as one of the expressive skills. Speaking is the other expressive
skill while listening and reading are receptive skills. Writing involves not just a graphic
representation of speech (i.e. use of symbols), but the development and presentation of thoughts,
feelings, ideas, and emotions in a structured manner. Writers always have a reason for dealing
with words. They have an aim, a purpose, something they want to accomplish. All writing has one
of these four basic aims or some combination of them: to inform, to persuade, to express, and to
be creative. Good writing must have unity and must be seen to be coherent. Achieving unity in
writing means that the essay discusses one main idea and that each paragraph or section of the
essay contributes to the development of an aspect of that main idea. Coherence in writing means
that sentences are properly linked to one another employing appropriate linking words, and the

38
ideas are linked across sentences logically and sequentially. Listed below are some critical writing
skills:
i. Use the spelling, punctuation, and other orthography conventions correctly.
ii. Use the correct forms of words that express the right tense, case, or gender.
iii. Put words together in the correct word order.
iv. Use vocabulary correctly.
v. Use the style appropriate to the genre and audience.
vi. Make the main ideas distinct from supporting ideas or information.
vii. Make the text coherent and logical, so that the readers can follow the development of
the ideas.
QUALITIES OF GOOD WRITING

a. Economy: A good essay possesses an economy of words in the sense that it avoids wordiness
and verbosity. Wordiness or verbosity in writing means filling up one's writing with redundant
words and phrases which in turn makes meaning difficult. Economy in writing does not suggest
that a writer should use short sentences or leave out details, but that every word and sentence
should contribute to the intended information in the clearest language.
b. Simplicity: Good and effective writing uses simple and concise expressions.
Simple expressions are not series of monotonous short sentences; rather, they are sentences
devoid of unnecessary complexity and pompous style.
c. Clarity: This means that a writer must know what he wants to say and does that effectively
through the process of exposition and explanations in a clear and orderly manner. Technical or
professional words or jargon should be avoided or given explanations except when writing to an
audience who is in a specialized field.
d. Unity: Unity is an essential quality of good writing. This must be approached from two levels:
the first is at the paragraph level where all the sentences that make up a paragraph must be
constructed around the topic sentence or the main idea or point in a paragraph. These sentences,
whether they are examples, details, or illustrations, must be directly related to the idea expressed
in the topic sentence.
e. Coherence: coherence in writing means the smooth progression of thoughts from a sentence, or
paragraph and from one idea to another. This could be achieved through chronological or logical

39
arrangement of materials. The appropriate use of transitional or linking words and phrases in
paragraphs and between paragraphs helps to achieve coherence.
STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY

Every composition has three basic parts or segments. These basic parts are the introduction, the
body, and the conclusion. Each of these parts is very essential in any kind of composition as lack
of any would imply that a work is incomplete.
The introductory part
This part usually contains the writer’s stand and usually presents the direction of the composition
in a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a statement that introduces the author’s standpoint, the
main idea of a composition, or the central idea that the composition is out to explore. The
introductory paragraph gives an overview of a subject. The ideas or points with which the whole
composition is developed are mentioned or implied in this paragraph. Depending on the context,
a writer may choose to start the introductory paragraph using anecdotes; a quotation, a short story,
a definition of key terms, or a question. It could also be stated using contrasting or parallel ideas.
The introduction of a composition can be more than
a paragraph depending on the length or the size of the subject or composition
The Body Part
The body of a composition is made up of different paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs contains
a point or an idea stated in a topic sentence which in turn, supports or builds into the central idea
of the composition. The points in these paragraphs are developed using illustrations, explanations,
examples, details, and experiences.
The Concluding Part
This is the last part of the composition. A properly articulated concluding paragraph restates or
summarizes the points already made in the composition and brings out the writer’s position,
submission, or judgment. Some kinds of compositions may require a writer to come up with
recommendations or suggestions as part of the conclusion of the work. Depending on the type of
writing, a quotation that reinforces the introduction or an allusion can as well be used to end this
part.

STAGES OF WRITING

40
As one writes, there are different stages. The stages are sequential and there are special activities
required at each stage. Properly following the routines of each stage in writing enhances the
chances of arriving at a good essay. While other books would rather refer to these stages as the
pre-writing, writing, and post-writing stages here we adhere to the general terminology attributed
to writing. This encompasses short essays and long ones.
FIRST DRAFT
Writing is a craft that goes through the processes of drafts, re-drafts, and revising. These three
stages of drafting are briefly captured below using the popular English Language Arts 20 (2005)
as a guide:
Drafting:
• Putting ideas related to your essay topic down on paper;
• Exploring new ideas during writing; and
• Thinking, reflecting, re-reading, and re-adjustment as writing goes on.
While making a research draft, ideas may come in flux and the writer needs to quickly put them
down so that he does not forget them. At this stage, there may be no need for re-reading and no
attention may be given to mechanics. However, the subsequent drafts should be improvements of
previous ones until a final draft is made.

EDITING AND PROOFREADING

Olaofe (2010) opined that some scholars reserved the word editing for verification of the facts,
concepts, and ideas contained in the work. In this case, editing suggests proving beyond reasonable
doubt that the concepts and facts in the body of writing are accurate and well-packaged. It is a way
of ensuring the accuracy of the content of the write-up. Proofreading is thus, reserved for horizontal
and vertical reading of the work to ensure harmonization in terms of form, sentence, grammatical
structures, usage, spelling, punctuation, and appearance. Yet, others use editing to include
proofreading activities.

Whatever the understanding of the two terms above, the most important thing is that good writing
must pass through rigorous editing and proofreading activities before presentation. During editing,
attention should be given to formatting, appearance, and other language issues.

FINAL DRAFT

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This is the refined copy of a write-up. A final draft passes through the various stages mentioned
above. The final minute and re-checking must have been done to arrive at a filtered grammatical
structure, fluency, and the general flow of the content. A final draft is a polished copy that is due
for presentation.

UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH AND PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION: A piece of writing is composed of words which are in turn structured into
sentences. These sentences are then composed into a unit of paragraph. As such the paragraph is a
composition of sentences centering on one idea. An essay comprises itself with paragraphs which
are all rendering ideas on a given topic. This indicates that having ample skill in developing a
paragraph is paramount to students. This unit guides students on the different patterns of
structuring ideas into paragraphs in writing.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Define a topic sentence

ii. State and explain the positions of the topic sentence
iii. Define a paragraph
iv. State and explain the methods of paragraph development
v. Write a paragraph using any selected method of paragraph development.
vi. Highlight the qualities of a good paragraph

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

A paragraph has two very important components: a topic sentence and supporting sentences.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph and often appears at the beginning, but it
can also occur at the middle and end of the paragraph. The supporting sentences back up and
explain the main idea- giving evidence, examples and reasons.

(a). Topic Sentence at Initial Position: here, the sentence is found right at the onset of the
paragraph. Initial topic sentence guides and suspends the reader on what will happen next in the
paragraph.

42
(b). Topic Sentence at Medial Position: the writer using this style places his topic sentence
somewhere in the middle of the paragraph and all other sentences are directed to it. This kind of
placement of the topic sentence is tricky and difficult to locate and it is somehow, reserved for
mature writers.
(c). Topic Sentence Final Position: it lies in the last sentence of the paragraph. This kind of topic
sentence wears a double cap. It serves as the theme of the paragraph and at the same time, provides
a powerful and convincing summary or conclusion of the whole paragraph.
Bagu (2015) advised that the initial topic sentence and the final topic sentence are the best for
research papers since they are easily identifiable and have more communication force.

THE PARAGRAPH

Adedokun (2002) defined paragraph as a group of sentences logically arranged to deal with one
theme or topic. Traditionally, a paragraph is preoccupied with a single thought or idea. The idea
must, however, be in consonance with the central message of the passage, story or discourse. It
must be firmly emphasized that only a single idea may be introduced and developed in a paragraph.

TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS

1. Introductory paragraph: this paragraph sets the mind of the reader in anticipation of what
the writer has in store for him/her. It is the paragraph that declares the purpose of the
composition. The central message to be addressed in the discourse is set loose in the
introductory paragraph. These kinds of paragraphs are found at the headings and sub-
headings in different sections of the research paper. The nature of the research paper
determines the number and length of the introductory paragraphs.
2. Transitional Paragraph: this serves as a link or pathway. It allows passage of what has
been raised in the previous paragraph and connects it to the subsequent paragraphs.
Transitional paragraphs usually form the body of a heading or sub-heading of a research
paper. It is through these paragraphs that issues are raised and addressed. Connectors are
normally used to link transitional paragraphs.
3. Concluding Paragraph: this appears at the end of a heading or sub-heading of the paper.
It is aimed at summarizing the salient points that had been raised all along. It concludes the

43
 discourse with a captivating statement, re-statement, summation, confirmation or refutation
of a fact and so on.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

1. The paragraph may be developed by details. The most frequent method of paragraph
development is by the use of further details. The topic sentence gives the necessary subject matter
while the supporting sentences give more details on the main idea in the paragraph.
2. The paragraph may be developed by illustration and example. A paragraph’s topic
sentence may be developed by means of examples or typical instances. This is not only a
relatively easy method of paragraph development, but it is also a delightful kind of paragraph to
read if the examples are well chosen.
3. The paragraph may be developed by events presented in time sequence. Sometimes the
events described in a paragraph must be listed in a certain order. This is important when you
explain a process. For example, a paragraph dealing with a recipe for a particular dish would have
words such as another, next, and so on.
4. The paragraph may be developed by placing objects in space sequence.
Sometimes the events described in a paragraph must be listed in a certain order. Just as time
sequence starts at one point in time and ends in another, so space sequence starts at one point in
time and ends in another. You may begin at the right or at the left and word toward the opposite
direction. You may start a nearby point and end at a distant one, or you may reverse that procedure.
Finally, you may start at the top and work your way down or vice versa. These space sequences
are particularly important in description. The important thing to remember is not to jump back and
forth. The progression of the description should be logical in most instances.
5. The paragraph may be developed by defining or stating what something or some
A definition answers the question: What is meant by this? The paragraph which
tries to define something explains what it is and what makes it different from other
similar or different things.

6. The paragraph may be developed by classifying persons or objects. Once the terms to be
used in discussion or a piece of writing have been logically defined, the writer frequently goes on
to classify the terms involved. For example, after defining democracy, he may go on to describe
different kinds of democracies. His topic sentence in the next paragraph might read: “There are

44
three different kinds of democracies functioning today.” Or following the definition of leadership,
there may be a paragraph beginning, “There are three different kinds of leaders – democratic,
authoritarian, and laissez-faire.”
7. The paragraph may be developed by comparison and contrast. After two or more ideas have
been defined and/or divided into subcategories, the writer might wish to compare or contrast them.
In comparison, similarities between two or more things are pointed out. In contrast, differences
between two or more things are noted.
8. The paragraph may be developed by reasons and proof. Very often we write not only to
explain (by details, by example, by definition, by classification, by comparison and contrast), to
describe (by space sequence), or to narrate (by time sequence), but also to persuade, to convince
the reader of our point of view.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

There are many ways to make your paragraphs interesting. Below are some ways of making your
paragraphs interesting.
1. Vary the types of sentences within the paragraph. Use simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex sentences, mixing them according to the complexity of the ideas you wish to
express.
2. Vary the purposes of the sentences within the paragraph. Ask questions. Use commands.
Make exclamations. Do not hesitate to use direct quotations.
3. Vary the elements which make up the sentences within the paragraph. Use inversions.
Precede the subject with appropriate words, phrases, or clauses. Introduce suitable phrases,
clauses, and appositives between the subject and the verb which follows.
4. Vary the length of sentences within the paragraph. Throw in a two- or three-word sentence
to break up a series of longer ones, particularly if you have something you wish to emphasize.
5. Organize the paragraph carefully to emphasize the most important idea. You have a choice
between starting the paragraph with a sentence that contains the main idea to be developed in the
paragraph (the topic sentence) or building up to the main idea by using the technique for the
suspenseful sentence. Either method can be effective.

45
6. Since paragraphing is a convenience to the reader, break up pages of solid paragraphs by
using dialogue where appropriate. In writing dialogue, begin a new paragraph each time the
speaker changes. Thus, each exchange of conversation requires two paragraphs and serves to make
it easier for the reader to follow the conversation. Note that a paragraph may have a summary
sentence. Although the summary sentence may seem to be repetitive, it is more often better than
not to have one. Summary sentences reinforce for the reader what you set out to do in your essay,
what views you wanted to get across.

UNIT THREE: THE MECHANICS OF WRITING

INTRODUCTION: Good writers adhere strictly to the basic writing skills to achieve positive
results. The conventions of writing are generally regarded as the accepted mechanics of language.
They make communication possible and more meaningful. In this unit, we shall attend to specific
areas bordering on the mechanics of writing.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to
i. identify and discuss the appropriate use of tenses,
ii. discuss the imperativeness of spelling in writing,
iii. discuss the use and issues of capitalization in writing,
iv. discuss the significance of expression writing, and punctuation marks as
well as their uses.
TENSES
Tense refers to changes that occur in the structure or appearance of a verb to reflect the time of an
action. The tense may reflect to show action:
• Taking place now: present tense
• That has happened in the past: past tense
• That will occur in future: future tense
Thus, we have three types of tenses in English, the present tense, the past tense and the future
tense. The task here is to ensure that students use the appropriate verb tenses in your work. This
is to make sure that there is grammatical harmony in the general flow of the content as well as in
specific situations when you cite other sources.
SPELLING

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Proper spelling of words should be the focus. Spelling culture relating to British and American
usages should be identified and strictly followed throughout the essay. Experience shows that
readers tend to be less tolerant of poor spelling than any other problem with language.
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALISATION
We use punctuations and capitalization to make out sense from a composition. These include
comma, semi-colon, parentheses, the period, upper- and lower-case letters. Others are quotation
marks, italics, underlining and bold face among others. Capitalization announces the arrival of a
new sentence, a title, a name, day, month, a place, holiday season, direction, a school subject or a
language etc.

EXPRESSIONS
Essay writing is an academic procedure and a formal activity that ought to be presented in the
format that obeys all the rules of scientific language. Some writters flout these rules while writing.
Below is a summary of some of the rules:
• Grammatical Forms: These cover a wide range of aspects such as proper subject and verb
concord, use of prepositions, sentence coordination and subordination, clarity of ideas
using appropriate word order, appropriate pronoun reference and agreement, tense forms,
agreement in terms of persons and number, sentence sense, use of relative pronouns among
others (Olaofe, 2010).
• Sentence Structure in terms of length (short or long e.t.c.) types (simple, compound,
complex, simple-complex etc), function (declarative, interrogative etc).
• Word Choice in terms of appropriateness, emotionality, ambiguity, precision, vividness,
etc.
• Usage grammatical appropriateness in relation to social situations, purpose, context,
audience, which in case of research is universal or field specific.
• Using circumlocutory language rather than direct language: scientific language goes
straight to the point. The style is direct, objective, impersonal and not round about in form.
• Using appropriate style (personal style rather or formal style):

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 MODULE FIVE: FORMS OF WRITING

UNIT ONE: MAJOR TYPES OF WRITING

INTRODUCTION: Flows of writing are categorised. This is so based on the structure, purpose,
and patterns of the writing. In this segment of the course, we shall explore the major forms of
writing.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Highlight the major forms of essay writing

ii. Describe the patterns of each form of writing
iii. Write sample essays

PERSUASIVE/ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

The argumentative essay and persuasive essay will be treated together in this course. However,
you must know that both types of essays have some differences although they have the same
purpose which is to change a situation or a position. They both use reason and logic in their
presentations. However, they are different because while the persuasive writing uses emotion/
feeling and reason to make its audience do something, the argumentative writing is a controversial
discussion that makes its case through logic, reasoning, facts, and evidence, among others. The
reasoning process mostly involved in argumentative writing is deductive in approach, while the
persuasive essay has to do with the passionate appeal that woos the
audience’s emotions.

Qualities of Good Persuasive Writing

An argument must be presented logically. Such arguments must be grounded in facts, evidence
with proof, illustration, statistics, etc, to ensure that they convince their audience or readers. When
presenting an argument, it is best to avoid emotional language, personal attacks, oversimplification
and generalization. If these abound in the argument, it leaves the audience to be doubtful and
cynical.

48
In addition, in presenting an argument, the real issues should be addressed. Do not evade the issue
or beg the question. You need to strike a balance in your presentation i.e. acknowledge the points
that are against your view and counter them with stronger points. This will make your argument
more credible.

Furthermore, in presenting an argument, your reasoning must be deductive, that is, from the
general to the specific. Your essay must be well organized. Start with an introductory paragraph
that has a thesis statement followed by other paragraph that summarizes the argument. Finally, you
need to avoid fallacies; do not assume but prove. The conclusion must be drawn from the evidence
and facts presented in the paragraphs
THE EXPOSITORY WRITING

Exposition means “setting out in order”. Expository writing tries to explain or give detailed
information on a given topic or subject. It answers the reader’s basic question about a topic: who,
what, where, when, why, and how. Things, ideas, and processes are usually presented, analysed,
and constructed when writing this form of essay. An expository essay demands a clear, logical
communication of ideas in order to avoid a muddled presentation of facts. Expository essays
provide information about an issue or subject in a logical manner, it may also tell the reader how
to do something or show the similarities and differences between two subjects. The information
appears in a point-by-point pattern.
Qualities of a Good Exposition

When exposing or explaining how a particular object is made e.g. pot, mat, soap, etc., the following
points must be borne in mind:
i. Write out the material and its exact qualities.
ii. Explain the sequence of actions using command sentences.
iii. Use the specific words or register of such trade or vocation when writing on the subject
matter.
iv. Furthermore, you should have a checklist to revise your work and be sure you have
written a good essay.
THE NARRATIVE WRITING

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Narrative writing takes the process of storytelling. It is an account of something that happened or
that is going to happen. It requires a clear plan of events that present episodes in the correct
sequence. A narrative is built around characters, actions and settings in the order of life that is
chronological. It could be factual or fictional. Writing a narrative essay is like writing a story. You
should note the following point when writing a narrative essay:
1. Each paragraph in a story contains an incident.
2. A new paragraph shows a new turn, or some change in the story.
3. Transitional words are often used to connect the ideas of one sentence to those of the next.
4. Very often a whole story has a central idea that runs through the whole of its length.

THE DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

This form essay attempts to describe objects, people, and events vividly. This type of composition
chiefly paints pictures with words. A descriptive writing uses details and humour to describe its
object beyond the obvious. In other words, descriptive writing requires giving all the details about
your subject to enable your reader see, smell, feel, touch, hear, and taste what you are describing.
Descriptive writing involves all five senses.

For effective description, general words or expressions should be dropped for specific or particular
ones. That is, instead of saying something is good, nice, or bad, picture a scenario that can take the
place of a word. On the other hand, some technical or scientific descriptions may focus squarely
on the visible and verifiable aspects without personal paintings. The following points should be
noted when writing a descriptive essay:
i. For a description to be effective, it must have a dominant impression and adequate
details.
ii. There should be a good enough introduction that is capable of setting out what the
writer intends to achieve.
iii. The description should contain such details that illuminate or throw light on the subject
of description.
iv. It involves the use of descriptive words that are mainly adjectives and adverbial.
Qualities of a Good Description

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• Pay attention to details through observation
• Be creative in your choice of words and expressions
• Use figurative language to make your image or object more striking
• Use analogy to describe shapes, colour, qualities, sizes, attitudes, sounds, etc.
• Present your description clearly, logically, effectively, and in a discernable pattern
(left to right, inside to outside, etc.).
• Establish a dominant impression about your topic in a thesis statement.
• Describe with words and expressions that are within the scope of reality.
• Start with an introductory paragraph and end with a concluding paragraph.

FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. E. (1987) Effective study skills and use of English. Unilorin Press.

Arnold, J. and Jeremy, H. (1978) Advanced writing skills. Longman Group Ltd.

Benson, O. and Oluikpe, A. (eds) (2002) The use of English for higher education.

Africana Feb. Publishers Ltd.

Isidore, N. and Dandaura, E. S. (1998) Essentials of English and communication

skills. Vitalis Book Company.

Johnson, K. (1980) Communicate in English. Longman

Jordan, R. R. (1980) Academic writing course. Collins

Rice. M. K. and Burns, J. U. (1980) Teaching written English. George Allen and

Unwin

51
 MODULE SIX: OTHER FORMS OF WRITING

UNIT ONE: LETTER WRITING

INTRODUCTION: Besides the forms of writing treated above, it is imperative that students are
guided on other forms of writing which they will encounter the need to engage in them. In this
unit, students will be guided through letter writing, its types and structures.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Describe letter writing

ii. Differentiate between the various types of letter writing
iii. Identify the structures and patterns of each letter type and
iv. Write sample letters.

LETTER WRITING

With the advent of Short Messaging Services (SMS), electronic mail, and other social media
applications, some students now feel they need not sit in formal classes to learn and practice the
rigours of letter writing. The question that arises with this is why write a letter to a friend to inform
him/her about an event or to an organisation for a job when one can easily be given such
information via an email, a chat, a call, or even on a video call without paying attention or minding
the rules and patterns of traditional letter writing.

Such kinds of conclusions only arise as a result of a very shallow perception of what letter writing
entails. Such individuals limit letter writing to just posted letters which is a fast-dying method of
communication due to the arrival of communication technology. Letter still maintains its
popularity. It has survived this technological age and it is being transmitted also electronically.
Besides the fact that it is crucial in official communications, it shows the image of its writers as it
is an endeavour that requires constructive thought and competence as opposed to other social
media forms of messaging. It is no wonder that questions on it still remain a compulsory aspect of
secondary school English examinations in Nigeria.

52
A letter is a medium of conveying information or message from one person or group of persons to
another. In this chapter three types of letter namely: formal letter, semi-formal letter and informal
letter shall be discussed.

TYPES OF LETTERS

The Formal Letter

The formal letter is that type of letter written to individuals or group of persons with whom we
share official relationship. They are official letters written for administrative and business
purposes. The languages employed in such letters are formal without room for a casual tone. Such
types of letters carry two addresses: that of the addresser and addressee, it must carry a title and a
signature unlike the other two types of letters.

The Semi-Formal Letter

This type of letter is less formal than a formal letter yet more formal than an informal letter. It is
addressed to individuals whom we do not share an informal relationship with but at the same do
not have an official affiliation. They are mostly elderly friends, such as uncles, an adult neighbour,
an older brother’s friend or mother’s friend, etc. The language and tone used in such a letter should
be formal and not casual since the recipient is someone to be addressed with respect. It is a letter
with focus and less trivial purpose.

THE INFORMAL LETTER

This letter is sometimes termed a friendly letter because its recipients are persons with whom we
share a personal and friendly relationship. They include persons like parents, siblings, cousins,
friends, spouses, one’s children, and others. The language and tone in such a letter is friendly just
as is used in our everyday conversation with the addressed individuals. There is room for colloquial
and contracted forms of expressions, slang, nick names, etc.

DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN THE THREE TYPES OF LETTERS

The major distinguishing aspects of all three types of letters are the purpose of writing, the features
of the letters, the language and tone of letters, and the addressee of the letters. Each aspect is
discussed below:

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i. PURPOSE
The purpose of each type of letter differs in a peculiar way. The formal letter is written
for official purposes between and among members of organisations. They are usually
business or administrative letters for requests, job applications, notifications,
suggestions, or complaints to government and non-governmental organisations. The
purpose of a semi-formal letter on the other are issues which are serious but personal
to the writer and receiver and have no official bearing to it. On another hand, the subject
matters of informal letters are personal and not necessarily on critical issues. They
could be even on trivial issues such birthday parties, request for pocket money,
enquiring after the wellbeing of individuals or even pets such as cats and dogs.
ii. THE FEATURES
While the semi-formal and informal letters share similar physical features, the formal
letter differs: it has two addresses (the sender’s and the receiver’s), it has a title and it
carries a signature after the complimentary close. Detailed discussion on the features
of letter is discussed below.
iii. THE LANGUAGE AND TONE
The overall tone of a formal letter should be official while that of the semi-formal letter
should be formal but without an officialised atmosphere. The informal letter has a
personal, affable, and friendly tone with an atmosphere of warmth and geniality.
Furthermore, in an informal letter, contracted forms and colloquial expressions are not
questioned. Slangs, nicknames, and pet names are welcomed.
iv. THE ADDRESSEE
The differences in these types of letters also lies in the receivers of the letters. While
the formal letter is addressed to organisations or individuals we share official
relationships with such as the Vice-Chancelor, the Registrar and Heads of Department;
the semi-formal letter is written to people we have a respectful relationship with which
is unofficial. The include persons like an uncle, a friend’s father, a family afriend, a
neighbour, etc. The informal letter is meant for family members, friend, girlfriends and
boyfriends.

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 FEATURES OF A LETTER

Address and Date

A letter must have the address of the sender except when it is written on a letter headed paper.
Otherwise, it is written at the top right-hand corner of the paper with the date. It can be of either
of two styles: indented or block. The indented style is fast going out of trend. See illustrations 1
and 2 below for a sample of both styles respectively.

1)

Department of English and Literary Studies

Faculty of Arts
Federal University
Lafia Nasarawa state.
July 18, 2024

2)

Department of English and Literary Studies,

Faculty of Arts,
Federal University Lafia,
Lafia, Nasarawa state.
July 18, 2024

Note that the address and date can be closed punctuation, that is written with punctuation at the
appropriate places or without the use of punctuation marks refer to as open punctuation. Illustration
1 is an example of an open punctuation address while illustration 2 is a closed punctuation address.
Whatever format you choose to adopt should be done appropriately and consistently.

The formal letter unlike the semi-formal and informal letter has two addresses: that of the receiver
and the sender’s. The receiver’s address appears just below the sender’s at the left-hand corner of

55
the paper. In this case, it is imperative to state the official position of the addressee with a comma
before writing the address as exemplified below:

The Dean,
Faculty of Arts,
Federal University of Lafia,
Nasarawa State

SALUTATION

The salutation comes immediately after the addresses. The level of formality in the salutation
depends on the type of letter being written. In a formal letter, expressions like Dear sir for a male
recipient or Dear ma for a female recipient are used. In situations where the sex off recipients is
unknown, it is advised to go by Dear Sir. In semi-formal letters, greetings such as Dear Sir, Dear
Ma, Dear Mr Solomon, Dear Aunty Zainab, are appropriate. It is important to put a comma after
any salutation.

HEADING/TITLE

Only the formal letter has this feature, and it comes right after the salutation. It is the subject matter
or focus and purpose of the letter captured in a few words. It can be written in capital letters all
through or not. When it is not, the first letter of every content word should be capitalised, and the
title underlined. See the examples below:

APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF A SALESPERSON

This example is written in upper case.

Application for the Post of a Sales Person

This title has each initial letter of the content words written in upper case and the title is underlined.

THE BODY OF THE LETTER

This is where the information to be given is captured. The content should be a focused one.
Students are expected to use appropriate expressions and be careful with spellings and mechanics.

56
The body of a letter should constitute an introduction, main body, and conclusion. Knowledge of
paragraph development comes in handy here.

COMPLEMENTARY CLOSE

The complementary close appears at the down right-hand corner of the paper when the paragraphs
in the letter are indicated by indentation, but the paragraphs are blocked and the complementary
close is written at the down left-hand corner of the paper. The expression used for complementary
close depends on the type of letter. For the formal letter, the preferred words are Yours faithfully;
for semi-formal letter it is Yours sincerely while those for the informal is far less formal. You can
use expressions such as Your daughter, Your friend, Your love, Yours forever, etc. It is important
to note that a comma is written after every complementary close. The second word in the
complementary close should not begin with a capital letter. Look at the examples written in bold
again.

SIGNATURE

This is only indicated in a formal letter. It is the writer’s signature given just under the
complementary close. No signature is given in informal and semi-formal letters.

NAME

The name of the writer is just after and under the signature in formal letters while after and under
the complementary close in semi-formal and informal letters, at the down right-hand corner or
down left-hand corner of the paper depending on where the complementary close appears. The
writer’s full name should be given in semi-formal and formal letters but in informal letters
nicknames as well as pet names are okay.

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UNIT TWO: REPORT WRITING

INTRODUCTION: In this segment of the course students will be guided on a more technical
form of writing known as report writing.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Describe the term report writing

ii. Highlight and differentiate the various forms of report writing
iii. Write a sample report.

REPORT WRITING

Report writing is a formal continuous prose writing which gives detailed and accurate/apt account
of events witnessed, an investigation carried out, an experiment or procedure done in order to draw
conclusions and provide recommendations for societal, institutional, or administrative benefits and
betterment.

The features of a report differ from other types of essays. It is made up of major divisions which
further has subdivisions presented as headings and subheadings respectively. Such divisions are
numbered hierarchically. See the illustration below showing the numbering nature of a report.

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Background
2.1 objectives
2.2 significance
3.0 Body
3.1 methods
3.2 data
3.3 analysis
3.4 Observations
4.0 Recommendations
5.0 Conclusion

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A report can be a simple one or two-page report to a formal complex several-page report. We have
several types of report depending on their purposes, focus, content, and structure. Examples of
some of them are annual reports, financial reports, business reports, duty reports, etc. But in this
course, based on the similarities they share in structure and purpose, they shall be grouped under
three categories: Laboratory report, Project report, and work report. Each type of report shall be
discussed with the structure of each explained.

WORK REPORT

This is a type of report written on assignments given at work. It could be that after carrying out an
assignment or task in the course of your job, you are required to write a report of it for
administrative purposes in the organisation or company you work. Reports such as annual reports,
financial reports, committee work reports, duty reports, progress reports, etc fall under this
category.

STRUCTURE OF WORK REPORT

Title: The title is the subject matter of the report. It tells the reader the focus of the report to be
read. It should be concise, accurate, and comprehensible.

Table of Contents: This is the list of the division of contents and their page numbers as they
appear in the report. It helps in locating specific contents in the work easily.

Introduction: In this section of the report, the writer gives a brief explanation of the report by
stating the aim and objectives of the report. The significance, scope and purpose of the report are
expected to be subtly stated here.

Background: The background of the report is a discussion of any problem that heralded the job
carried out that the report is covering. Here, an explanation of the terms of reference is given.

Body: This is the section where the content or information of the task is explained. It is not done
haphazardly but according to a hierarchical order of events presented in headings and subheadings.

Observations: Important and subtle details observed in the course of the work which are of
significance to the outcome of the job carried out are presented in this section of the report usually
numbered. The observations are usually problems or issues needing crucial attention.

59
Recommendations: Here, the writer puts down suggestive points that will be of use in handling
the issues and problems pointed out in the report.

Conclusion: In this section, the writer briefly concludes the report by stating its aim and
objectives, the problems or issues observed and ways of handling them.

PROJECT REPORT

Reports that fall under this category are scientific or non-scientific investigations embarked on in
order to reach accurate findings on specific critical issues and proffer recommendations. They
include term papers, academic research reports, or formal business project reports.

STRUCTURE OF PROJECT REPORT

Title: The title of the report is written in a clear, brief and comprehensible manner should be given.

Dedication: This section is usually personal to the writer. Here he/she states the individual(s) to
whom the work is offered. Such individuals are persons who have influenced the work carried out
or the writer’s life in one or the other.

Table of contents: This is the section where divisions and subdivisions in the work are presented
with their page numbers for easy access to readers.

Acknowledgements: Here, people, organisations and anyone who has had a positive influence in
the actualisation of the work or other aspects of the writter’s life is mentioned and appreciated.

Preface: The information is not an integral part of the report but describes the circumstances that
triggered the report, problems faced while embarking on the investigation and other relevant
background information before, during and after the research provided by the writer.

Abstract: This is sometimes termed summary. It is simply the summary of the report written
succinctly. It usually briefly explains key points and sections of the report.

Introduction: In this section of the report, the writer gives a brief explanation of the report by
stating the aim and objectives of the report. The significance, scope and purpose of the report are
expected to be subtly stated here.

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Body: This is the section where the content or information of the task is explained. It is not done
haphazardly but according to a hierarchical order of events presented in headings and subheadings.
A presentation and analysis of data are required.

Recommendations: This is where suggestive points or stances deduced from the investigation are
outlined to proffer solutions to the problems discussed.

Conclusion: Here a conclusive explanation of the issues investigated, the observations and
recommendations arrived are presented.

Bibliography: The list of sources consulted is presented here. The model for documenting sources
described above in the section should be adopted.

Appendices: This section contains tables, graphs, diagrams, charts, etc too large to be given in the
body of the work.

LABORATORY REPORT

This is a report on an experiment carried out in the laboratory. It gives an account of the processes
and procedures of a scientific experiment done. The scope of a laboratory report is narrower than
that of a project report, as it only describes scientific experiments while a project report can
encompass a laboratory report as it is an investigation into a broad topic of research which requires
some experiment done in the lab to arrive at conclusions. Examples of such kind of reports are
technical report, experimental report, process report, forensic reports, etc.

STRUCTURE OF LABORATORY REPORT

Title: The subject matter of the report is captured here.

Table of Contents: Contents in the report is listed out here in their major divisions and
subdivisions and page numbers are given.

Abstract: This is the summary of the report and it captures only salient points.

Introduction: A brief but vital explanation of information on the purpose and significance of the
research.

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Background: This is an explanation of problems that existed, how they have been approached and
what is left undone which triggers the report at hand..

Materials: This section is an explanation of all equipment that constitutes the materials for
carrying out the experiment.

Methods: This section explains the steps and processes taken while carrying out the experiment.

Results: This section explains the outcome of the investigation carried out in the experiment.

Discussion: In this section, an explanation of the methods employed in the experiment and the
result of each is presented.

Recommendations: After the discussion, the recommendations are given here.

Conclusion: A brief account of the entire process is described with the stance of the writer given
after consideration of the results found.

CORE STRUCTURE OF ALL REPORTS

If you look closely at the different structures of the types of reports we have studied so far, you
will realise that there are some specific sections of a report found in all of them. This is what we
refer to as the core structure. That is, reports of any type are required to have these sections. They
are listed below:
Title

Table of Contents

Summary/Abstract

Introduction

Background

Body

Recommendations

Conclusion

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UNIT THREE: SUMMARY WRITING

INTRODUCTION: Here a different form of writing is studied. This is the summary writing. It
entails reading a given piece of writing and making a concise version of the original. This type of
writing is one that is adopted to evaluate the extent of students’ comprehension of a text.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

i. Describe the concept of summary writing

ii. State and explain the methods of summary writing
iii. Highlight the features of a good summary
iv. Summarize selected sample passages

SUMMARY WRITING

A summary is a concise version of an original passage. It gives the vital information or information
required in fewer words leaving out redundant contents. It is the restructuring of a text written or
spoken to a sufficient reducible size. Students will often find themselves in need of rewriting in a
brief and clear manner, information/knowledge learnt from books and lectures/talks. No student
will be applauded if they give information acquired in a lecture without sieving out unnecessary
details when asked in an examination for example or on other required occasions. As such the skill
of summary writing is useful for students of any discipline.

To write a good concise summary the following listed steps are necessary:

1. A good understanding of except to be read is the first step to writing a good summary.
Without comprehending the text you will find it difficult if not impossible to write anything
correctly of it.
2. Identifying and differentiating major subject matters from minor ideas is also a crucial
activity in summary. Students should be able to identify the main and minor details in the
passage they are to summarise.
3. Besides picking out major issues from minor ones it is important to be able to identify
topics from supporting details in the passage. Such supporting details are those sentences
which further explain or emphasises the major or minor ideas discussed. They are not new
information themselves but are explanation to further enhance understanding of the key

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 issues mentioned in the paragraph or passage. Recognising will rightly lead students away
from including such details in their summary.
4. Recognising and identifying digressions in the passage helps in guiding students in writing
a good summary as this will guide them on what is the focus of text and what is not.
5. Illustrations, examples and analogies should also be recognised. They are used to buttress
the main topic or focus of the text and care should be taken in order not to include them in
the summarised version.
6. Most paragraphs have their topic sentences written at the initial, medial or last sentence of
the paragraph. They are sentences which capture the focus of the paragraph. Students
should identify them. They tend to be the summary of the paragraph in question.

METHODS OF SUMMARY WRITING

Depending on what is required students can adopt the following methods of summary writing.

1. Content Reduction Summary Writing: Not all of the content in the original text is captured
in this type of summary. This implies that besides sieving out such contents as illustrations,
examples, analogies, and emphatic statements; the writer only captures in the summary,
information that is required or as demanded by a given question. If for example, you are
given a passage which states twenty uses of electricity to the school system and you are
asked in a question on the passage to state two, you are by implication leaving out eighteen
vital information in the passage from your summary because including them will mean
unnecessarily given more than you are demanded.
2. Topic Sentence Summary: Looking out for the topic sentence of each paragraph in an essay
is critical as they usually capture the main idea of the paragraph. Every other sentence
besides them are supporting details. As such the topic sentence is in itself a summary of a
paragraph. It can be the first sentence of the paragraph, it can be found in the middle or the
last sentence of the paragraph.
3. Deductive Summary: In this method of summary writing, the topic sentences of the
paragraphs are not obviously seen. They are embedded in the information provided by the
sentences making up the passage. Such topic sentences are deduced from the information
provided as the name implies.

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 4. Itemised Summary: In itemised method of summary writing there is less use of continuous
prose writing as is the case with the three discussed above. Here, the writer is required to
use tables, arrows, symbols, and graphic numbers to capture information. Such a method
of summary writing is required when you are demanded to give the similarities of two
entities compared in an essay in a tabular form or the demand is on you to present details
using graphs when the essay centers on statistical issues.

UNIT FOUR: NOTE-TAKING AND NOTE-MAKING

INTRODUCTION: Note-taking and note-making might not be categorised as a form of

continuous writing. However, they are included here because of their cruciality in the study of
students and because they involve writing. They are a of form of writing whose rudiments are far
more flexible than those studied so far.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Describe the term notes

ii. Describe note-taking and note-making
iii. Highlight the techniques of note-taking and making
iv.

NOTE-TAKING AND NOTE-MAKING

The primary objective of study is to understand, to recall and to evaluate the content of
study and this can be successfully achieved through the notetaking/making processes when carried
out appropriately. Note-taking/making are important stages in the study process whose aim is to
make study more rewarding by approaching study in a methodical manner. In other for one to
effectively carry out the notetaking/making process, one needs to know and acquire some essential
principal skills. These essential skills according to Chukwuma and Otagburuagu (2002, p. 3)
include the following:

i. Listening attentively to a lecture/talk

ii. Reading a written text actively and constructively
iii. Recognizing/understanding the major divisions of a lecture/text
iv. Distinguishing the major points from supporting details

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 v. Recognizing/understanding digressions/explanations
vi. Using intelligible abbreviations and symbols
vii. Summarizing the content of a lecture/text in a useful outline format
viii. Encoding the content of a lecture/text in graphic forms
It is one thing to know these skills and quite another to acquire them. They are known by
being read about and acquired through continuous use or being put into frequent practice and in
turn become into one’s habit. It is however essential to know what the term note means.
WHAT ARE NOTES
Notes are written record of points or ideas gotten from reading a text or listening to a
speech, taken down as an aid to memory. It involves writing important information that are sketchy
in nature in order to enhance understanding and retaining of vital information in the memory.
NOTE-TAKING
Note-taking involve the use of the receptive language skill of listening. It is the ability for
one to write down sketchy but important information from a lecture or talk. Students need the skill
of notetaking in order to grasp effectively the knowledge received from a lecture. However, many
students tend to poor in the note-taking skill; some students take little notes while others take down
too many notes and is usually done in an inconsistent and incomprehensible manner. To effectively
take notes the three stages below are required.

NOTE-MAKING

Reading and making notes should go hand in hand in order to achieve aims of reading.
Note-making skills deals with the ability for one to write down vital needed information from a
text. Like the case of notetaking, note-making requires for one to be physically, psychologically
and mentally prepared. Note-making is important in study-reading, in preparation for composition
writing and for speaking purposes. When speaking or writing, ideas occur to us in a haphazard
way, but with note-making we are more logically and coherently organised and communication
becomes more effective. In making notes, it is recommended that texts and materials be read more
than once for familiarity. One can first read a text to get the general idea and structure of the text,
the second reading is to pinpoint the main ideas and the third reading it to get a better understanding
of the main points and its relationship to other supporting details.

TECHNIQUES OF NOTE-TAKING/MAKING

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 The following techniques are useful in taking and making notes:

1. Outlining: an outline shows the basic structure of the original discourse. It is a

formal and detailed statement of the content of an oral or written discourse, or of
ideas from our reflections on which we wish to speak or write. The entries of an
outline can be written in phrases or sentences while sub-divisions are indented with
fewer spaces than major divisions. Below is an example:
1) The concept of language
a. Functions of language
b. Characteristics of language
I. Arbiratry
II. Susceptible to change
III. Sounds
2. Abbreviation: abbreviation is the shortening down of the spelling of a word into a smaller
version of itself. For one to write fast, one needs to use few and abbreviated words. Words that
occur often in a text should be abbreviated. Examples include e.g, etc, i.e, km, cm, kg, 2day, ok,
stimes, xter, xmax, xteristics, etc.
3. Symbols: like abbreviations, symbols save time. They are mostly mathematical in origin.
A symbol can carry a variety of meanings. They include: =, +, - <, >, @.
4. Diagrams, charts, graphs, mapping: these visuals help the reader visualize relations given
in a text and supplement information given in a text. Students can decide which visual is
appropriate for their situations.
5. Mnemonics: this technique aids the retention of information in the memory. Mnemonics
aim to translate information into a form that the brain can retain better than its original form. For
example, the expression, “memory needs every method of nurturing its capacity” is a mnemonic
for how to spell mnemonic.
FURTHER READING

Adkins, A. and Bison, J. O. (1983) Text to note: Study skills for advanced learners.
Edward Arnold.
Ashaolu, A. O., Fabiyi, A. O. and Eko-Davis, G. R. (eds) (2004) Use of English and
functional communication. J&F Publishers.

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Banjo, L. A. and Bison, J. O. (1985) Developmental English. Spectrum Books Ltd.
Charles, O. (2005) Business communication in practice. Sam Iroanusi Publications
Ndubisi, C. F. (2000) Communicating in English. Jamoe Enterprises.

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 MODULE SIX: READING COMPREHENSION

UNIT ONE: READING

INTRODUCTION: This unit explores another vital tool for students. Reading is critical in the
study life of students. It is a tool for acquiring knowledge besides listening. It involves students
going through a written text for comprehension. Through this, the student is more equipped with
the ability to learn.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be to:
i. Describe the concept of reading
ii. List and explain the types of reading
iii. Enumerate the purpose of reading
iv. Highlight the reading skills and explain them

READING

We read with the sole aim of understanding the message or messages that the writer is putting
across. To understand the message(s) of a written material is to comprehend it. Therefore, the term,
‘reading comprehension’ is used to refer to the process by which a reader constructs an
understanding of the message(s) in the material read. It is also the level of understanding of a text
read.

There are two sets of elements involved in the effort to achieve high comprehension levels
during reading. We refer to them as visual elements and non-visual elements. The visual elements
are the words in print which the reader can see. The non-visual elements include the reader’s
knowledge of the language in which the material is written, his/her mindset, experience and the
motivation (purpose) behind the reading exercise. Apart from the reader seeing the words in print,
he/she has to have word recognition ability to start. That is, one must know a language to be able
to read in it. Knowing a language consists of knowing the vocabulary, the grammar and meaning
relations in the language.

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 The student should explore both the visual and non-visual elements in order to achieve
comprehension. The student should define his/her purpose for reading, anticipate the content of
the text, distinguish between main points and details and understand textual organization.

READING PURPOSES

Readers have many different purposes for reading. Some reading purposes include the
following:

i. To learn
ii. To gain general knowledge
iii. To get a specific piece of information
iv. To keep up with current issues
v. To discover new knowledge
vi. To entertain oneself or for relaxation
vii. To study for an examination
viii. To integrate information
ix. To carry out research or conduct experiments

Whatever the purpose for reading that one has, the exercise generally equips one with valuable
knowledge that empower one to function effectively in the society.

TYPES OF READING

Some reading types include i. intensive reading ii. extensive reading iii. critical reading
and iv. recreational reading.

Intensive reading is the close study of a reading material such as a textbook on any subject,
a journal article, a novel, etc. It is reading that is done for the in-depth understanding of what is
read. The reader pays close attention to details and the accuracy of facts and opinions. Intensive
reading usually refers to the reading of books on subjects in your discipline or field of study

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because when you read textbooks and other written materials in your course of study, you seek to
deeply understand the subject or to gain adequate knowledge of issues in the subject.

Intensive reading is very important to every student who must achieve academic goals. The
student has to acquire and put into practice relevant reading skills to achieve those goals. The skills
in an intensive reading programme should equip the student to read efficiently and with high levels
of comprehension. We will study those skills as we progress in this course.

Extensive reading is the reading of written materials outside one’s discipline. It is the type
of reading we engage in when we read newspapers, magazines, fiction as well as books in fields
of study other than our own. It simply means to read widely. Extensive reading is as important to
the student as intensive reading: Extensive reading exposes the reader to a wide variety of reading
materials; it broadens his/her knowledge; it increases his/her reading speed; it gives him/her
pleasure; and it develops his/her vocabulary.

Critical reading is where one reads with the intention of evaluating the viewpoint of the
writer, his/her use of facts, and opinions, and his/her prejudices about the subject matter. The
critical reader wants to know why the author takes a certain viewpoint, wants to differentiate
between facts and opinions, and compares his/her viewpoint or prejudices with the author’s own.
Critical reading is a part of intensive reading.

Recreational reading is simply reading for pleasure. It is the type of reading we engage in
at our leisure. It involves reading storybooks, newspapers, magazines, thrillers, and such materials.
It gives the reader a number of advantages just like the other types of reading. The reader gains
general knowledge, develops proficiency in the language, and builds up self-confidence.
Recreational reading is a part of extensive reading.

THE READING SKILL

The reading skill is a vital skill required of students to possess in order to study effectively,
especially considering the amount of study one needs in a tertiary institution, which one can
primarily achieve through reading. The three important techniques one needs for effective reading
are speed reading, scanning, and skimming.

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SPEED READING involves the ability to read a certain amount of material within a short time,
and yet understand the material appropriately. This requires the skill of making fewer eye
movements to take in several words at a time and matching reading speed with reading purpose
which is termed in one word as flexibility. We can adopt different reading speeds for different
reading purposes. However, it is advised that we should be able to read at least 200 words per
minute (wpm). This means that we can and should read much faster than a mere 200 wpm as the
need arises. Different reading speeds are normal speed, study speed and rapid (fast) speed. At a
normal speed, a good reader makes between 250 and 400 wpm. This speed is adopted when one
reads under normal circumstances without being under any pressure or obligation, like when one
reads in the course of the semester before an examination. At a study speed, between 200 and 300
wpm can be read. This is where a text is being closely studied for test or examination purposes.
The reader is slower here because he/she wants to internalize the main points and other important
details in preparation for the examination. At a rapid or fast speed, between 400 and 600 wpm
can be read. This speed is adopted when one reads to extract specific pieces of information in a
text that one is already familiar with or when one reads newspapers, novels, or other texts for
pleasure.

SCANNING is a technique of reading that means glancing rapidly through a text, diagram, table,
or graph to find out if a text is suitable for a given purpose; search for a specific piece of
information; select what you want to read from a book, newspaper, magazine, or report, or to find
the meaning of a word in a dictionary, etc.
SKIMMING is a reading technique that involves a thorough reading of an introductory paragraph
and a subsequent reading of the topic sentence of each paragraph. It is a process by which you
rapidly glance through a text to identify the main points of a text, get a gist of what the text is all
about, or see how the author organized the text. This type of technique helps you to determine
whether a text is suitable for your purpose or not by glancing through the table of contents.

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UNIT TWO: READING TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION: To be a good reader there are techniques students need to be aware of and
adopt. This unit takes students through the techniques of reading and explains what it takes to be
a good reader as against a bad one.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

i. Highlight and explain the techniques of reading.

ii. List the attributes of a good reader
iii. Enumerate bad reading habits

READING TECHNIQUES

We can apply certain steps or techniques in reading a text. A popular reading technique is
the SQ3R technique which requires that one does not jump into the reading of a text without first
taking some preliminary steps. It is the steps to be taken that the abbreviation SQ3R stands for.
The meaning is given below.

S stands for Survey

Q stands for Question

R stands for Read

R stands for Recall

R stands for Review

The survey step is the first one to be taken in the reading of a text that we have just come
across. To survey a new text is to take a quick look at some parts of the text such as its title, name
of its author (if provided), its table of content for headings and sub-headings, a few lines of its
introduction and its blurb found on the back cover page. Doing this gives the reader a general idea
of what the text is about and prepares his/her mind about what to find in the text. Surveying

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involves a fast reading speed because, at this stage, the reader pays no attention to details; he/she
is merely glancing for general knowledge.

The question step requires that the reader, now having a general idea of the text, should
raise relevant questions in his/her mind about the possible direction of the viewpoint, argument,
opinion or information to be found in the text. For instance, one can ask, “What is the author going
to say about this subject matter?”, “What do I know about the subject matter?”, “Will the author’s
viewpoint be in line with what I already know?”, etc. The relevant questions one asks can make
one mentally alert as one begins to read properly.

The next step is the reading stage. Having got a general idea of the text and having raised
questions he/she seeks to find answers to, the reader can now take time to closely read the text. At
this stage, attention should be paid to both main points and details. Also, the reader should adopt
good attitudes that will enhance concentration and comprehension. These include taking a good
reading position, adopting a good reading speed, clearing the mind of distractions, and choosing a
quiet environment.

After a close study of the text, it is very important to recall the main points of the text. To
do this, the reader should close the text and try to remember the key issues the author has discussed
in the reader’s own words. If the reader has understood the viewpoints of the author, he/she would
easily find his/her own words to express those viewpoints. He/she should summarize them without
paying attention to the details. He/she should not try to recall the points in the author’s words as
this will amount to what we popularly refer to as ‘cramming’ which is not reliable. To recall is
actually to test the reader’s comprehension level.

The last step is the review. At this stage, the reader goes back to the text to view it again
to ascertain what he/she has been able to recall. He/she opens the text and glances through for
specific information or main points that have been recalled or that have not been recalled. The
exercise reinforces memory and retention.

Other reading techniques that have been proposed for students to adopt are the OK4R and
PQRST techniques. The OK4R stands for:

O – Overview; K – Keywords; R – Read; R – Re-read; R – Recall; R – Review.

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The PQRST stands for:

P – Preview; Q – Question; R – Read; S – Summarize; T-Test.

These are not so different from the SQ3R technique. Survey, overview, and preview mean the
same thing all aimed at getting a general idea before the close reading. The re-read stage of the
OK4R technique is to reinforce comprehension before the recall. The summarize and test stages
of the PQRST technique are the same as recalling and reviewing.

Students/readers are highly encouraged to adopt these steps in their reading tasks. If they
select any of the techniques and follow the steps religiously, they will discover their
comprehension levels improving much.

THE EFFICIENT READER

The efficient reader is one who exhibits the following qualities as he/she reads:

i. Concentration: He/she is well able to pay close attention to his/her task. Such a
person is not distracted by physical or non-physical noise. He/she chooses a
conducive environment for reading and does not allow his/her mind to stray during
reading.
ii. Mental alertness: He/she has a sharp mind that enables him/her to follow the train
of thought of the writer. Also, he/she is able to critically evaluate the viewpoints
and opinions of the writer in relation to what he/she already knows or has heard
before.
iii. Speed: He/she reads at a good speed of between 200 and 600 wpm. The efficient
reader does not read slowly knowing that reading slowly equally slows down
comprehension.
iv. Flexibility: He/she is flexible about the speed at which he/she reads and so, adjusts
reading speed to reading purpose. He/she reads different texts for different purposes
and at different speeds. When he/she reads for study purposes, he/she reads at a
careful pace; for pleasure, he/she reads at a fast pace, and so on.

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 v. Meaning construction: The efficient reader reads meaning in a text rather than just
reading words. He/she looks for key or main points and does not waste his/her time
looking for the meanings of individual words.
vi. Comprehension and retention: The efficient reader gains high comprehension
levels and retains what has been so understood.
vii. Silent reading: He/she does all the above reading silently; he/she does not say out
the words of the text being read but quickly recognizes them in his/her mind. He/she
has good word recognition ability and so, does not waste time trying to say words
in order to recognize them.

BAD READING HABITS TO BE AVOIDED

Certain reading habits are to be avoided. They include the following:

i. Head movement: Do not move your head about as you read; keep it in place. It is
your eyes that should make few movements taking in words in groups at a time.
ii. Vocalization/sub-vocalization: Do not say the words of the text you are reading
aloud or even murmur them. To say them aloud is to vocalize; to murmur them is
to sub-vocalize. Both habits slow down the speed and reduce comprehension.
iii. Finger-pointing: Do not point your finger at the words in the text you are reading.
It makes you want to read every word of the text whereas you should pay attention
to content words that convey the meaning of the text. Keep your head still and let
your eyes move in fixations reading the words in groups.
iv. Back-skipping/regression: Do not read backward, read forward. To back-skip
means to go back to a line of the text you have read already because you think you
have not understood the point. To regress is also to go back to a line of the text
already read. Back-skipping is a conscious act whereas regression is an unconscious
act. Both of them are the result of a lack of concentration. They should be avoided.
v. Unnecessary use of the dictionary: Do not interrupt the flow of your thoughts by
going to the dictionary to look up every difficult word you come across as you read.
Many times, you can make out the meaning of some strange words from the way
they have been used with the words whose meaning you know. If you read on, you

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 are likely to correctly guess the meaning of words at the end of the text. If you
cannot, use the dictionary at the end of the text.

FURTHER READING

Adedokun, A.O. (2002). A Comprehensive English Grammar for Schools and

Colleges. Ibadan: MAC. B. Ventures.
Bagu, P.S. (2015). Communication in English for Undergraduate Students. Abuja:
Donafrique Publishers
Bello, Y.M., Attahir, M., & Tambawal, M. D. (2001). A Course in Communication
Skills for Diploma and Certificate Students. Lagos: Dee Honours Company
Borràs, E. (2017). How to write a research paper. In Moore E. & Dooly M. (eds),
Qualitative Approaches to Research on Plurilingual Education (pp. 483-496). Research
publishing.net.
https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2017.emmd2016.643
Idyu, D.O. (2016). Elements of Communication in English. Lagos: Bahiti & Dalila
Publishers
Kombol, M. A. (2002). Elememts of Journalistic Style. Makurdi: Starix Books
Olaofe, I.A. (2010). Research Writing for Academic Growth. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello
University Press Limited:
Oche N.A., & Adah, A.A. (2011). Fundamental of Research Methodology.
RAYODOK Printing & Publishing Co.
Usuala, E.C. (2001). Introduction to Research Methodology. 3rd ed. Lagos: Africa
Fep Publishers Ltd

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 MODULE SEVEN: PUBLIC SPEAKING

UNIT ONE: PUBLIC SPEAKING

INTRODUCTION: This section of this course guides students the act of delivering a good
speech. Student shall, at the course of their studies, encounter the need to engage in public
speaking. This can occur at a class presentation, speech at departmental, faculty, or even university
public activities. The knowledge garnered here would be worthwhile when such moments occur.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of speech

2. List and explain the types of speeches and
3. Highlight the strategies for effective public speaking

What is a Speech?

According to R.W Emerson, “speech is power”, “Speech is to persuade”, to convert, to compel”.

Speech making is a talk, an address, or any form of oral presentation, especially in a formal setting
on a subject by a speaker and before an audience. Similarly, William Penn asserts “Speak properly,
and in as few words as you can, but always plainly; for the end of speech is not ostentation, but to
be understood” Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing
and receiving and processing information. Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in
which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical
environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. In
speech-making, both linguistic and paralinguistic attitudes or choices are very crucial to meaning
interpretation. This means that choice of words, body language, gestures, postures, eye contact,
touch, dressing and dress colours, and voice modulation, must all be effective and appropriate to
enhance understanding. Speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from
written language A good speaker synthesizes this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in a
given speech act. Therefore, effective speaking will include among their things, the following
effective use of language, audience consideration, credibility- source and speaker, having a
purpose, making the audience see, hear, or feel, encouraging or empowering them for action, and
helping them to remember. The language of the speaker must remain clear, concrete, concise, and

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sometimes colourful with imagery. Technical or professional jargon or words should be avoided
except where the audience is informed in the field of discourse or such words are broken down to
the level of the audience. Thus, cacophonic, jaw- breaking or multisyllabic words should be
sparingly used in other not to hinder clarity.
Types of Speech

There are probably as many types of speech as there are speeches given, in the sense that every
speech is unique, but we can categorize most speeches into four groups:
_ Informative
_ Demonstrative
_ Persuasive
_ Special Occasions
Informative Speeches
An informative speech is intended simply to inform your audience on some topic. As a student,
you hear informative speeches all day long in your classes, as your teachers and professors stand
up front and lecture on various subjects. Your teachers are trying to inform you, and their lectures
are essentially informative speeches. An informative speech is intended to provide information.
You will leave it up to your audience to decide for themselves what to do with the information;
you are not trying to persuade them to think as you do, nor are you specifically teaching them how
to do something. You are only concerned with providing information for your audience on a
particular topic. Informative speeches are useful as an introduction to some topic that is unfamiliar
to your audience.
Demonstrative Speeches
The demonstrative speech is closely related to the informative speech because it centers on
providing your audience with information. The main difference, however, is that the demonstrative
speech is a "how-to" lecture. Rather than passing on raw information to your listeners, you are
teaching them some very practical skills. The best way to prepare a demonstrative speech is to ask
yourself how and why questions. "How does a computer work?" "Why does ice float?" "How do I
buy a new home?" "Why does electricity have positive and negative forces?" You would then
answer those questions through a practical demonstration.
Persuasive Speeches

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The persuasive speech is also related to the informative speech, except that you are doing more
than simply providing information on your topic—you are also providing your own opinion on
that topic and attempting to persuade your audience that your opinion is correct. This element of
opinion and persuasion is what makes the persuasive speech the most challenging of the four types.
The key to writing a persuasive speech is to begin by having an opinion—preferably an opinion
that you feel strongly about. If you have no opinion on a topic, you won't be able to persuade
anyone else to hold an opinion. You must first know what you believe and why you believe it. It
isn't enough to say, "I believe that this toothpaste is better than that toothpaste, and I want you to
believe it, too." Your audience will immediately ask you why you hold that belief.

Special Occasions
This final category of speechmaking is quite broad and differs significantly from the others. You
might be asked to "say a few words" at a special occasion, which could be as little as a one-minute
toast or as lengthy as a 30-minute speech. Here are some examples:
_ Toasting the bride and groom at a wedding
_ Introducing the main speaker at a conference
_ Summarizing your project status at a business meeting
_ Eulogizing a friend at a funeral
_ Presenting or accepting an award at a banquet
There are two subtypes of speeches within this category: the prepared speech, and the
impromptu speech.

Effective Speaking

Ten Strategies for Preparing an Effective Speech

Whether giving a speech for a presentation at work, a seminar, a wedding, or a classroom
presentation, there are tips that all speakers can follow to ensure success. A good speech includes
a number of components that make it interesting to its intended audience and a positive experience
for the speaker.
Know the Topic
• Before giving a speech, it's important that the speaker is knowledgeable about the material he's
presenting. The speech should be well prepared ahead of time and memorized by the speaker. Cue

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cards can be used as aids but shouldn't be relied on. The speaker should have attention directed at
the audience and not on reading from a card or piece of paper.
Speak with a Purpose
• An effective speech is one with a purpose in which the speaker has a point to make. According
to the writing center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, a speaker should have a
goal for the speech causing a reaction from the audience. The reaction may cause the audience to
think more seriously about the topic being presented, illicit emotions, or stir up an audience in a
way that leads them to take action.
Be Interesting and Energetic
• If a speech is written in a boring way or if it's delivered by a speaker who uses a soft, monotone
voice, it will be difficult for the audience to become engaged. For a speech to effective, it must be
written in a way that will cause an audience to take interest and want to hear more about the topic.
Put energy into your voice, speak with enthusiasm and excitement, and display energetic body
language.
Keep the Speech Simple
• A speech with long words that are difficult for others to understand are going to lead an audience
to lose interest or feel as if they're being talked at rather than spoken to. When presenting a speech,
it's best to use simple language and sentence structure.
Restate Important Points
• The important points of a speech don't need to be repeated over and over again, but they should
be restated at least once. Restating a point helps to show the audience its importance.
Transition Effectively
• Transitioning well is an important part of an effective speech. Transitions help a speech move
forward from one point to another. They also help to keep a speech organized and help the audience
follow the main speaking points. Effective transitions can include using words such as first, next,
and finally.
Use Visual Aids
• Visual aids help an audience understand a topic by seeing it in addition to hearing the content
described. Visual aids can also make a speech more interesting. Visual aids for a speech can
include PowerPoint presentations, projector images, charts, maps, or dry-erase boards.
Incorporate Humor

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• Adding a bit of humor to a speech on a serious subject can lighten up the mood of the audience
and keep them interested. Humor can also help the audience better relate to the speaker and see
her as a person they want to listen to.
Make Eye Contact
• Using eye contact helps a speaker in two ways. If a speaker is looking at his audience instead of
at his notes, it tells the audience that he really knows what he's talking about. In addition, making
eye contact with an audience tells them that the speaker cares about them and wants them to
understand what he's saying.
Relax
• It's important for anyone giving a speech in any setting to relax. If a speaker is nervous, he's more
likely to make a mistake, forget the key components to making an effective speech, and will be
uncomfortable the entire time he's presenting.
FURTHER READING
Adedokun, A.O. (2002). A Comprehensive English Grammar for Schools and
Colleges. Ibadan: MAC. B. Ventures.
Bagu, P.S. (2015). Communication in English for Undergraduate Students. Abuja:
Donafrique Publishers
Bello, Y.M., Attahir, M., & Tambawal, M. D. (2001). A Course in Communication
Skills for Diploma and Certificate Students. Lagos: Dee Honours Company
Borràs, E. (2017). How to write a research paper. In Moore E. & Dooly M. (eds),
Qualitative Approaches to Research on Plurilingual Education (pp. 483-496). Research
publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2017.emmd2016.643
Idyu, D.O. (2016). Elements of Communication in English. Lagos: Bahiti & Dalila
Publishers
Kombol, M. A. (2002). Elememts of Journalistic Style. Makurdi: Starix Books
Olaofe, I.A. (2010). Research Writing for Academic Growth. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello
University Press Limited:
Oche N.A., & Adah, A.A. (2011). Fundamental of Research Methodology.
RAYODOK Printing & Publishing Co.
Usuala, E.C. (2001). Introduction to Research Methodology. 3rd ed. Lagos: Africa
Fep Publishers Ltd.

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