FIFTH EDITION

THE
ELEMENTS
Ingredients of the Universe
5th Edition

Written and illustrated by

Ellen Johnston McHenry

Also by this author:

"The Chemical Elements Coloring and Activity Book" ISBN 978-1-7374763-0-6
 © 2021 Ellen Johnston McHenry
(Original copyright 1999)
All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-0-9825377-1-8

Ellen McHenry’s Basement Workshop

www.ellenjmchenry.com
State College, Pennsylvania
ejm.basementworkshop@gmail.com

Purchaser has permission to make copies as necessary for

use in a homeschool co-op, or in a single classroom.

Also by this author:

The Chemical Elements Coloring and Activity Book

Carbon Chemistry
Dissect Your Dinner (an intro to food chemistry)
Botany in 8 Lessons
Cells
The Brain
Rocks and Dirt
Protozoa: A Poseidon Adventure
Mapping the World with Art
Mapping the Body with Art
 In your reading, you may come across the names of these elements and be unsure of how to
pronounce them. This pronunciation guide will help you to say them correctly. The syllable with the capital
letters is the one that you give emphasis. (For example, the word "element" would be "EL-eh-ment.")
Turn back to this page whenever you need to!

Actinium: act-IN-ee-um
Americium: am-air-ISH-ee-um
Antimony: AN-teh-mo-nee
Arsenic: AR-sen-ick
Berkelium: BERK-lee-um (though many people say ber-KEEL-ee-um)
Beryllium: beh-RILL-ee-um
Boron: BORE-on
Cerium: SEER-ee-um
Cesium: SEE-zee-um
Curium: KYOOR-ee-um
Dysprosium: dis-PRO-zee-um
Europium: yoo-ROPE-ee-um
Fluorine: FLOR-een
Gadolinium: GAD-o-LIN-ee-um
Gallium: GAL-ee-um
Germanium: jer-MANE-ee-um
Iridium: er-RID-ee-um
Krypton: KRIP-tohn
Lawrencium: lore-EN-see-um
Lithium: LITH-ee-um
Lutetium: loo-TEE-she-um
Manganese: MANG-gan-eez (don’t confuse it with magnesium!)
Mendelevium: men-dell-EE-vee-um
Molybdenum: moll-IB-den-um
Neodymium: NEE-o-DIM-ee-um
Palladium: pal-AID-ee-um (or pal-AD-ee-um)
Praseodymium: PRAZ-ee-o-DIM-ee-um
Promethium: pro-MEE-thee-um
Protactinium: PRO-tack-TIN-ee-um
Rhodium: ROE-dee-um
Rubidium: roo-BID-ee-um
Ruthenium: roo-THEE-nee-um
Samarium: sam-AIR-ee-um
Selenium: seh-LEEN-ee-um
Strontium: STRON-tee-um (or STRON-shee-um)
Technetium: teck-NEE-she-um
Tellurium: tell-LOOR-ee-um
Thulium: THOO-lee-um
Uranium: yu-RAIN-ee-um
Vanadium: van-AY-dee-um
Xenon: ZEE-non
Ytterbium: i-TER-bee-um
Yttrium: IT-ree-um
 CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS AN ELEMENT?

Do you ever help bake things like cookies, cakes, biscuits, or bread? If so, you may have
noticed that all baked goods are made from basically the same ingredients: flour, sugar, salt, eggs,
butter, vegetable oil, baking powder, yeast and flavorings. The ingredients can be the same, or at least
very similar, yet you have no problem telling the difference in taste and texture between pancakes and
donuts, or biscuits and bread.
Even though these foods contain many of the same ingredients, the ingredients are used in
different proportions. Cookies, for example, have lots of butter and sugar and not too much flour.
Biscuits have less sugar than cookies do, and contain no eggs. Bread is mostly flour, with only a small
amount of sugar and butter or oil (and some yeast to make it rise). Some recipes call for flavorings
such as cinnamon, chocolate or lemon. The same ingredients in your kitchen can be used in many
different ways to make many different foods.

All of these foods can be made from the ingredients in your cupboard. The reason they are
different is that they have more of some things and less of others. Just a pinch of flavoring or spice
can change one recipe into another. It doesn’t take thousands or millions of ingredients to make a
wide variety of recipes. Most of us have less than 100 ingredients in our cupboards, yet we can use
them to make just about any recipe we find in a cookbook.

1
Activity 1.1
Use a cookbook to find the information for this activity, or ask an adult who knows a lot about
cooking. For each baked good, put check marks in the boxes, showing what ingredients it contains. You
are free to choose any recipes you like. (Flour means any kind, including gluten-free types. You may also
cross out banana or chocolate put in something like blueberries or nuts instead.)

oil or milk or baking chocolate or

flour sugar eggs butter water yeast powder vanilla banana other flavor

BREAD

COOKIES

BISCUITS

PANCAKES

CAKE

BANANA
MUFFINS

Name an ingredient that is found in all of the baked goods:_____________

Name an ingredient that is found in most of the baked goods: ______________
Name an ingredient that is found in only one of the baked goods: ____________

Activity 1.2

Think about cookies (tough assignment, eh?) and answer these questions:

1) How would a cookie change if you put it in the freezer?

2) How would a cookie change if you let it sit out somewhere for a week?
3) How would a cookie change if you put it in a glass of water?
4) Do these changes mean that the recipe changed?
5) Do other factors, not just the recipes, contribute to the quality of foods?

2
 We know that baked goods are made of ingredients. But what are ingredients made of? What is
flour made of? What is water? What is oil? These baking ingredients are made of chemical ingredients
called elements. The chemical elements are the most basic ingredients of all. They are the things that
everything else is made of. There are a little over 100 chemical elements, and if we could put a sample
of each into a little bottle or box, we’d have sort of a “kitchen cupboard of the universe.”

These are the ingredients that make up anything you can think of: plants,
animals, rocks, plastic, metal, fuel, fabric, computers, food, water, air, garbage...
anything! Your body is made of these elements, too. You are a “recipe” of these
chemical ingredients.
Some of these chemical elements are very common and are found in
practically everything, just like flour is found in so many baked goods. You may
already be familiar with the names of some of these common elements: hydrogen,
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and silicon. These five elements account for most of the
matter (stuff) in the universe! Other elements are less common and have names
you’ve never heard of, such as osmium or ruthenium. These uncommon elements
are a bit like the spices lurking at the back of your cupboard— the ones you use
only once in a while, such as dill weed or coriander.
Isn’t it great to find out that you already know some of these elements?
Another chemical element you are already familiar with is helium. You’ve known
about that one since you were old enough to hold a balloon. You just didn’t know
it was one of the basic ingredients of the universe. You probably know quite a few
more, too, like gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, nickel, and aluminum. How many
others do you know?

3
Activity 1.3 Elements you already know
How many of these elements do you recognize? Circle any name that you have heard of, even if you don’t know
exactly what it is. (This is not a complete list of all elements, only about half of them.)

hydrogen helium lithium boron carbon

nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon sodium
magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur
chlorine potassium calcium manganese titanium
chromium iron cobalt nickel copper
zinc lead silver gold platinum
mercury arsenic selenium tin radon
uranium plutonium iodine zirconium tungsten

ELEMENTS IN HISTORY:
Some of these elements were familiar to ancient peoples. Silver and gold, for example, have been
used for thousands of years. The ancients also knew about iron, tin, lead, copper, sulfur, and mercury. (They
didn’t understand what a chemical element was, however, and thought that everything was made of fire,
water, earth and air.) In the 1800s, electricity was used to discover magnesium, potassium and sodium. Also
in the 1800s, new elements were discovered in mines. In the 1900s, radioactive elements such as uranium and
plutonium were discovered. They were named in honor of the discovery of Uranus and Pluto just a few years
previously. Elements with numbers above 92 did not exist until they were artificially made in the mid-1900s.

Activity 1.4 A scavenger hunt for elements

Read the labels on some food packages or other household products and see how many elements you can find.
(Pet foods are especially good choices.) Put a check mark in the box if you find that element. The names of the elements
might be slightly disguised. For example, instead of sulfur you might see “sulfite,” or instead of phosphorus you might see
“phosphoric acid.” Look for the first part of the names, and don’t worry too much about the endings. The three empty
spaces at the bottom are for you to add other elements that you find.
You choose three more:
medicine or
cereal toothpaste bread

calcium
carbon
chlorine
copper
fluorine
iodine
iron
phosphorus
potassium
magnesium
zinc

4
 So what are ingredients made of? Is there a recipe to make salt or sugar? Yes, there is! The
ingredients are the chemical elements and the recipes are called formulas. For example, to make salt,
you need two chemical elements: sodium and chlorine. If you combine these two elements together,
you will get table salt. The recipe for sugar calls for three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Some chemical recipes, like sugar and salt, are fairly simple. Other materials have recipes that are
extremely complicated. Livings things, such as plants and animals, are also made of chemical elements
but are mixtures of so many different substances that you really can’t come up with a recipe for them.

A cooking recipe looks like this:

Sugar cookies:
2 cups flour 1 egg
1/2 cup sugar 1 teaspoon vanilla
1/2 cup butter 1/2 teaspoon baking soda

A chemical recipe looks like this:

glucose sugar = C6H12O6

The letters are abbreviations, or symbols, for elements. C stands for carbon, H stands for
hydrogen, and O stands for oxygen. The numbers below the letters tell you how many of each atom go
into the recipe. This recipe calls for 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atoms of oxygen.
Just like with a cooking recipe, you can make a small, medium, or large batch. Theoretically, you could
make a batch as small as a few molecules or large enough to fill a dump truck. As long as you keep the
number of atoms in the ratio 6, 12, 6, you will get glucose sugar.

Let’s look at the recipe for water:

water = H2O

The elements in this recipe are similar to the one for glucose sugar, except that there is no
carbon. You will need just hydrogen and oxygen. How much of each? There are 2 hydrogen atoms and...
but there is no number after the O. Now what? If you don’t see a number, it means there is only one.
Scientists decided a long time ago that it was too much work to put in all the 1’s in the recipes, so they
agreed to just leave them out. If you don’t see a number after the letter, that means there is only one.
(You could think of the 1’s as being invisible.)
We'll need 2 atoms of hydrogen for every 1 atom of oxygen. How much of the recipe will you
make? A glass of water, or enough to fill a swimming pool? (The fascinating thing about this recipe is
that when you combine two gases you get a liquid. And if you break water apart, you get two gases again.)

What about the recipe for salt?

table salt = NaCl

We don’t see any numbers here at all. That means one atom of each. What are the ingredients?
Na is the letter symbol for sodium (which used to be called natrium) and Cl is the abbreviation for
chlorine (yes, chlorine goes in your pool, too, but it is also in salt).

5
Let’s look at the recipe for baking soda:

baking soda = NaHCO3

That’s 1 atom of sodium, 1 atom of hydrogen, 1 atom of carbon, and 3 atoms of oxygen. Those
are all the same ingredients we just used to make salt and sugar, but if you combine them in this
proportion you will make baking soda. (Baking soda’s job in kitchen recipes is to make things “puff up” in
the oven.)

What else can we make with chemical elements? Here are some recipes that aren’t edible:

sand: SiO2 Epsom salt: MgSO4 gold: Au pyrite (“fool’s gold”): FeS2

We have some new elements in these recipes. Si is silicon, Mg is magnesium, Fe is iron, S is

sulfur, and Au is gold. You can see that the recipe for gold is pretty simple—it’s just the element gold
with nothing added. Until the 1700s, scientists did not have a clear idea about the chemical elements.
They thought that perhaps it was possible to change other materials into gold. You can see why fool’s
gold can never become real gold. Iron and sulfur will always be iron and sulfur.

Here is a really long recipe:

a mineral called Vesuvianite: Ca10Mg2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)4

Wow! We won’t be cooking up any of that!

***************************************************
Activity 1.5 Making larger batches
Recipes can be doubled, tripled, or cut in half, depending upon how much of the product you
want to make. See if you can figure out the answers to these recipe questions.
(Note: We’re just using an imaginary “scoop” that accurately counts the atoms for us. In real life, measuring elements
and mixing them requires special equipment and more difficult math.) Answers are in answer key on page 81.

1) The recipe for the mineral calcite is CaCO3. If we use 2 “scoops” of Ca (calcium), how many “scoops”
of the other ingredients will we need? C = ____ O = _____

2) The recipe for the mineral called cinnabar (sounds delicious, but it’s poisonous) is HgS. If we make a batch
of cinnabar using 3 “scoops” of Hg (mercury), how many “scoops” of S (sulfur) will we need? _______

3) You are a practical joker and want to make a batch of fool’s gold to trick a friend. The recipe for fool’s
gold is FeS2. If you use 4 “scoops” of S (sulfur) how many “scoops” of Fe (iron) will you need? _____

4) A mineral gemstone called zircon can sometimes resemble a diamond. The recipe to make zircon
is ZrSiO4. If you use 2 “scoops” of Zr (zirconium), how many “scoops” of the other ingredients will you
need? Si = _____ O = _____

6
Activity 1.6
See if you can match the element with the meaning of its name. (Answers are in answer key, pg. 81.)

1) Named after Alfred Nobel, inventor of dynamite and founder of the Nobel Prizes ____________

2) Named after Vanadis, a goddess from Scandinavian mythology _____________

3) Named after Johan Gadolin, a Finnish chemist ______________

4) Named after Poland, the country in which famous chemist Marie Curie was born ___________

5) Named after Albert Einstein ______________

6) Named after the city of Berkeley, California ______________

7) Named to honor our planet, Earth, but using the Greek word for Earth: “Tellus” _____________

8) Named for the area of Europe called Scandinavia (Norway, Finland, Sweden, Denmark) ____________

9) Named for the Swedish town of Ytterby ______________

10) Named for Niobe, a goddess in Greek mythology who was the daughter of Tantalus _____________

11) Named for Tinia, a mythological god of the Etruscans (in the area we now call Italy) ____________

12) Named for Stockholm, Sweden ______________

13) Named in honor of the discovery of the planet Neptune _______________

14) Named in honor of Marie and Pierre Curie, who discovered radium and polonium _______________

15) Named after the Roman messenger god, Mercury, who had wings on his feet ______________

16) Named after the Greek god Tantalus (father of Niobe) _________________

17) Named in honor of the discovery of the asteroid Ceres _______________

18) Named after France, but using its ancient name, Gaul _________________

19) Named after the moon, but using the Greek word for moon, “selene” _____________

20) Named for its really bad smell, using the Greek word “bromos” which means “stench” ____________

21) Named after the Latin word for rainbow, “iris,” because it forms salts of various colors __________

22) Named after Thor, the Norse god of thunder ____________

23) The name comes from the German word “Kupfernickel,” meaning “Satan’s copper” ______________

24) The name comes from the German “Kobald,” a mythological gnome who lived in mines ____________

25) Named for its color, yellowish-green, using the Greek word for this color: “chloros” _____________

THE POSSIBLE ANSWERS: (If you need help with pronunciation, use the key before page 1.)

berkelium, bromine, cobalt, cerium, chlorine, curium, einsteinium,

gadolinium, gallium, holmium, iridium, mercury, neptunium, nickel,
niobium, nobelium, polonium, scandium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium,
thorium, tin, vanadium, ytterbium

7
Activity 1.7 “The Chemical Compounds Song”
Here is a very silly song about chemical recipes. The audio tracks for this song can be found at
www.ellenjmchenry.com/audio-tracks-for-the-elements (or in the zip file if you have the digital down-
load). There are two versions of this song. The first one has the words so you can learn how they match
the tune. The second version is accompaniment-only so you can sing it yourself. When singing it be-
comes easy, try it as a hand-clap game, like “Miss Merry Mack” or “Down, Down Baby.” You don’t even
need the music if you use it as a hand-clap game. (Also, there is a music video of this song posted on the
YouTube playlist mentioned at the top of page 17.)

The Chemical Compounds Song

Today was Mama’s birthday; I tried to bake a cake.

I didn’t use a recipe, that was my first mistake!

I put in lots of H2O, 3 cups NaCl,

Some NaHCO3, and other things as well.

I poured it in a non-stick pan (Teflon, C2F4)

I popped it in the oven (it cooks with CH4).

I set the oven way too hot, the cake got black and charred.
Oh, why did I make birthday cake? I should have bought a card!

I had to clean and scrub the pan, so Mom would never know.
First I tried to bleach the pan with NaClO.

I needed something stronger, so I tried some HCl.

I added grit, SiO2, and FeO, as well.

Then something awful happened, I’ll never know just why.

I woke up in the hospital with stitches near my eye!

My leg was in a plaster cast of CaSO4.

The nurse brought Mg(OH)2 and MgSO4.

Next year for Mama’s birthday, I’ll buy a cake, instead,

‘Cause if I tried to bake again, I think I’d end up dead!

H20 = water HCl = hydrochloric acid

NaCl = salt SiO2 = sand
NaHCO3 = baking soda FeO = a type of rust [or FeO(OH) to be more accurate] *
C2F4 = Teflon CaSO4 = plaster
CH4 = natural gas Mg(OH)2 = milk of magnesia (good for intestines)
NaClO = bleach MgSO4 = Epsom salt (good for skin)
* Rust is complicated. More commonly it is written as Fe2O3(OH) or Fe2O3.nH2O. But those don’t fit the rhyme.

8
And now it’s time for our first episode of The Atomic Chef!

Hello! Welcome to the

most unique cooking show in
the universe! I don’t just
use ingredients,
I create them!

The first recipe I’ll Now I need to choose Remember, it doesn’t

be making is a batch of the size of my “scoop.” matter what size
water. I think I’ll use a spoon. scoop I use as long
as I use the same
one throughout the
recipe. I could use
the back of a dump-
truck as a scoop if
I wanted a really
large batch!

water

Thanks! Now we’re ready

Now I need my ingredients.
to cook.
Can you find a bottle marked “H”
for hydrogen and one marked “O”
for oxygen?

9
We put in two scoops of hydrogen Now what would happen if
And voila! Water!
and one scoop of oxygen. we changed one ingredient?
What would happen, for
instance, if we replaced
oxygen with sulfur?

NEW RECIPE:

water:
Remember, no Can you find the “S”
number here
means “1”
bottle? It’s right
under the “O.”

Once again, we’re ready We put in two scoops of hydro- And voila! It seems that
to cook. gen and one scoop of sulfur. we have mixed a batch of
gas. But what
kind?

YICK! This is the Tune in next time when the Atomic

worst-smelling recipe Chef tries out some safer (and
I’ve ever cooked! much less smelly) chemical recipes!
It smells like
rotten eggs!
I think I’ve
made hydro
gen sulfide
gas.
Ahhhh!

Tune in again at the end of the next chapter for more adventures with the Atomic Chef!

10
 CHAPTER 2: THE PERIODIC TABLE

Have you ever read stories from medieval times where a person called an “alchemist” tried to
make gold? The alchemists were part scientist and part magician, and although they experimented
with other forms of chemistry, they are famous for trying
to make gold. They boiled up mixtures of every substance
they could find: copper, tin, lead, iron, coal, silver, mercury,
unusual rocks, gold-colored minerals, medicinal plants, parts
of animals, and anything else they could think of. They even
said magic spells over their boiling pots, but they never
produced a single drop of gold.
What the alchemists did not know is that gold is
one of the basic ingredients in the Kitchen Cupboard of the
Universe. They thought gold had a recipe like water or salt
or sugar. But you can’t make gold. It’s a basic ingredient
that comes naturally in the Earth. The letter symbol for gold
is Au. Ancient peoples called gold by the name “aurum”
and that is where we get the letters “Au.” Can you find gold
in the Kitchen Cupboard of the Universe?

The confusion of the alchemists is very understandable. Metals don’t come

with labels on them telling you what they are made of. Bronze and copper were
both metals. Bronze could be melted down into its two ingredients: copper and tin.
The alchemists wondered why copper couldn’t be boiled down into its ingredients.
They didn’t know that copper, like gold, is an element. It was only after years of
experimenting that ancient scientists began a list of substances that they believed could
not be reduced down any further. During the 300 years between 1200 AD and 1500 AD,
the list of substances believed to be basic ingredients of the universe grew to include
carbon, sulfur, iron, copper, silver, tin, mercury, lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc,
platinum and gold. (The alchemists eventually had to give up and admit that gold had
no recipe.) All of these elements are in our kitchen cupboard of the universe, though
they are not sitting all in a row.

Several hundred years went by with no new

discoveries of any more basic ingredients. Then, in the
1700s, chemists really began to catch on to the idea of
elements, and began intentionally looking for them. They
were able to add many more substances to the list of basic
elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium,
chlorine, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, platinum and tungsten.
In many cases, chemists had not yet been able to produce
these substances in a pure form, but they were still pretty
sure that these things were basic ingredients, not mixtures.
The chemists now began calling these basic ingredients
“elements,” and by the year 1800, the official list of elements Chemistry labs of the 1700s still looked a lot like the
also included phosphorus, fluorine, barium, strontium, alchemists’ labs of the Middle Ages.

11
molybdenum (moll-IB-den-um), zirconium, chromium, and uranium. These elements were still very
mysterious, however, and little was known about them.

The list kept growing during the 1800s, and by the middle of the century there were over 60
elements on the list. By now there was no confusion about what an element was. Scientists understood
very clearly that elements were the basic ingredients of the universe. An element could not be boiled
down into anything else. They also understood that there was probably a limited number of elements,
and once they were all found the fun of discovery would be over. Thus, there ensued a sort of
international “scavenger hunt” for new elements, with every chemist dreaming of being one of the lucky
winners who would find one of the remaining unknown elements.

Amidst all this frenzy for discovering the remaining elements, a Russian
chemist named Dmitri Mendeleyev (men-dell-AY-ev) (also spelled Mendeleev)
began giving chemistry lectures at St. Petersburg University in 1867. As
Mendeleyev studied in order to prepare for his lectures, he began to have the
feeling that the world of chemistry was like a huge forest in which you could
easily get lost. There were no trails or maps, and there were so many trees!
It was all a muddled mess of elements, mixtures, oxides, salts, acids, bases,
gases, liquids, crystals, metals, and so much more. The subject of chemistry
was confusing to his students, and he could see why. There was no overall
structure to this area of science. It was just a massive collection of facts and
observations about individual substances. Each scientist had a different way
of arranging the substances, and that confused students. Some scientists grouped all the gases together,
while others grouped them by color, or listed them from most to least common, or even alphabetically.
Was one arrangement better than all the rest? Mendeleyev decided that he would search for some kind
of overall pattern that could be applied to chemistry, making it easier for his students to learn.

Mendeleyev began by cutting 63 squares of cardboard, one for each of the elements that were
known at that time. On each card he wrote the name of an element and all its characteristics: whether
it was solid, liquid, or gas, what color it was, how shiny it was, how much it weighed, and how it reacted
to other elements. He then laid out the cards in various ways, trying to find an overall pattern. One
evening he was sitting, as usual, in front of his element cards, staring at them and trying to think of some
new way to arrange them. He had been working on this puzzle for three days straight, without any
sleep. Mendeleyev was exhausted as he fell asleep that night. While he slept, he dreamed about the
cards. In his dream he saw the cards line up into rows and columns, creating a rectangular “table.”

When he woke up, he

realized that his brain had
solved the problem while
he had slept. The way
to arrange the elements
was first by weight, then
by chemical properties.
He began laying out the
elements in order of their
weight, starting with the
lightest, hydrogen.

12
Then came helium, lithium, berylium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine. The next element
was sodium. Instead of putting it next to fluorine, he put it underneath lithium because it had similar
chemical properties to lithium. So the second line began with sodium. Then he began filling in with the
elements arranged by weight again: magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine.
When he got to the next element, potassium, he decided to start a third line, putting potassium right
underneath sodium because they had similar chemical properties. Then it was back to listing them by
weight: calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium... As he laid the cards out in order of their weight,
every once in a while, or “periodically,” he had to go back and start a new row so that elements that
had similar chemical properties would be in the same column. This method of arranging the elements
became known as the “Periodic Table” because it is a table (chart) that has patterns that repeat
periodically.
This is how the main part of Mendeleyev’s chart looked.

lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine

sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine
potassium calcium eka-boron titanium vanadium chromium manganese
copper zinc eka-aluminum eka-silicon arsenic selenium bromine
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium columbium molybdenum ?
silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine
cesium barium

Mendeleyev ran into some problems with his Periodic Table. It seemed that there were
awkward areas where things did not fit perfectly. He guessed that this was because there were cards
missing. His set of 63 cards must be incomplete. Mendeleyev started leaving blank spaces in his chart
where he believed there was a missing element. He began to predict what these elements would be
like when they were discovered. He even gave them temporary names. The empty space under boron
and aluminum he named “eka-boron.” (“Eka” means “one more” in the Sanskrit language.) The empty
space under carbon, silicon, and titanium was “eka-silicon.”
Many chemists of Mendeleyev’s day laughed at him for trying to predict the discovery of new
elements. They did not believe in his Periodic Table and thought he was a fool for making up all these
fictional elements—elements that did not even exist!

In 1875, one of Mendeleyev’s predictions came true. A new element

was discovered by a French chemist with a long name: Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisdaubran. He had decided to name this new element after his country,
France, but using a very old word for France: Gall. He named the element
“gallium.” Mendeleyev listened to the description of this new element and
proudly announced that gallium was, in
fact, the missing element he had called eka-
aluminum. Mendeleyev had already known
what this element would be like. It would be a
soft, silvery-blue metal with a very low melting
point—so low that this metal might even melt
in your hand. This is exactly how Boisdaubran described gallium.
Some chemists thought this was just a coincidence and waited to see
if any more of Mendeleyev’s predictions would come true. Gallium, from Wikipedia, credit for photo:
en:user:foobar

13
 After the discovery of gallium, Mendeleyev became braver about making
predictions. He announced that sometime soon a scientist would discover a new
element that would be a dark gray metal with a weight that was 72 times heavier
than hydrogen, a specific gravity of about 5.5, and having the ability to combine
with oxygen to make oxide compounds that are very hard to melt even in a hot
fire. Fifteen years after this prediction, a scientist in Germany discovered a new
metal that he named “germanium” (after Germany, of course). As you might
guess, the characteristics of this new metal were exactly what Mendeleyev had Germanium looks a lot like
gallium. (Photo credit: wiki-
predicted! The scientific world was stunned as they compared Mendeleyev’s pedia article on germanium.)
predictions with the actual experimental results for this new metal—they were
almost identical. Germanium was Mendeleyev’s “eka-silicon.” Mendeleyev was happy to have a real
name for “eka-silicon” and gladly replaced it with “germanium.”
Eventually, Mendeleyev and his Periodic Table became famous all over the world. He received
gold medals and honorary degrees from universities in other countries, and was invited to join
important scientific societies. Sadly, however, his homeland of Russia refused to acknowledge him.
When his name was presented to the Russian Academy of Sciences he was rejected. Mendeleyev was
unpopular in Russia because he said things the Russian government did not want to hear. He told
them they needed to be careful with Russia’s supply of crude oil because it was a precious resource and
would not last forever. He said that Russia’s technology was lagging behind that of other nations and
they needed to catch up. Sadly, the government didn’t really care about improving the country, and they
ingnored Mendeleyev’s advice.
After Mendeleyev, chemists continued to discover elements. Every time a new element was
discovered it was added to the Periodic Table. The number of elements grew from 63 to over 100.
Some adjustments had to be made to Mendeleyev’s original table in order to accommodate all the new
discoveries. They added a middle section, plus two rows at the bottom.

Mendeleyev’s table: The Periodic Table as it looks today:

Many decades after Mendeleyev’s death, scientists realized that

there was nothing on the Periodic Table to commemorate the very man
who had created it. So in 1955, when a new element was discovered,
the discoverers decided to honor the memory of Dmitri Mendeleyev
by naming the new element “Mendelevium.” It is number 101 on the
Periodic Table and its letter symbol is Md.

14
 To be fair, we really should mention that Mendeleyev wasn’t the only person who saw repeating
patterns in the elements. A chemist named John Newlands had noticed this in the mid 1800s and
published what he called the “Law of Octaves” in 1864 (just a few years before Mendelyev’s discovery).
Previously, chemists had noticed groups of 3’s that behaved similarly and called them “triads.” (For
example, lithium, sodium and potassium in the first column all reacted violently in water.) Newlands
suggested that the triads were part of a larger pattern based on the number 8. He also suggested that
atomic weights were a key to organizing the elements. Newlands turned out to be right about both.
However, when Newlands presented his theory at the Royal Chemistry Society in London, they laughed
at him and even made fun of him. They told him to go play chemistry on a piano.
Unfortunately, this type of thing happens fairly often. New theories that don’t fit with current
opinions are often scorned or even ridiculed. The Royal Chemistry Society did try to right this wrong in
1884 by asking Newlands to give a lecture at the Society. This time no one laughed at him. And today
if you go to the Royal Society of Chemistry website, they proudly suggest that the real discoverer of the
periodic arrangement of elements was British, not Russian. In fact, they’ve even placed a big, blue sign
on his birthplace, telling all who pass by that this is where the discoverer of the Periodic Table was born.
Why did Mendeleyev get credit and Newlands did not? Mendeleyev’s stroke of genius was to
assume that all the elements had not been discovered, and to leave blank spots at points where the
pattern seemed to fail. Newlands’ table did not leave blanks for undiscovered elements, so it was
bound to have problems in the end. Mendeleyev’s table was not perfect, either, but it was enough bet-
ter than Newlands’ that Mendeleyev is remembered as the inventor of the Periodic Table.

Activity 2.1 The Periodic Jump Rope Rhyme

Use the first four rows of the Periodic Table as a jump rope rhyme. Why not? Most jump rope
rhymes are pretty silly and don’t make sense, anyway! The audio track will show you how to say the
rhyme. Then try it on your own. If you mess up and trip over the rope, you have to start at the begin-
ning again. Can you get to krypton? Can your friends do it?

Hydrogen, helium,
Lithium, beryllium
Boron, carbon
Nitrogen and Oxygen
Fluorine, neon

Sodium, magnesium
Aluminum and silicon
Phosphorus, sulfur
Chlorine, argon

Potassium, calcium
Scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese!

FeCoNi’s my CuZn
His last name is Gallium
He lives in Germanium
Once he ate some arsenic, thought it was selenium;
Drank it down with bromine, now he’s strong as krypton!

(The audio track can be found at www.ellenjmchenry.com/audio-tracks-for-the-elements, or in the zip file if you bought the
digital download version.)

15
Activity 2.2 What are these elements?

Use the “Quick Six” playing cards to find these elements. (Check answer key, page 81.)

1) Find an element that is used to make matches, fireworks, and detergents. _______________
2) Find an element that is used in toothpaste, but is also one of the ingredients in Teflon
(The recipe for Teflon is in the “Chemical Compounds Song.”) ______________
3) Find an element that is found in chalk, plaster, concrete, bones and teeth. _________
4) Find an element that is used in lasers, CD players and cell phones. ___________
5) Find an element that is used to repair bones and is also used in paints. ____________
6) Find an element that is found in sand, clay, lava, and quartz. ___________
7) Find an element that is rose-colored and is used to make catalytic converters and headlight
reflectors for cars. ____________
8) Find an element that is used as a disinfectant for cuts and scrapes, is used to make lamps and
photographic film, and is needed by our thyroid glands. ___________
9) Find an element that is used in stadium lights and in large-screen TVs. ____________
10) Find an element that is used in dentistry and jewelry, and is also used to purify hydrogen gas
and to treat tumors. _____________
11) Find an element that is an ingredient of pewter, and can also be mixed with copper to
make bronze. _____
12) Find an element that is used to vulcanize rubber and is a component of air pollution. ________
13) Find an element that is used to sterilize swimming pools. ______________
14) Find an element that is used in lightbulbs and lasers and won’t bond with other elements. ____
15) Find an element that makes up most of the air we breathe. _____________
16) Find an element that has no neutrons. ___________
17) Find an element that makes diamonds, graphite and coal. _______________
18) Find an element that is used in antiseptic eye washes but is also used to make heat-resistant
glass, as well as being used in nuclear power plants. __________
19) Find an element that you eat in bananas but can also be used for gunpowder. ___________
20) Find an element that is used in lights that need to flash brightly, such as camera flashes and
strobe lights. ________________

16
Activity 2.3 Watch some videos
There is a playlist for this curriculum at: www.YouTube.com/TheBasementWorkshop.
Click on PLAYLISTS and then on "The Elements." (If you can't see that playlist, use the arrow on the right
to scroll through each row of videos. If you still can't see it, click on the drop-down and choose "created
playlists.")
It isn't possible to tag the videos to show which chapter they go with,
but they are listed in order, with the chapter one videos first, the chapter two
videos second, etc. There are several videos about Mendeleyev, plus a few on
gallium and germanium, the elements Mendeleyev predicted correctly.

NOTE: You will notice that there is more than one way to spell Mendeleyev. Some of the videos use the
spelling Mendeleev, but it is still pronounced like it has a Y between the two E’s. (Recently, spelling it
without the Y has become more popular, but it is harder for students to remember how to pronounce it
when you don’t see the Y.)

Activity 2.4 Alternative Periodic Tables

There isn’t a law saying that you can’t arrange the chemical elements into a shape that isn't
a rectangle. Over the past century, quite a few arrangements of the elements have been proposed.
They can’t be printed here due to copyright restrictions, but you can easily find them online by typing
"alternative Periodic Tables" in a search engine set on "images." You could look at the image gallery at
the bottom of the Wikipedia article titled "Alternative Periodic Tables."

Activity 2.5 Play an online quiz game to help you learn the symbols
You can choose to play easy or harder levels, so this game is great for beginners:
http://www.funbrain.com/periodic/

Check out this amazing

Periodic Table! It’s so large
that it covers a whole wall!
It is located at the Ruth
Patrick Science Education
Center in South Carolina.
Each box in this table
contains an actual sample of
the element (except for the
elements that are either too
dangerous or too rare).

17
Activity 2.6
Here is a just-for-fun puzzle using the symbols (letter abbreviations) for some of the elements.
Write the symbols in the blanks to make some silly riddles. (Check answer key if you need to.)

____ ____ ____ did ____e ____ ____ ____ ____a ____
tungsten hydrogen yttrium thorium molybdenum uranium selenium sulfur yttrium

"____ ____e____, ____ ____e____,” ____ ____ ____ the

carbon helium phosphorus carbon helium phosphorus tungsten helium nitrogen

____ ____d’____ ____ ____e ____ll a____ ____t? _____ ____ ____
boron iridium sulfur carbon silver iron phosphorus argon Helium tungsten arsenic

____ ___ l ____ ____g ____ ____ ____r the ____ ____d
fluorine iodine lithium nitrogen indium fluorine oxygen boron iridium

____ ____ ____ ____ad ____e da____ ____ ____ ____.

tungsten hydrogen oxygen hydrogen thorium yttrium oxygen fluorine fluorine

Here’s another one:

____ ____ _____ do ____ ____ ____ ____t ____ ____ ____
tungsten hydrogen astatine yttrium oxygen uranium germanium tungsten helium nitrogen

____ ____ ____ ____r ____ ___ a ____ ____ ____ ____e
yttrium oxygen uranium carbon osmium sulfur vanadium americium phosphorus iridium

____i____ a ____ ____ ____ ? A ____rr ____ ____ ____ed ____ ____ !
tungsten thorium molybdenum uranium selenium tellurium iodine fluorine iodine carbon astatine

And one last riddle:

____ ____ _____ ___ ___e _____ ____a ____ a____ R___ ____ ___ ‘ ___
tungsten hydrogen astatine tungsten erbium Barium thulium nitrogen neodymium oxygen bismuth nitrogen sulfur

____ ___ ____ ____ ____ a____ ____r t____ ____ ____ ____e
neon tungsten nitrogen americium einsteinium fluorine tellurium helium yttrium tungsten erbium

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ a ____r?

ruthenium nitrogen oxygen vanadium erbium boron yttrium calcium

____ ____ ____a____ a____ R____ ____ ___ ___ ___ !

fluorine lanthanum thulium nitrogen neodymium iodine boron boron oxygen nitrogen

18
 Hello, and welcome back
to the most unique cooking
show in the whole
universe!

Today’s
topic is “ingre-
dients you can use
right off the shelf.”
That’s right-- today
we will not be using
any recipes!

What about these

Let’s look over our Kitchen Cup- bottles here on
board of the Universe and see if the end?
we can find something we can use.

He, Ne,
Ar, Kr,
and
Xe.

“He” is helium. Hurray for helium! It Argon, krypton and xenon are very
makes our balloons float! You can use useful in light bulbs, especially
helium straight off the really bright ones like
shelf, no recipe needed. camera
And in
“Ne” is neon. It’s pretty flashes.
lighthouses.
cool, too. Neon
signs are very
bright. They
catch your
attention.

19
Oxygen is very And nitrogen Silver and gold are
Copper is the
useful to our makes up most used for jewelry and
coins. Gold is used best metal for
bodies when we of Earth’s
in electronics. many things,
breathe it. atmosphere. including pipes.

Aluminum is perfect Lead is heavy. It Mercury is useful Uranium is

for soft drink cans is used for fishing for making radioactive. It
and foil wrap. sinkers, and also thermometers. is used for fuel
for protection in nuclear
against X-rays. power plants.

Believe it or not, diamonds Tune in next time for

and graphite (the stuff in more cooking with the
your pencil that does the ingredients of the
writing) are both made universe!
out of pure carbon.

20
 CHAPTER 3: ATOMS

The scientists in Mendeleyev’s day understood many things about the elements. They had even
written books describing the characteristics of certain elements. However, one thing they were never
able to do was examine just one particle of an element. It was not until the 1900s that scientists were
able to figure out what the elements themselves were made of.
Let’s open one of those ingredient jars and find out what the stuff inside looks like. How about
He, helium?

Let’s look at just one of those little particles in the jar. One single particle is called an atom. An
atom is a very strange-looking thing, and is made of up three even smaller types of particles: protons,
neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons like to hang out together in the center while the
electrons go whizzing around the outside at about a million miles an hour. The central clump is called
the nucleus of the atom, and the pathways the electrons travel in are called orbits, just like the pathways
of the planets around the sun.
Your next question might be: “What are these particles made of?” That’s a tough question,
because they aren’t really made of anything—they are the stuff that other stuff is made of. However, if
you asked a physicist this question, he or she would give you a long, complicated answer that included
words like “up quarks” and “down quarks.” Atomic particles such as quarks are still not fully understood
and require knowledge of very difficult math. (If you want to explore the world of sub-atomic particles,
the Internet can help you.) All we need to know is that the proton has a postive electrical charge, the
electron has a negative electrical charge, and the neutron has no charge at all. The electron is much,
much smaller than either the proton or the neutron. In fact, it is so small that it adds almost nothing to
the weight of the atom. When scientists figure out how much an atom weighs, they don’t even bother
with the electrons. They just count the protons and neutrons.
Let’s open another jar. How about Li, lithium?

21
 A lithium atom has three protons, three electrons, and four
neutrons. The number of neutrons is often the same as the number
of protons, but not always, as we see here with lithium. Smaller
atoms tend to have equal, or almost equal numbers, but as the atoms
get larger they begin requiring more neutrons. By the time you get to
number 92, uranium, there are about 50 more neutrons than protons.

You may be wondering why the lithium atom has two rings
around it instead of just one, like helium. Why isn’t the third electron
whizzing around in the first pathway with the other two electrons?
The reason is that each ring can only hold a certain number of
electrons, and although that first ring may look big enough to you, the electrons think it only has room
for two of them. If a third electron comes along, the atom has to add another ring for it. The second
ring is a bit bigger, and can hold up to eight electrons.

Let’s look at an atom of neon. It has two completely full rings,

with two in the first ring and eight in the second ring. Atoms that have
full rings with no leftovers are very happy atoms. Neon is very content
and good-natured. It is well-behaved and never tries to steal electrons
from anyone.
By the way, don’t forget that the electrons aren’t really as big
as they look in these drawings. In fact... now might be a good time to
discuss the dimensions of an atom.

If we were to increase the size of an atom until it reached

the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would look like a marble sitting on the 50 yard line. The
electrons would be smaller than the head of a pin, and they would be whizzing around the outer edge
of the stadium.

You can see why we have to draw atoms out of scale. If we drew them correctly, either you
would not be able to see them, or you would have to have a book about a mile wide.
Speaking of drawing atoms, even if we could make the atoms on this page to scale, they would
still be wrong. When scientists finally began to be able to “look” at atoms (though you can’t look at
them like you can look at a bacteria) they discovered that the electrons don’t really go around the
nucleus in circles. In the mid 1900s, physicists discovered that electrons move in a more random
fashion, not in neat little circles like they had originally imagined. Electrons buzz around so fast that
they end up looking more like a balloon than a ring. Since these balloon-like areas looked a bit fuzzy,
scientists decided to call them “clouds.” Drawing electrons clouds, as we will see, is not easy, which
is part of the reason you still see orbitals drawn like rings in most pictures. (The correct name for the
“solar system model” is actually the “Bohr model,” named after physicist Neils Bohr.)

22
This is a rough sketch of what electron clouds look like:

Electrons move around all the time, but they spend more time close to the nucleus than away
from it. Electrons like to be in pairs, but in separate clouds on opposite sides of the nucleus. Pairs
of electrons hate to be next to each other, too, so each pair will take a position as far apart from the
others as possible. The result is that the clouds end up looking like a bunch of balloons tied together,
with one electron per balloon.
Large atoms end up having very complicated arrangements of electron clouds and are almost
impossible to draw as electron cloud models because so many of the clouds overlap in strange ways.

Activity 3.1
In this activity, you will play the part of an
electron. You will map out your location every
hour over a weekend. Each hour you will plot your
location. For example, if you sleep for eight hours
during the first night, you will put eight dots inside
the center circle. The next hour might find you in
the kitchen eating breakfast, so put a dot there.
After that, you might spend an hour watching TV,
then three hours at a ball field playing soccer. Put
one dot on the TV room, and three dots on the ball
field. Continue to plot your locations for several
days.
When you are finished, look at your map.
Where do the most dots occur? Are they spread
out evenly, or is there a definite pattern to the
arrangement of the dots? In this model, what
represents the nucleus? Do you, the electron, spend
more time near the nucleus than away from it? NOTE: You could just remember a recent weekend (or three
weekdays) and estimate the number of hours in various places.

Activity 3.2 Looking at electron cloud models

Look at some pictures of electron clouds on the Internet. Use a search engine with the key
words “electron clouds.” You will find many different images. Do any of the pictures look like balloons?
You may see some that have hourglass shapes or ring shapes, as well as balloon shapes.
Then go to the YouTube channel for this curriculum and watch the videos that show
3-dimensional animations of electron clouds. The atoms will spin around so you can see all sides. Don’t
worry if there are words or letters that you don’t know. Just enjoy watching the animations.

23
 Electron clouds come in four basic arrangements. The first one is
spherical in shape and is called an “s” orbital. It seems logical to assume that
“s” stands for “spherical,” but no... it stands for “sharp.” This is very odd, since
a sphere is just about the least sharp object a person can think of! The original
discoverer of these orbitals was obviously not thinking about their shape when
he named them. He was looking at the shape the electron made on something
called a spectrograph. However, it’s a fortunate coincidence that the word
“spherical” also starts with the letter “s,” so we can rightly remember the The nucleus is at the center.
spherical orbitals as being the “s” orbitals.

The “p” orbital looks like two balloons tied together. Its name comes from the word “principal”
which means “primary” or “the main one.” The "d" orbital looks like two p orbitals that were stretched
out a bit then tied together. (“D” stands for “diffuse,” another name we’ll never remember.) The “f"
orbital looks like two d's tied together. (“F” stands for “fundamental,” which is curious because we
already have “principal,” and these two words are so similar in meaning.) These letters can be hard to
remember. It would have been much easier if they had chosen “a, b, c and d."

The spherical s orbitals are always found individually, but the other orbitals are found in groups.
Yes, it gets even more complicated. P orbitals are found in groups of 3, d orbitals are found in groups
of 5, and d orbitals are found in groups of 7. Can you imagine 7 of those f orbitals shown above, all
grouped together?

24
 The p orbitals are found in groups of 3, looking like 6 balloons tied together. The d orbitals are
found in groups of 5, and since each orbital has 4 lobes, a balloon model would have to have 20 balloons
tied together. F orbitals come in groups of 7. How many balloons for this model? 8 (lobes) x 7 = 56!

As you can see, this method of drawing orbitals is not easy. If we go back to using the solar
system (Bohr) model, things become easier again:

The central clump is the nucleus with the protons and neutrons in it. The dots on the rings are
the electrons. Still a bit complicated, but not as bad as the electron clouds. However, this model has
its own problems. Most of those rings represent a combination of several electron neighborhoods
(orbitals). For example, the second ring out from the nucleus represents an s neighborhood AND a
p neighborhood. S orbitals can only hold 2 electrons, and p orbitals hold 6. That second ring has 8
dots on it, so it combines the s and p orbitals into one ring. These rings are often called “shells.” The
difference between orbitals and shells is often a major source of confusion for chemistry students.

Wouldn’t it be nice if there was a way to combine these two methods, the electron clouds and
the solar system model? It would clear up all the confusion about orbitals and shells. Fortunately, there
IS a way to combine them, and you are just lucky enough to be using the book that invented it!

Activity 3.3 The Quick-and-Easy “Atom-izer”

Here is a very helpful invention for chemistry students: the Quick-and-Easy “Atom-izer.” It lets
you “build” atoms so that you can see the electron clouds while using the solar system model. You will
find the Atom-izer sheet on the next page, complete with instructions on how to use it. You will need a
supply of some kind of tokens that will represent electrons. You could use pennies or pieces of paper, or
you might want to add some extra fun by using something edible such as mini-marshmallows or raisins
or nuts, so that you can eat each atom you build.

SIDE NOTE: To avoid any scientific confusion, the word “atomizer” is also used to describe a simple device that turns liquids
into a spray mist (such as an old-fashioned perfume bottle). We know this, but the name “Atom-izer” just sounded too good
to pass up. It sounded like a good name for a device that makes atoms.

25
 Look at the center of the Atom-izer. You will see a dark spot with the letter N on it. This spot will
represent the nucleus of our atoms. We know that the nucleus has both protons and neutrons in it, but
for this activity we are going to ignore the nucleus. Sorry, nucleus. You’ll have to sit out this activity.
This is all about electrons and their neighborhoods.

The rules for placing your electron tokens:

1) Always fill smaller rings before larger rings.
2) Always fill “s” orbitals first, before “p” orbitals.

Let’s start with the first element: hydrogen. Hydrogen has only one electron. Place a token on
one of the black squares in the first ring. It doesn’t matter which you choose. Notice that the black
squares are not only on the first ring, but they are also on spherical s orbitals. Once you have placed this
token, you have made a model of the hydrogen atom.
Now let’s make the next element, helium. Helium is number 2 on the Periodic Table and it has 2
electrons. Place a token on the other black square in the first ring. Now you have 2 electrons in the first
ring, one on each s.
The next element is number 3 on the Table: lithium. Lithium has three electrons, so you will need
to place a third electron token. The first ring is already full, so you will have to go to the second ring.
Remember, though, in this second ring you must fill both s spots first. Place a token on either one of the
s orbitals. You now have a model of lithium.
Element number 4 is beryllium (burr-RILL-ee-um). It has 4 electrons. Place another token in the
other s orbital in the second ring. Presto—you have beryllium!
Boron, element number 5, has 5 electrons. Since the s orbitals in the second ring are now
full, you may put your token on one of the black squares on a p orbital. It doesn’t matter which p you
choose.
Carbon is next. It has 6 electrons, so you will need to add another token to another porbital.
It doesn’t really matter which you choose, but if you want to be extra-correct, place it in the p that is
farthest away from the first p token you placed when you did boron. You see, electrons really don’t like
to be next to each other unless they have no choice. Given a choice, they will spread out and stay away
from each other. So it is best to put the electrons opposite each other.
After carbon comes nitrogen. It has 7 electrons. Add another token to one of the p orbitals. This
electron is going to have to be slightly close to another electron. Tough life.
To make number 8, oxygen, add another token to the second ring. To make the electrons as
happy as possible, put it opposite electron number 7. Then add a 9th token to make fluorine, and a 10th
token to make neon. (By this point, those electrons have no choice but to be next to each other!) Now
we have a full second ring. Atoms love to have their rings full. Neon is a lucky atom.
When we go to make sodium, number 11, we will need to put the 11th electron in the third ring.
But don’t forget—fill those s orbitals first!
Keep adding electron tokens to make magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur,
chlorine, and argon.
What if you wanted to go on to element number 19, potassium? You would have to add a fourth
ring to this chart. For now, we are going to stop at 18, argon.

Why don’t you practice making some atoms “from scratch”? Clear the board, choose any atom
from 1 to 18, and build it one electron at time. Then clear it, and try another one.

NOTE: If you need to print out a few extra copies of the Atomizer and you have only a paperback copy, you can download a
digital file to print out by going to www.ellenjmchenry.com, clicking on FREE DOWNLOADS, then on CHEMISTRY. You will see a
link for "Printable pages for The Elements curriculum."

26
 The rules for placing your electron tokens:
1) Always fill smaller rings before larger rings.
2) Always fill “s” orbitals first, before “p” orbitals.

p p

s
p p

p p
p p

p p

s
p p

27
 As you can see from the Atom-izer activity, drawing pictures of large atoms would be very time-
consuming. So chemists decided to dispense with art altogether and use a string of letters and numbers
to show which orbital neighborhoods the atom has, and how many electrons are in each. Their method
looks like this: 1s22s22p63s2
Look how much space it saves! It’s very compact. It means exactly the same thing as a drawing
with a whole bunch of rings. Let’s look at this method close-up.

The large numbers The letters tell The small numbers tell
tell you which ring. you which orbital. you how many electrons
are in that orbital.

You can use this method exactly the same way you use the Atom-izer. Instead of the picture
with the rings, just fill in the correct number of electrons in each square.

The number of electrons in that orbital goes here.

Here is the way chemists would draw oxygen and aluminum:

OXYGEN

ALUMINUM

Activity 3.4
Can you switch over from the Atom-izer to this new notation? We’ve listed some atoms for you
to try. All you have to do is write the number of electrons, instead of placing tokens. (You know about
the answer key now. It's there if you need it for the rest of the book.)

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Nitrogen: Sulfur: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Neon: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Chlorine: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Lithium: Boron: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Silicon: Fluorine: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

28
 Now for a very cool chemistry fact. The Periodic Table itself can be your guide to electron
orbitals. If we were to circle the elements with similar electron orbitals, it would look like this:

Changing the subject a bit, you may have noticed (during the Atom-izer activity) that the number
of electrons seems to correlate with the atom’s atomic number on the Periodic Table. This is, indeed, the
case, but for a different reason. An atom’s atomic number is determined by how many protons it has,
not electrons. Each type of atom has a unique number of protons. For example, gold is number 79 on
the Table. That means it has 79 protons. Gold is the only type of atom that has 79 protons. If you find
an atom that has 79 protons in the nucleus, it’s gold. If you added a proton to gold (or took one away) it
wouldn’t be gold any more. (Such a shame the alchemists didn’t know this!)
Since atoms need to be electrically balanced with an equal number of positive and negative
charges, they need to have the same number of electrons and protons. This works out nicely for
chemists, because they are counting electrons all the time. It’s very easy to just look at the Periodic
Table for the atomic number and know that not only is it the number of protons, it is also the number of
electrons. (Having said this, atoms get out of balance a lot and very often have more or less electrons
than protons. We’ll see this happen in future chapters.)

Activity 3.5 How many protons?

For each of the following elements, write how may protons it has in its nucleus. (Hint: Remember
that the atomic number is defined as the number of protons an element has.)

Ag- silver ____ H- hydrogen ____ Os- osmium ____

Am- americium ____ He- helium ____ P- phosphorus____
At- astatine ____ I- iodine ____ S- sulfur ____
As- arsenic ____ In-indium ____ Se- selenium ____

Activity 3.6 Guess the atom

This is sort of activity 3.4 in reverse. Can you look at these electron configurations and determine
what atoms they are? (Hint: The number of electrons is the same as the number of protons, and the
number of protons is the atomic number.)

1) 1s2 2s2 ____________ 2) 1s2 2s2 2p3 _____________

3) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 _____________ 4) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 ______________
5) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 _____________ 6) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 ________________
CHALLENGE: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 ________ (looking at the chart at the top of this page might help)

29
Activity 3.7 Time to review!
Use the symbol clues to write in the names of the elements.

ACROSS: 3) Co 6) Si 7) U 12) Cu 14) Na 13) Cr 18) Cl 20) Fe 22) O 25) P

27) Mn 28) I 30) Pu 33) Pt 36) Au 37) Ag 38) Os 39) Hg 40) Ne 41) Li

DOWN: 1) Zn 2) Rn 4) As 5) Ar 8) Ni 9) Kr 10) Mo 11) S 13) Ca 15) Xe

16) W 17) B 19) H 21) Np 23) N 24) Pb 26) Be 29) F 31) Sn
32) Mg 33) K 34) Al 35) He

30
 On the show today we will be
taking an up-close look at what is
inside all my bottles and jars.
I know this may look like
an ordinary magnifier, but
it is actually a super-high
power lens that will let us
look at atomic particles.

Let’s grab a jar off I have selected

the shelf and take one particle from
a look inside it. the helium jar. I
wonder
what it
looks like?

Hmmm... I only see three types

of particles. Two of these types are
sitting in a clump in the middle, doing
nothing. The third type of particle is
moving so fast I can hardly see it!

What? The same three

Wow! The particles of carbon kinds of particles again?! How
look just the same as helium, boring! I can’t believe all my
only there’s a few more of jars contain the same stuff!
Let’s try these two jars. I them. I wonder what oxygen
wonder what they look like? I thought my ingredients were
looks like? all different!

31
Let’s try this jar ...really smelly!
next. Maybe we Those other jars
will find something didn’t have any odor
new, besides those but this one
smells very
three particles? bad. Yuck!

That’s a pretty busy scene! Lots

of those fast particles whizzing
everywhere. There’s many more
particles, but they all still seem to
be the three types we saw in the
first jar. But wait, this one is...

Let’s try a jar This jar looks like

from the bottom
a nice one to try.
row. I wonder if
I will find those Let’s open it.
same three types
of particles
again? What
do you think?
What’s inside?

Ah!!! This one is way too active!

The particles are flying every-
where. Close the lid-- quick!!!

I think I’ll avoid Well, it looks like I’ve left the

that bottom row lids off some jars. Hmmm...some
for now. Let’s wrap of them are empty and some are
up today’s still full. Can you figure out why?
episode. Tune in next time when I’ll tell
you why, then we’ll do some more
cooking with the Ingredients of
the Universe!

empty still full

32
 CHAPTER 4: MORE ABOUT ATOMS

We will now learn more about the incredibly interesting and wonderfully amazing subject of
electrons. The reason this subject is so important is because it’s the arrangement of the electrons in the
orbitals (especially the ones in the outer ring) that give each element its chemical characteristics. You
can suck helium out of a balloon without hurting your lungs because of the way helium’s electrons are
arranged. Pure chlorine gas is poisonous because of the arrangement of its electrons. If you stick a metal
fork in an electrical outlet, you’ll get a shock because of the way the electrons are arranged. Carbon
can form thousands of different compounds (many of them organic, living molecules) because of the
arrangement of its electrons. Understanding the electrons is the key to understanding the chemistry of
every substance.

Here are the basic rules that electrons live by:

1) Spin!
2) Always try to pair up with someone of the opposite spin.
3) Get plenty of privacy—stay away from other electron couples!
4) Try to live in a perfect neighborhood, which is often a group of 8.

SPIN! PAIR UP! BE PRIVATE! 8 IS GREAT!

These rules were discovered by combining very complicated mathematics with high-tech scientific
experiments. It’s kind of funny that the rules sound so simple and yet are based on very complicated
math and physics. These four rules are the key to understanding many aspects of basic chemistry.

Chemists often refer to the rings of electrons

in those solar system (Bohr) models as “shells.” It
is the outermost shell (ring) that interacts with the
environment around the atom. The electrons in the
inner shells just sit there. They almost never come into
contact with other atoms. The outer shell is where all
the action is.
The most important thing to know about
outer shells is that the electrons in them take rule #4
very seriously. They are almost neurotic about it. Atoms
in the first three rows of the Periodic Table live by the motto: “8 is great!” If there is only one electron in
the outer shell, that electron is so miserable that it would rather go off and join another atom than be
alone in the outer shell of its own atom. If an outer shell has seven electrons, which is just one short of
perfection (“8 is great!”), those seven will try anything to get an eighth electron in the shell. They will
even try to steal an electron from the outer shell of any atom that comes close enough. Even when there
are two electrons in the outer shell, the electrons are still not very happy. You’d think that they would be
content because they have an electron buddy to form a pair with, but those two electrons are still lonely
and will look to join with six others to form an “octet.” (“8 is great” is often called “the octet rule.”)

33
 The number of electrons that an outer shell
wants to get (or wants to get rid of) in order to have
a full outer shell is called the valence number. If the
atom needs more electrons, we say that it is minus that
number, and we use a minus sign (-). For example, an
atom that has seven electrons in its outer shell and only
needs one more to make eight has a valence of -1. If it
has six in its outer shell, and therefore would like two
more, it has a valence of -2. Chlorine Sulfur
If an atom has only one electron in its outer has 1 empty space. has 2 empty spaces.
shell, its chances of finding seven more are pretty low.
One or two, maybe... but seven? The atom gives up.
It’s a lot easier just to get rid of that one electron. We
would say that this atom has a valence of +1. It has
one to give away. Once it gets rid of that electron, the
outer shell will then be empty, thus making the next
shell down (which is full) the new outer shell. An atom
like this can really be obnoxious. It is so desperate to
get rid of that one extra electron that it will throw it at
any atom that is nearby. (Chemists say “very reactive”
Sodium Magnesium
instead of “obnoxious.”) All of the elements in the first wouldn’t mind giving 2.
has 1 to give away.
column on the Periodic Table have one extra to give
away, so they are all extremely reactive.

What about if the outer shell has four electrons? Would the atom try
to get four more, or would it give away the four it has? In this case, the atom
wouldn’t really give or take in the way that sodium and chlorine do. It would
be more accurate to say that it forms four bonds, and leave it at that. If an
atom has four electrons in its outer shell, we would say that it has a valence
of plus or minus four: + 4. Carbon and silicon are good examples.
You may be wondering if there are any completely happy atoms out
there. Yes, there are six incredibly lucky elements on the Periodic Table.
Their outer shells are full and they are happy; they are completely non- Carbon
reactive. These lucky atoms are called the “noble gases.” You can find them has a valence of + 4
in the very last column on the right. They are helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon and radon.
You are very familiar with helium, and you’ve certainly heard of neon
lights. You probably know that Superman is killed by kryptonite, which is a
completely fictional substance made up by the cartoonists, and has nothing
to do with krypton. Krypton, argon and xenon are used in very bright light
bulbs, such as camera flashes. Radon is famous for lurking in basements and
causing health problems because of its radioactivity. (Radon’s radioactivity
isn’t an issue with its electrons.) These noble gases have a valence number
of 0 because they don’t want any electrons and they don’t have any to give
away. They are perfectly content. Why are they called “noble” gases? They Argon
aren’t royal, of course. However, if you give human personalities to atoms and is perfectly happy.
say that stealing electrons is bad behavior, then these gases certainly are noble
in that they stay out of fights and squabbles over electrons.

34
Activity 4.1 Determining valence numbers

Determine the valence number

of these atoms. We’ve drawn only the
outer electron shell because you don’t
need to see the inner ones to figure out
the valence. Remember, the valence is the
number of electrons an atom wants to
get, or to give away, in order to have 8 in
the outer shell. (Remember rule #4: “8
is great!”) (+) means extras to get rid of,
and (-) means empty spaces to fill. Choose
the smaller number as the valence. For
example, if you have a choice between a
valence of +6 or -2, choose -2 because 2 is
less than 6.

Activity 4.2 Lewis dot diagrams

We don’t even need to draw those rings in order to show the
valence electrons. (Scientists find all kinds of short-cuts!) All you
need to do is write the letter symbol for the atom, then put electron
dots around it, with a maximum of two per side (top, bottom, left,
right). This is called a Lewis dot diagram.
Look at the Lewis dot diagrams and figure out the atom’s valence number. This is almost exactly
what you did in the previous activity. The only difference is that there are no rings, just electron dots.

Now it’s your turn to be the artist and draw the Lewis dot diagrams.
Each atom is listed with its valence number. Draw the diagram for each.

Li (lithium) +1 _______ C (carbon) +4 _________

B (boron) +3 _______ Be (beryllium) +2 ________

I (iodine) -1 _______ K (potassium) +1 ________

N (nitrogen) -3 _______ S (sulfur) -2 _______

35
Activity 4.3 Some very silly element riddles
Here are some totally silly riddles about the names of some of the elements. There is no factual
information whatsoever in these riddles! The point of this activity is just to work on memorizing the
letter symbols (and have fun doing it). Fill in the name of the element in the blank.
1) Which element puts you to sleep? ________________
2) Which element describes an empty cookie jar? ______________
3) Which element describes what dogs do with bones? ______________
4) Which is the smartest element? ____________________
5) Which element is “far out”? ____________________
6) Which element speaks Spanish, French and German? ______________
7) Which element do you need when your clothes are wrinkled? __________
8) Which element is Superman’s least favorite? ___________
9) Which element has wings on its feet? ________________
10) Which element cheers for the Los Angeles Dodgers? ______________
11) Which element went to a Clown Convention? _______________
12) Which element is found in your wallet? ______________
13) Which element plays an equestrian sport? ________________
14) Which element is Dorothy’s favorite? (The scarecrow and tin man also like it.) ________________

Possible answers:

Es Ni B Eu Po Cf Kr
Ba Ar Si Hg Fe Pu Os
____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4.4 An on-line game (https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom)

The University of Colorado has a webpage that is very helpful for practicing all those numbers
on the Periodic Table. First, there’s the atomic number, which is the official number of each element
and is the number of protons it has. This is very important to remember. The number of protons
determines what element an atom is. Then there’s the atomic mass number, which is the combined
“weight” of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Protons and neutrons have a mass (“weight”)
of “1.” You can figure out how many neutrons are in an atom by subtracting the number of protons
from the mass number. However, you’ll notice that the atomic mass numbers are often complicated
numbers with decimal points. This is because they are averaging the weights of millions of atoms of
that element, and here and there you’ll find a few atoms that have one more or one less neutron than
most. So these “oddballs” have to be figured into the average weight. For atomic weight, just use the
closest whole number. Finally, there are the plus and minus signs which signify ions. Add or subtract
electrons and see how the electrical balance signs change. You’ll get the hang of it!

36
 Okay, now back to serious business...
Let’s look at another pattern on the Periodic Table. Here is the Table with only the valence numbers
written in. See if you can find a pattern. (It’s pretty obvious.)

For the most part, the elements in a column have the same valence number. Some elements
do, however, have more than one valence, especially the elements in the middle of the table, so we had
to simplify the table a bit. Only one valence number was chosen for each element so that the pattern
would be more obvious. Chemistry is always like this—things that are generally true, but with lots of
exceptions. In this book, we are emphasizing the things that are generally true.
This pattern is more than just an interesting mathematical curiosity. Think back to the story of
Dmitri Mendeleyev. Do you remember that Mendeleyev could predict what unknown elements were
going to be like before they were discovered? He did not know about valence numbers, but he did
know that all the elements in a column were strikingly similar. All would react, or not react, with the
same substances. All would have similar electrical properties. Although not identical, they would have
similarities in color or texture. Mendeleyev found that if he knew the characteristics of the element at
the top of a column, he could predict what the elements below it would be like.
These observations about similarities between elements eventually led chemists to divide up the
elements into “family groups.” Unfortunately, the names of the families are not anything interesting or
easy. They sound like chemistry names. The worst thing is that the first two have very similar names, so
it is easy to get them confused.

Alkali Metals
Alkali Earth Metals
Transition Metals
Metals
Semi-metals
Non-metals
Noble Gases
Lanthanide Series
Actinide Series

Notice how many “metals” there are. About 85% of all elements are classified as metals.
Sodium doesn’t seem like a metal since we most often meet it as a component of table salt. Yet when it
is isolated, pure sodium looks like a hard, shiny lump. If you’d like to see what the elements look like in
their pure form, use an image search with key words “Theodore Gray Periodic Table.”

37
Activity 4.5 Finding the “families” on the Periodic Table
Use the symbol code shown next to each element to color each square. Color lightly so you can still
see the letters and numbers. Or, you may want to just trace around the inside of each square with color. You can
choose any colors you want. Fill in the colors in the squares next to the family names, so you know what’s what.
(The unlabeled elements are the super heavy aratifical elements. Even some of the actinides are artifical, though.)

Alkali metals Semi-metals

Alkali earth metals Non-metals
Transition metals Halogens
"True" metals Noble gases
Lanthanide series Actinide series

In a future chapter we will

find out why these two
rows are at the bottom.

38
A silly story about real chemistry...

Once upon a time, in a land all around us, was the Periodic Kingdom. The royal family
of the kingdom lived on the eastern shore in their tall castle tower. They were the Noble
Gases: King Radon, Queen Xenon, Prince Krypton, Prince Argon, Princess Neon, and baby
Helium. The Noble Gas family were the most peaceful rulers a kingdom could hope for.
They never got upset and never argued with anyone. They remained calm no matter how
much turmoil was going on around them.
There was one square mile of land just outside the castle. This land had been divided
diagonally, split between two large families. The Metal family set up their homestead in the
south western corner. The other family, who lived in the northeast, had such a long last
name that no one could remember it, so they became known simply as the Non-metals.
Over the years, some members of the Metal family had married members of the Non-metal
family. They lived right in the middle, along the diagonal dividing line. This new family was
half Metal and half Non-metal, so they became known as the Semi-metals. After several
generations, one of the grandchildren decided he did not like being called a name that
sounded like “half-breed” so he decided to change the family surname to Metalloid.
In general, the members of the Non-metal family were very conscientious and hard-
working. (Without carbon and oxygen, for example, life on earth could not exist.) However,
one section of the Non-metal family had gone bad. They all lived on the street nearest to
the castle tower. The people of the kingdom called this street “Crime Alley.” These poor
wretches were always in need. Desperate to gain an electron, they would stop at nothing.

39
They would even steal or kill to get one. Ashamed to be associated with them, the Non-metals
began calling them by a different name: the Halogens. Some folks say this is a sarcastic
reference to a halo. Others say the name is based on a statement someone made about them
not being worth their salt. Either way, stay out of their neighborhood if you know what’s good
for you!
Situated in the middle of the kingdom was the town, with all the honest, hard-working
laborers. Many of them were miners who earned their living digging for iron, cobalt, nickel,
copper and zinc. There were also craftsmen such as silversmiths and goldsmiths. Notable
women of the town included Molly, Ruth and Rhoda. Between Molly and Ruth lived a
mysterious neighbor who was rarely at home. The strange geometric figure posted on his
door made Molly and Ruth nervous, and they told everyone to stay away from it.
On the very western edge of the kingdom lived a band of outlaws named the Alkali
Brothers. These outlaws weren’t the ordinary type-- they were more like Robin Hood and his
band of merry men. They represented generosity gone wrong. The members of the Alkali
family have an extra electron they would like to get rid of, but instead of being nice and simply
offering it to the poor, they forced the poor to take it whether they wanted it or not. The Alkalis
would resort even to violence, if necessary, to get a poor atom to accept an electron! Anyone
who came near an Alkali was in danger of being forced to take an electron. (Except the
Royals, that is. They lived an enchanted life, unaffected by any of the troubles around them.)
Some of the Alkali outlaws eventually recognized the errors of their ways, tried to
reform, and moved a little closer to town. Someone said they had “come back down to Earth”
(meaning that they had become more realistic about life) so they added “Earth” to their name
and called themselves the Alkali Earth family. However, they still had that Alkali blood running
in their veins and that made them pretty pushy. They each had two electrons to give away and
they really knew how to pressure folks into taking them!
On the south side of the kingdom was the Ghost Town. The houses all sat there with
names on the doors, but mostly there was never anyone home. Once in a while someone
would come into town with wild tales about having seen someone in one of the houses for a
split second before they disappeared into thin air.
The strangest part of the kingdom was underground. You could only get to it by way of
a narrow crack between two of the streets in town. The crack led down into an underground
cavern populated by two separate families: the Lanthanides and the Actinides. The
Lanthanides were friendly and spent their days mining for rare metals. The Actinides were a
treacherous species, and would throw radioactive hand grenades at anyone who came close
enough. Beware the Actinides!

40
 CHAPTER 5: MEET THE ALKALI AND HALOGEN FAMILIES
After reading that story, you are probably wanting to know more about these strange families.
Let’s start with the Alkali brothers, those Robin Hood bandits that live on the western shore of the
Periodic Kingdom. When we did the Quick and Easy Atomizer, you may have noticed that lithium and
sodium both had just one electron in their outer shells:

lithium sodium

Also, you will remember that electrons really don’t like to be alone. It goes against one of the
rules they live by: “Pair up!” That one electron in the outer ring doesn’t think it’s worth being part of
this atom if it has to be by itself. Therefore, it will try to get away, any chance it gets. It will even try to
force itself on atoms that don’t want it, which is why these guys are so dangerous. Imagine a group of
atoms floating around, minding their own business, when suddenly sodium comes along and “throws”
an electron at them. That unwanted electron could cause major disruption. Some substances get very
upset when sodium comes near them because sodium can cause quite a reaction—combustion, in
fact. If you put a piece of pure sodium into water you will get a spectacular “burning” reaction. Water
burning? You might have to see it to believe it.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5.1
Go to the YouTube playlist and you’ll find several vidoes that show what sodium does in water.
There are also a few videos that show other alkali metals, not just sodium. The alkali metals underneath
sodium are even worse!
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Since all the elements in a column tend to behave in the same way, (as Mendeleyev knew quite
well), we would expect that all the alkali metals would have strong reactions to water. This is true,
and, in fact, the reaction gets stronger as you go down the column. Cesium is the most reactive of all.
Francium is radioactive so you just don’t play with that one.
Oddly enough, alkali metals almost never look like metals. If it were not for electrolysis (putting
electrical wires into solutions) we would never see pure sodium, and would not know that it could look
like a shiny, gray metal. When we meet sodium and potassium in the real world (not in a lab) they don’t
look like metals at all. They are joined together with atoms of other elements to make molecules such
as salt or baking powder. As a general rule, you never, ever, meet the alkali metals by themselves. They
are always in the company of other elements. Some elements like gold or silver or sulfur can be on their
own, but not the alkali metals.

41
 On many Periodic Tables, hydrogen is placed right above lithium. Hydrogen
has only one electron, so it could be classified as a (+1) valence atom, like the
alkali elements in the first column. Hydrogen is super reactive, just like the alkali
metals, and is therefore very flammable. It’s famous for exploding and burning in
the Hindenburg air ship in 1937. However, hydrogen is always a gas and therefore
can’t be solid or shiny like a metal, so it really can’t be included in the Alkali family.
Some Periodic Tables choose to emphasize the uniqueness of hydrogen, and place
it at the top center of the Table, all by itself, instead of in the first column. Putting
hydrogen in the center, though, can create artistic problems for graphic designers
who are trying to make the table look nice, so H often gets placed above Li, freeing
up the center for other things.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5.2
If you would like to see the Hindenburg burning, there is a video posted in the YouTube playlist.
This film was taken by a movie camera that was rolling that day in 1937, intending to record a historic
flight, not a disaster. Oops.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

The Halogen family, which occupies the column right outside the castle tower, has the opposite
problem. They have an outer shell that is missing one electron. They are one short of a full shell and
that drives them crazy. So close! They are desperate to get that one last electron to fill that shell,
and will try to steal an electron from any atom that comes near. That’s why pure chlorine gas is so
dangerous. Chlorine atoms all by themselves make a green, poisonous gas. The reason it’s poisonous is
because of its dire need for an electron. Chlorine would love to find an atom that has an extra electron
to give away. Hey, wait a minute—are you thinking what we’re thinking? We’ve got one type of atom
that is desperate to get rid of an electron (the alkalies) and one type of atom that is desperate to get an
electron (the halogens). The answer is obvious, right? Why not pair these two up?!! Let’s introduce
sodium to chlorine and see what happens...

Hey, they like each other! In fact, they seem inseparable—it’s a perfect match! The chlorine
atom was glad to take the electron that sodium wanted to get rid of.
When two atoms join together, it’s called a molecule. This is a molecule of NaCl. We know it as
ordinary table salt. Remember, we told you that when you meet the alkali metals in real life, they don’t
look like metals at all. In salt, sodium definitely does not look like a metal, and chlorine doesn’t look like
a poisonous green gas, either. And though the two of them are dangerous by themselves, when joined
together they are safe. You can eat salt and it doesn’t hurt you.
The Greek word “halo” means “salt.” The word halogen means salt-forming. Any time a halogen
connects to an alkali metal, it forms a salt. That would mean that KCl would also be a salt, as well as KBr,
LiBr, KI, NaI, CsBr, etc. Any combination of an atom from the alkali metal family with an atom from the
halogen family is a salt.

42
 Now this creates some confusion, doesn’t it? When chemists talk about
“salts” they are not talking about just table salt; they are talking about a whole
group of molecules. However, when non-chemists talk about salt, they are
usually talking about the stuff we shake onto food. That’s why chemists are very
careful to say “table salt” when they are talking about NaCl.

There is a special word for this type of bonding, where one atom gets rid
of an electron and the other takes it. It’s called ionic bonding. The root word is
“ion.” So what’s an ion?
An ion is an atom that has an unequal number of electrons and protons. We know that an atom
all by itself has to be electrically balanced, with an equal number of electrons and protons, so that the
positive charges and negative charges are equal. If an atom has either more protons than electrons, or
more electrons than protons, it is called an “ion.” The word “ion” comes from Greek and means “going.”
Michael Faraday, one of the scientists who discovered electricity in the early 1800s, chose this name
for these unbalanced atoms. Where are the ions going? Faraday saw them going to metal electrodes
that were stuck into chemical solutions. Some ions would go over to the postive electrodes and others
would go to the negative electrodes.

Let’s look at the sodium and chlorine atoms while they are bonded to each other.

Here is an electron/proton count:

electrons protons
Na (sodium) 10 11

Cl (chlorine) 18 17
sodium chlorine
Sodium has 10 negative electrons and 11 positive protons. Since negative and positive sort of
cancel each other (like positive and negative numbers in math), this means that sodium has an overall
electrical charge of +1. Conversely, the overall charge of chlorine is -1 because it has one more negative
electron than it does positive protons.
Chemists write ions like this: Na+ or Ca2+ They put the overall electrical charge in very small
type (called superscript) at the top right of the letters. If the number happens to be a 1, they often
leave out the 1 and just put a positive or negative sign, as though the 1 was invisible.
Since our sodium and chlorine ions now have opposite electrical charges, Na+ and Cl-, they are
attracted to each other and the ions stick together. (Always remember: opposites attract.)

What makes table salt safe to eat, when sodium and chlorine
are so dangerous? When sodium and chlorine are bonded together,
they are both very content. Sodium no longer wants to get rid of an
electron, and chlorine has the extra it wanted. Everyone is happy.
Therefore, a molecule of NaCl is very safe. You can hold salt in your
hand and it just sits there. If you put salt into water, though, you
can get the two to separate. Once separated, the two atoms have
the potential to be very dangerous again. Water, however, has
a way to deal with this. Fortunately, our bodies are full of water
molecules, so we can safely eat salt. (In fact, sodium and chlorine ions are essential to our health!)

43
Activity 5.3 Tear apart salt molecules and put them back together again
For this activity you will need a hair dryer, salt, water, a bowl and two plates. If you have a
magnifying lens, add this to your list, so you can get a close-up look at the crystals.
How would you go about tearing sodium away from chlorine? Use microscopic pliers? Actually,
all you need to do is put them into a glass of water. The water molecules will pull the sodium atoms
away from the chlorine atoms. We call this process “dissolving.”
Put some salt into the water and stir it. The salt will seem to disappear. As the sodium and
chlorine molecules detach from each other, the water molecules form “cages” around them.

A water molecule looks like this.

The side with the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge
and the side with the hydrogens has a slight positive charge.

The sodium ions in the lattice (the square pattern) have a

positive charge. Therefore they are attracted to the oxygen
atoms in the water molecules. The chlorine ions have a
slight negative charge and are attracted to the hydrogens
in the water molecules. Remember, sodium gave away
its extra electron. It doesn’t get it back in this situation.
Sodium goes on without the electron, continuing on as
a positive ion. Water is able to coax sodium away from
chlorine without it getting its electron back again.

This is what salt water looks like on the atomic level:

They're in
water "cages"!

Cl is negative,
so the water molecules
turn their postive sides Na is positive, so the
towards Cl. water molecules turn
their negative sides
towards Na.

Pour two puddles of salt water (about an inch in diameter), one on each plate. Make sure they
are far enough apart so that you can dry one with the hair dryer without the other one being affected.
Leave one puddle to evaporate on its own. Blow the other puddle with the dryer so that it evaporates
quickly. What you are doing is removing water molecules. With the water molecules gone, the sodium
and chlorine atoms once again bond together. You should see crystals forming. Observe both puddles
after they are completely dry. Which crystals look more like salt crystals? The ones that dried more
slowly had more time to make nice crystals. The ones that were hurried with the hair dryer had to do
a rush job. (Have you ever had to do something in a big hurry and felt like you could have done it a lot
better if you had had more time?)

44
 So the alkali metals love to pair up with the halogens. They give and take their electrons and are
very happy together. And when they get together, the result is always a salt.
What about the “cousins” of the Alkali brothers? The ones that reformed and decided to be just
pushy instead of dangerous? In our story we said that they “came back to Earth” in their attitude, so
they became the Alkali Earth Metals. This isn’t really the reason the word “earth” is in their name, but
the story is a great way to remember their name, and it is true that they are not quite as bad as the alkali
metals, but are still very insistent on giving away the two electrons in their outer shell.
The most famous alkali earth metals are magnesium and calcium. How
many times have you been told to drink milk because it has calcium in it?
(Spinach has calcium, too!) Our bodies need both calcium and magnesium in
order to work properly. Magnesium was one of the atoms you made when you
did the Quick and Easy Atom-izer. Here it is, on the right, showing its two lonely
electons in the outer shell. To fill the shell, it would have to find another six
electrons. It’s easier for magnesium just to give away those two.
Now let’s think about the Periodic Table. What column on the table
has atoms that would like to get two electrons? The column to the left of the Magnesium
halogens. This column is made of oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and
polonium. Let’s try matching up magnesium with oxygen and see what happens.

The recipe for what we have made is MgO. The name for it is magnesium
oxide. You can find this substance occurring in nature as the mineral periclase. This
mineral can be used in a lot of ways. It is the primary ingredient in some stomach
medicines that relieve heartburn. It is used in making fireproof construction materials
and as insulation against electrical fires in cables. Both humans and animals can take
it as a way to get magnesium in their diet. Magnesium is necessary for your body to
heal itself. A magnesium compound called epsom salt can be added to warm water to
A sample of periclase
make a solution to soak in. Magnesium helps both skin and muscles stay healthy.

Once again, we have ionic bonding going on. Whenever you have elements on the left side of
the Table pairing up with elements on the far right side, you get an ionic bond (two atoms giving and
taking electrons), and the result is a salt. Would magnesium be just as happy with sulfur as it is with
oxygen? Yes, it would. Sulfur also needs two electrons. If you pair magnesium and sulfur you get MgS,
magnesium sulfide. This substance doesn’t have nearly as many uses as MgO. However, if you need
to get rid of sulfur, magnesium is always willing to take it. During steel production, iron is heated up so
hot that it becomes a liquid. Unfortunately, the molten iron has some other things mixed in with it, and
sulfur is often one of them. You don’t want sulfur in your iron. How do you strain out the sulfur? One
way is to dump powdered magnesium into the molten iron. The magnesium will go around pulling all
the sulfur atoms out of the steel. Then the magnesium and sulfur bond together and form MgS, which
floats on the surface and can be raked off. Isn’t that a clever use of chemistry?

45
 Epsom salt is a combination of magnesium ions (Mg2+) and sulfur ions (S2-), with four oxygens
thrown into the deal, too. The recipe is MgSO4. Epsom salts were first discovered in Epsom, England, in
the 1600s. However, it wasn’t until the 1800s that magnesium was officially discovered as an element
and given the name “magnesium.”
Sir Humphry Davy was the scientist who discovered magnesium. He also
discovered a number of other alkali elements including sodium, potassium,
calcium, barium and strontium. He used electricity to pull alkali atoms away
from their molecules. Davy used a simple battery (a Voltaic pile) to make
positive and negative electrodes that could be put into chemical solutions
containing alkali elements. The element ions would go over (remember, “ion”
means “going”) to one of the electrodes and stick there. In this way a whole
clump of pure element could be produced. This is the way the alkali elements
were isolated so they could be studied and named.
Davy was quite a showman, too. People would buy tickets to hear him
lecture and to see him perform his chemistry demonstrations. One of his
most famous demonstrations involved not alkali elements, but nitrogen and oxygen. When these two
elements are joined to make N2O, the result is a gas called nitrous oxide, or “laughing gas.”

Alkali earth metals can be a lot of fun when they are added to explosives
and shot up into the air. (Fireworks!) Magnesium burns white, calcium burns
orange, strontium burns red, and barium burns green. Which one of these alkali
earth metals is safe enough to use in sparklers? Is it on the top or bottom of the
table? When the alkali metals burn in water, which one is the least dangerous?
Where is it located on the table, top or bottom? Do you see a pattern?
The alkali metals also produce colors when they burn. Sodium, for example, burns with a yellow
color. Sunlight is a yellow color because there is a lot of sodium in the sun. Sodium is also used in
outdoor lighting. Sodium lights burn with an eerie yellow glow. Lithium burns pinkish-red and potassium
burns lilac purple.
_______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5.4 Watch some alkali elements go up in flames

Go to the YouTube playlist and look for the video(s) showing “flame tests.” Each element burns
with a different color. You can identify the elements in a compound by looking at the color of the flame.
________________________________________________________________________________

Barium often bonds with sulfur to form barium sulfate, BaSO4, also
known as the mineral barite. (In the UK, it is spelled "baryte.") The Greek
word "barus" means "heavy," and barium is, indeed, one of the heavier
elements. The heaviness of barium is a great help to the oil and gas
drilling industry. Barium powder is added to the drilling fluids in order to
prevent blow-outs in wells. Barite is a natural, non-toxic substance, so it
does not add any pollution to the environment.
A sample of barite in the form
Barium shows up very clearly on x-rays, so doctors will ask a patient
of a “desert rose.” to drink a liquid containing barium before the x-ray is taken. The barium
makes every twist and turn of the digestive system visible.
When barium is combined with nitrogen and oxygen to make barium nitrate, you get a compound
that burns bright green and is used in fireworks. Barium can be made toxic by combining it with carbon
and oxygen to make barium carbonate. This compound has been used as rat poison.

46
Meanwhile, back in the laboratory of the Atomic Chef...

Hello, hello. Welcome back!

Did you figure out that the empty
jars in the last episode were
all gases? Great! Today’s
topic is seasonings, salts
in particular.

Most of us like a little salt But I can make salts other

than “table salt” by combin-
on things like popcorn, potato ing elements from these
chips and veggies. two groups.
Without salt we
think they
taste “flat.”

This kind of salt

is “table salt.”

For example, I can take sodium (Na)

NaF (sodium fluoride) These are
and combine it with any of
the halogens and get
is found in toothpaste. all salts!
different kinds of salts!
NaCl (sodium chloride)
is table salt.

Na - - - F NaBr (sodium bromide)

is used as a medicine
Na - - - Cl and in photography.

Na - - - Br NaI (sodium iodide)

is used in nuclear
medicine to treat and
Na - - - I diagnose diseases.

47
 I can just as easily take potassium (K) and
combine it with each of the halogens, KF (potassium fluoride) Voila!
And presto! is used in chemical industries. More salts!
More salts!
KCl (potassium chloride)
can be used as a substitute for
sodium chloride (table salt).
K - - - F
KBr (potassium bromide)
K - - - Cl is used as an epilepsy medicine.

KI (potassium iodide)
K - - - Br is added to NaCl to make
“iodized” salt, providing
iodine in our diets. It’s also
K - - - I used in photographic processes.

I can take alkali earth metals and com-

What about calcium (Ca)?
bine them with non-metals to
Will it make salts?
make even more salts.
Let’s see what we get.
(Sometimes I add some extra
ingredients like a dash of
I wonder what CaS is?
oxygen, just to spice it up.) I’ll mix some up and set
it next to the sink.

MgO magnesium oxide

MgS magnesium
H2 O
sulfide

MgSO4 “Epsom salts”

CaS

Aack!! I just remembered what Tune in next time when the

calcium sulfide does when water is Atomic Chef will try to make
present-- it forms H2S, something that doesn’t have
that horrible gas that anything to do with H2S!
smells like rotten eggs!
Aaahhhh!

H2S,
that wonderful
rotten egg stuff!!

48
 CHAPTER 6: THE NOBLE GASES AND THE NON-METALS

Think back to our Periodic Kingdom fairy tale. Do you remember the description of the Noble
Gas family? They were the most peaceful rulers a kingdom could hope for. Nothing ever upset them.
The real science behind this part of the story is that the noble gases are the only elements on the
Table that have the exact number of electrons they want in their outer shells. Of course, using words
like “peaceful” and “happy” to describe something that isn’t alive is a little silly, but it does help us to
remember the real science.
A chemist would say that the noble gases are “inert,” which means they don’t react with
anything. An atom of helium doesn’t want to give or get any electrons because its outer shell is full.
Therefore, it will not interact with the atoms around it. Because it is
inert, helium won’t react with the atoms in your body, which is why it
isn’t dangerous to take a breath of it in order to talk funny.
Helium was named after the Greek god of the sun, “Helios,”
because the sun was the first place that helium was discovered.
The discovery was made in the year 1868 using a machine called a
spectroscope. If you look at a light source through a spectroscope
you will see colored lines. Each element has a unique pattern of lines. A scientist of the 1800s using
Sodium’s pattern is very simple and consists of basically two yellow lines. a spectrometer
(To see the pattern you have to heat or burn the sodium so that it makes
light.) Looking at the sun is a bit risky, as it can cause eye damage. The
discoverers of helium looked at the sun during an eclipse, when the light Helium’s spectral pattern
was reduced and therefore less dangerous to look at. They saw sodium’s
two yellow lines, plus many others that they recognized, but they also saw a new pattern they didn’t
recognize. They understood that what they were seeing was probably a new element and they
immediately named it helium, thinking it was a special element found only in the sun. Then, in 1903,
large amounts of helium were found mixed in with natural gas deposits. Later, it was also found mixed
in with uranium ore. Helium was definitely part of the earth’s natural chemistry, not just the sun’s.
(Later, it was discovered that helium is a by-product of radioactive decay.)

Because the noble gases are inert, they are ideal for use in light bulbs.
They will not ignite or explode and are safe even when exposed to
electrical currents. Neon is (obviously) used in neon lights, argon
is used in ordinary bulbs, krypton is found in fluorescent bulbs and
camera flashes, and xenon is put into ultraviolet lamps, camera flashes,
and lighthouse bulbs. The xenon bulb shown here is used to project
IMAX films, which require a very bright light source. Helium, neon and
Attribution: Atlant, on Wikipedia “xenon” argon are also found in the most common types of lasers.

You may have heard that radon causes lung cancer. This noble gas is inert,
just like all the others, so why does it cause problems? The problem with radon is
not its electrons, but its nucleus. Radon is radioactive, which means its nucleus is
throwing out harmful particles. Radon occurs naturally in the earth, especially in
areas that have lots of uranium. Mostly, radon just goes up into the air and gets
lost in the atmosphere. It only causes problems when a whole lot of it seeps up
into the basement of a building or into a mine shaft.

49
 We already talked about one
section of non-metals, the halogens.
The other members of the non-metal
group are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulfur, and selenium. Some
chemists also include boron in the non-metal group. We could also include hydrogen as a non-metal if
we wanted to. Hydrogen is sort of a group unto itself, but it is found connected to carbon and oxygen so
often that we could legitimately think of it as a non-metal.

Nitrogen makes up almost 80% of the air we breathe. Nitrogen gas is

made of two atoms of nitrogen bonded to each other to form N2. The nitrogen
we breathe doesn’t do anything but take up space in our lungs. It’s the oxygen
that we need from the air. We do need nitrogen in our bodies, though, as it
is an essential ingredient in proteins. The nitrogen atoms found in proteins
come from the food we eat, however, not the air we breathe. Plants have a
similar situation. They need nitrogen to make chlorophyll, but they can’t get
the nitrogen out of the air. Nitrogen is all around them, but the plants can’t
use it. For a plant to be able to take in nitrogen, the nitrogen atoms must be
attached to molecules in the soil. Fortunately, there are bacteria in the soil that
are capable of taking nitrogen out of the air and putting it into a form that plants
can use. They are called “nitrogen-fixing” bacteria. You can find these bacteria
growing in colonies on the roots of certain plants. The bacteria colony will look
like a little bump about the size of the head of a pin. These bacteria prefer to grow
on the roots of beans, peas, peanuts, soybeans and clover. Ancient farmers knew
that these plants enriched the soil, but they did not know why. They rotated their
crops each year, so that each field would get a turn having a bean crop in it. The
beans would restore the nitrogen to the soil. In modern times, farmers just put
nitrogen fertilizer on their fields.

If you have a super-powerful refrigeration unit, and can cool nitrogen down to several hundred
degrees below zero, it turns into a liquid—a very cold liquid, so cold that it can freeze things instantly. As
soon as it is exposed to air or water, it boils and evaporates, returning to its gaseous state, returning to
the air from whence it came.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 6.1 Fun with liquid nitrogen
Liquid nitrogen isn’t easy to get. It takes a special (expensive) refrigeration unit to get the
temperature down to hundreds of degrees below zero. Fortunately, some folks who do have access to
liquid nitrogen have filmed their demonstrations and posted them on the Internet. Go to YouTube.com/
TheBasementWorkshop and you’ll find some liquid nitrogen experiments on The Elements playlist.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Oxygen makes up about 20% of the air we breathe. Just like nitrogen, oxygen goes
around in pairs (O2). A single oxygen atom is a very unhappy atom because it has two
empty electron slots in its outer shell. One oxygen atom by itself is very dangerous. We’ve
learned to use this to our advantage, though, when we want to get rid of germs. Bleach,
NaClO, has that single oxygen atom hanging on the end of the NaCl, and it can fall off very
easily. When the oxygen atom falls off, it goes about looking for electrons. It will steal
electrons from anything nearby, hopefully a germ that we want to kill anyway. A whole “Help! I’m
bunch of single oxygens can wreck a bacteria’s molecules so badly that it dies. surrounded by
single oxygens!”

50
 When two oxygen atoms pair up as O2, the electron math doesn’t work out perfectly. If each
oxygen atom wants to get 2 electrons, then how can they be happy together? They work out an
arrangement where they each share one of their electron pairs. Electrons move so fast that they can
almost be in two places at the same time. Almost. So for a split second, one oxygen will have its own 6
electrons plus the 2 it is borrowing, to make 8 in the outer shell. For that split second it is happy. Then
it must return the favor and share a pair with the other atom. This would mean that for a split second it
would only have 4. But before it can get really unhappy about that, it’s suddenly time to receive again,
and it finds itself with 8 for another split second. This back and forth sharing happens so fast that the
atoms feel like they have 8. Or at least they feel like they have 8 just often enough to prevent them from
splitting up into singles. However, the fact that they are not completely content with the situation is also
what makes them so useful to living things. They can be split up and used for many biological processes.
Oxygen is also necessary for the energy-releasing process of combustion (burning).

Oxygen is a main ingredient in many minerals. Oxygen bonds with silicon

to make silicon dioxide, SiO2. Sand, glass and quartz crystals are made of SiO2. The
minerals hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) are commonly found in the earth’s
crust. Even ice, which is frozen H2O, can be classified as an oxide mineral.
A hematite carving

Speaking of H2O, let’s take a look at how these atoms stay together.
We won’t see an ionic bond here. Ionic bonds are formed only by the
elements on the far sides of the table. An atom on the left side pairs up
with an atom on the far right side, such as sodium and chlorine. Oxygen
does not make ionic bonds. Non-metal atoms form a type of bond called
covalent. In covalent bonds, electrons are actually shared, not given
away. We won’t see any electrically unbalanced atoms here. The atoms
match themselves up so that they can all share their electrons. For example, oxygen has 6 electrons in its
outer shell and hydrogen has 1. Two hydrogens can get together with one oxygen and all three of them
together have a total of 8 electrons. The 8 electrons circulate around (at lightning speed) and make sure
all the atoms are happy. (Of course, hydrogen is very small and doesn’t want 8. It only wants 2.)

Another example of covalent bonding is carbon dioxide. One

carbon atom gets together with two oxygen atoms. The oxygens would
like to gain 2, and the carbon doesn’t mind sharing its 4. As electrons
move very quickly, the atoms can manage to share the 8’s.

Sulfur also has 4 electrons in its outer shell. Sulfur can bond with two oxygens, just like carbon
can. SO2 is called sulfur dioxide. (You may be catching on by now that “di” means “two.”) Sulfur dioxide
is a poisonous gas. When it is released into the air (often by
coal-burning factories), it causes air pollution and acid rain. It’s
not just humans that make sulfur dioxide, though. Volcanoes
make far more of it than any factory does.

Now here is a very strange covalent molecule:

H2O2, hydrogen peroxide. This is the stuff that looks
like water but is used for first aid, to clean cuts and
scrapes on your skin. Let’s do an electron count. The
hydrogens each have 1 electron, and the oxygens each
have 6. That’s 6+6+1+1=14. Whoa! How can that be?

51
Hydrogen peroxide is water with an extra oxygen stuck on. Water is perfectly content the way it is. Why
would it want another oxygen stuck onto it? This is another case of an oxygen atom that can easily fall off its
molecule and become a dangerous single oxygen. If you want to kill germs, single oxygens can really help!

Phosphorus was first discovered in the year 1669 when a chemist was boiling a batch of... urine.
No kidding, he collected hundreds of gallons of pee and was going to boil it until it turned into gold.
(Well, urine is yellow, gold is yellow—could be a connection there.) What his experiment produced was
far more amazing than gold. It looked like a disgusting lump of yuck (and it smelled terrible) but when
he heated it, it glowed with a brilliant white light. Back in the 1600s they had never seen a light bulb,
so glowing phosphorus must have seemed almost magical. He had discovered one of phophorus’ more
interesting qualities. The name phosphorus means “light-bearer.”
Pure phosphorus can be either white or red. In white phosphorus you find 4
atoms binding together to cope with their three empty electron slots. Eventually, white
phosphorus turns into red phosphorus as those foursomes split apart. You’ve seen red
phosphorus on the tips of matches. Match heads also contain sulfur, another non-metal.
Phosphorus is also involved in energetic tasks in living cells. When combined
with oxygen, it’s the P in the ATP—a molecule that acts like a rechargeable battery.
Phosphorus is necessary in other process, also. Many foods contain phosphorus, so
most of us receive plenty in our diet. Carbonated beverages often acid phosphoric acid
to give the refreshing sour snap, though the sour must be balanced by lots of sugar.
Because of all the sugar, carbonated beverages do more harm than good. White phosphorus

Carbon is the most amazing atom in the non-metal group. Because it has a valence of +4 or -4, it
can bond with itself or with other atoms in all kinds of ways. When carbon bonds with itself, it can make
something as humble and inexpensive as graphite (the “lead” in pencils) or as valuable
as a diamond. It may be hard to believe, but graphite and diamonds both have the
same chemical recipe: just carbon. How, then, can they be so different?
To discover the answer we must look at how the carbons are bonded to
each other. In the case of diamond, the basic geometrical shape looks like a
pyramid. When millions upon millions of these molecules are bonded
together like this, we get a diamond. The bonds in this shape are very
strong, which is what makes diamonds so hard.

Another shape that carbon can bond into is a six-sided hexagon. Graphite is layer upon layer of
flat sheets of connected hexagons. The sheets are only loosely held together, and can slide back and
forth. This is why pencils rub off onto paper, and why graphite can be used as a dry lubricant. (Graphite
from a pencil can be rubbed onto the bottom of wooden dresser drawers to make them slide in and
out more easily.) Technically, if you could squeeze the graphite in your pencil hard enough to make the
carbons change their geometry from hexagons into pyramids, you could make a diamond.

52
 The most fantastic shape carbon can
make looks exactly like a soccer ball. Sixty carbons
join together to form a sphere made of hexagons
and pentagons. Since this shape looks a bit
like the geodesic domes used in architecture,
it was named after an architect famous for
designing geodesic domes, Buckminster Fuller.
Chemists decided to name this molecule
“buckminsterfullerene,” (or “buckyball” for short).

Carbon is the central atom in all organic molecules. We call molecules “organic” if they
are organized around carbon atoms. Some types of organic molecules are found in plants, animals
and microorganisms, such as DNA, proteins, sugars and starches. You are have undoubtedly seen
drawings of the DNA molecule, with its intriguing and beautiful double helix shape. You are very
familiar the organic molecules called proteins, starches, and fats because you eat them every day.
You need to eat them because they are the raw materials your body uses to make its cells and
organs. You are made of thousands of different types of carbon-based molecules.

Other kinds of organic molecules aren’t found in living things. The molecules that plastic is made
of, for example, are called organic because they contain long chains of carbon atoms. Gasoline and other
petroleum products are made of long strings of carbon atoms and are therefore classified as organic.

Sulfur is right under oxygen on the Periodic Table. This means it also has
6 electrons in its outer shell, and would like to gain 2 more to make 8. It will,
therefore, have some chemical similarities to oxygen. However, sulfur atoms
are larger than oxygen atoms, having an atomic mass (weight) double that of
oxygen. Larger atoms are less likely to be gases. (Krypton, xenon and radon are
curious exceptions to this rule.) Pure sulfur is found as a yellow solid and has a
Pure sulfur is a yellow solid.
strong odor. That’s one of sulfur’s characteristics—it smells. Sulfur is found in
many organic molecules in both plants and animals. It’s the key element in the
stink of skunks and garlic. When eggs go rotten, they produce hydrogen sulfide,
H2S, which smells bad in a sulfur-ish way.
Sulfur is part of several amino acids (the stuff that proteins are made of). Its
presence in hair proteins makes hair waterproof. Sulfur can allow molecules to
Garlic gets it smell from the make “cross-bridges” which makes them tougher. It can be added to rubber to
sulfur compounds it contains. keep it from melting in high temperatures and cracking in low temperatures.

Selenium is right under sulfur in the Periodic Table, which means it has the same number of
electrons in its outer shell. Since selenium has the same valency as sulfur, it is sometimes found in
minerals that usually contain sulfur, with selenium taking the place of sulfur. The metal atoms in these
minerals are happy with either sulfur or selenium; it doesn’t make a significant difference
to them. Both S and Se want to make 2 bonds, and that’s the most important issue to
the metal atoms. They’ll bond with either one.
Selenium’s name comes from the Greek word for the moon, “selene.” Selenium
doesn’t have any features of the moon. It seems that the discoverer of selenium noticed
its striking similarities to the element tellurium, right underneath it on the Table. He
thought that since tellurium was named after the earth, perhaps the “earth element”
should have a “moon element” above it. Or so the story goes. Selenium is named
after the moon.

53
 Selenium is found in some key molecules in our bodies, but it is not as abundant as oxygen and
sulfur. Some people take selenium supplements because selenium is needed to build protective enzymes
that can catch dangerous fragments of broken molecules, called "free radicals."
Selenium used to be used quite a bit in the electronics industry, but now silicon has taken over.
Selenium is still used by the glass making industry, and it is also a key ingredient in solar cells.

The halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine) are a subset of the non-metal
group. We can think of them as non-metals, or as the salt-making halogens. Both are correct.
Some chemists like to put boron, silicon, arsenic and tellurium into the non-metal group, as well.
This causes a lot of confusion for chemistry students. If you do a search on the Internet for Periodic Tables,
you will find that some tables color code these elements to be in the non-metal group. Other tables will
have them color coded to match the metal group along with aluminum and tin. And still others will split
the difference and put them into their own
group called the semi-metals. Who should
we believe? In the end, it doesn’t matter
too much how they are classified because
the elements don’t care, and classification
doesn’t change them in any way. They are
what they are, no matter what we call them.
Perhaps the most important lesson to learn
here is that scientists don’t always agree!

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 6.2 Watch a demonstration that uses noble gases

Except for helium, noble gases are not items we can buy at a store. Therefore,
we have to rely on generous scientists who take the time to post their noble gas video
demonstrations. There should be one or more posted for you at the Elements playlist.
One of them shows six balloons, each one filled with a different noble gas. What will
happen when the demonstrator lets them go? Helium is easy to predict, but what
about xenon?
If you like silly animated cartoons, you'll like the video with funny rhymes and
cartoon pictures about the noble gases.

Activity 6.3 A famous silly song about the elements

A number of years ago, an entertainer named Tom Lehrer wrote and

performed “The Elements Song.” The lyrics of the song are simply the names of
the elements, rearranged so that they rhyme. (This means they are not in order,
so you can’t use this song to memorize the Table.) There are several versions
of this song posted on The Elements playlist on the YouTube channel. One
version is a historical film (in black and white) of Mr. Lehrer performing his song
for an audience. Another version provides a nice picture of each element as it
is named, and a third version has the song slowed down so you have a better
chance of being able to sing along.

54
Activity 6.4 A puzzle about carbon-based molecules

There’s nothing like carbon when you want to form

bonds. Carbon bonds in more ways and with more elements
than anything else on the Periodic Table. It’s the “nice guy”
among the elements. You could imagine it being willing to shake
hands and form friendships with just about anyone. It also likes to link up with other carbons and make
long chains. Long chains of carbon atoms that have hydrogens all along the sides are called hydrocarbons.
Small hydrocarbon chains make things like natural gas (methane) and gasoline (petroleum). Medium-
sized chains make things like wax, paraffin, and tar. Really long chains are found in plastics. Hydrocarbon
chains can have other atoms attached to them, too, besides hydrogens. When chlorine joins the chain,
we get PVC plastic (polyvinyl chloride) that is used for plumbing pipes.
Carbon also forms the “backbone” of many of the molecules in your body. Carbon atoms are the
foundation, or anchoring points, for the other atoms in the molecules. Attached to the carbons, you’ll
find many of our non-metal friends: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. In specialized
bio molecules, you might find some metal atoms such as iron (in hemoglobin that carries oxygen) or zinc
(in molecules that control DNA). Carbon and its non-metal friends can be combined in almost endless
ways, forming the vast number of biological molecules that make living things.
In this puzzle, write the letter symbol that goes with the atomic number written under each blank.
For example, for the number 6 you would write the letter “C” for carbon. The letters will spell out the
name of a substance that has carbon-based molecules. (Some letters don’t appear by themselves on the
table, so they have been written in.)
NOTE for 13): The old name for 105 is used here.
Find out what it was called before 1997.

1) ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 8) ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ D 13) ___ ___
15 57 16 22 6 95 49 8 89 53 105 77
(building block of proteins)

2) ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 9) ___ ___ ___

9 85 16
14) G ___ ___ ___
31 16 8 3 10 71 52 7
(a type of wax)

10) ___ ___ __ __ ___

3) ___ ___ ___ ___ 91 88 9 9 49 15) ___ ___ L ___ ___
59 8 91 10 7 39 8 7

11) ___ L ___ ___ ___ R

4) ___ ___ ___ ___ T 84 39 99 52 16) ___ ___ __ ___ __ ___ ___
33 15 1 13 18 22 9 53 6 53 13

___ ___ ___ ___ RS

12) G ___ ___ ___ 9 57 23 8
5) ___ ___ ___ L 71 27 34
13 27 67 (a sugar)

17) ___ __ ___ T __ ___ __ R

6) ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ L 15 57 7 9 53 4
5 92 6 19 39 5 13

7) ___ ___ ___ E___ ___ TRIVA QUIZ: What two letters of the alphabet do not
20 9 9 53 10
appear in any of the symbols on the Periodic Table?

55
Activity 6.5 Practice makes perfect!
Here is a review activity to jog your memory about what you learned in past chapters.
1) If an atom could be enlarged to be the size of a sports stadium and the nucleus was sitting in the
middle of the field, about how big would the nucleus be?
a) the size of a watermelon b) the size of a marble c) the size of a car d) the size of an elephant

2) What do you call an atom that has more electrons than protons, or more protons than electrons?
a) an alkali b) an isotope c) radioactive d) an ion e) covalent
3) What is the valence number for oxygen? a) -2 b) -1 c) 0 d) +1 e) +2
4) What “family group” on the Periodic Table is perfectly happy? ______________________
5) What “family group” has only 1 electron in their outer shells? ________________
6) What “family group” has 7 electrons in their outer shells? ___________________
7) Which element causes the stink in skunks and garlic? ___________________
8) Which element can form a circle called a buckyball? __________________
9) Which element is taken from the air by bacteria and put into the soil? ___________________
10) Which element was first discovered in the sun? _______________

Match the formulas with their common names. (Word bank: plaster, sand, Teflon, salt, bleach)
11) SiO2 _________
12) NaCl _________
13) NaClO __________
14) C2F4 __________
15) CaSO4 _____________
“We know all the answers but we’re not not telling!”
16) An atom of magnesium is most likely to bond with: a) N b) C c) O d) F e) Ne
17) An atom of potassium is most likely to bond with: a) Na b) B c) Ca d) Mg e) Cl
18) The atomic number is the number of ___________ that an atom has.
19) Which of these things is NOT made of carbon? a) diamonds b) graphite c) coal d) glass

20) Which of these statements is NOT true about electrons?

a) Electrons don’t like to be close to each other. b) Electrons like to “work” in pairs.
c) Electrons have a positive electrical charge. d) Electrons weigh almost nothing.

BONUS QUESTIONS (a little harder)

1) What atom is this? 1s22s22p63s23p4? ____________

2) Protons and neutrons have a mass (weight) of 1 amu (atomic mass unit). The mass of an atom is equal
to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. If an atom of uranium has a mass of 238 and
uranium’s atomic number is 92, then how many neutrons does this atom have? ______

3) When you see a number outside of the parentheses, like the 2 in this formula: (OH)2, that means you
have two of whatever is inside of those parentheses, in this case 2 (OH)’s. So you have 2 O’s and 2 H’s.
How many O’s (oxygens) are in this mineral? _____ Ca10Mg2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)4

56
 Today’s an exciting day here
in the kitchen because we’ll be
going on a scavenger hunt.
What will we be looking
for? Examples of
chemical recipes out
there in the real world!
I’ll show you the list.

These are the recipes

Of course we could
we’ll be trying to find. make all these things
Do you recognize any of in my kitchen, but that
them? would be cheating. Let’s
get into my atomic car
and go for a drive!

We’re hardly out of the driveway and I’ve I’ve spotted two more
already found two recipes on our list: CO2,
things on the list: H2O,
carbon dioxide, and CO, carbon monoxide. The
exhaust from my car contains both of these! water and SiO2, sand!
Both are produced by combustion.

57
 These factories are making another item on Well, I still have one left on
our list: SO2, sulfur dioxide. Unfortunately, my list: NH3, ammonia. But it’s
it’s not good for the environment. time to go home, so I guess I
didn’t find everything--
better luck next time.

It’s nice to be back

home, but... what is Oh! I forgot to change Atomic
that terrible smell? Kitty’s litter box! The stinky litter
It’s making my nose is releasing ammonia into the
feel like it’s air. Wet diapers do the same
burning! thing if they sit for a while.

Well, at least I found the last In our next episode,

thing on the list: NH3, ammonia! we’ll be mixing up some
It was a successful hunt very hot soup. I don’t
after all! expect anything
smelly this time--
just super hot!

58
 CHAPTER 7: METALS: SEMI-, PURE, AND TRANSITION

Working our way to the south and the west in our Periodic Kingdom, we come to the semi-
metals. They live along the diagonal line, in between the metals and the non-metals. In our fairy
tale, we made up that part about the non-metal family having a difficult last name that no one could
remember. It just sounded like a logical reason for them to be called non-metals, and it made the story
more interesting. But it is true that the semi-metals can also be called the metalloids. You will see both
names used equally.

The metalloid neighborhood is anything but a settled

place. Chemists don’t all agree about exactly where the
dividing line is. Some say boron should be a metalloid, others
say not. Some say polonium should be a metalloid, others say
it is a true metal. So don’t be overly concerned about trying
to remember which are which because chemists don’t even
know for sure! In this booklet, we’ll just choose the pattern
that is easiest to remember. We are going to use a stair-step
right down the diagonal, then add two squares under the
middle. Looks nice, eh?

The only metalloid we'll discuss is silicon. (The others are used in high-tech
industries in various ways, and astatine is radioactive—more about that in the next
chapter.) Have you ever heard of “Silicon Valley” in California? You might think
that’s where you can find a lot of silicon in the soil, but the name actually comes
from the industry that goes on there: computers and microchips. Because silicon is
on the borderline between metals and non-metals, it can act like both. Sometimes
it can act like a metal and be very good at carrying electricity, but in other
situations it acts like a non-metal and is an insulator that doesn’t carry electricity.
Silicon is the ideal element for making some of the electronic parts that are used
in computers and other high-tech equipment. Silicon Valley is an area that has a
large number of high-tech computer companies. The element silicon has come to
represent all computer-based technology.

Silicon is also one of the most abundant elements on the planet.

It is one of the main ingredients in many kinds of rocks. Volcanic lava
is high in silicon, so when it cools, the rocks it forms are high in silicon.
We’ve already seen that the chemical recipe for sand is SiO2. Strangely
enough, when small amounts of other elements are mixed in with SiO2,
it isn’t ruined. The impurities turn it into a variety of semi-precious
gemstones, such as jasper, agate, opal, amethyst, onyx, and chalcedony.
The purple mineral shown here is amethyst and below it is an agate.

In the world of biology, silicon is used by some

animals, such as diatoms, to make their hard outer
shells. Others, like sea sponges, use silicon for their
structural skeletons. (Most shelled animals use
purple amethyst and striped agate
a diatom calcium instead of silicon.)

59
 The true metals have only three members that most people
have heard of: aluminum, tin and lead. The others, gallium, indium,
thallium, bismuth, and polonium, are not well-known. (You’ve
probably heard of bismuth without being aware of it. The “bis”
in “PeptoBismol” stands for bismuth. Bismuth is one of the key
ingredients!) Before you started reading this book, if we had asked
you to name some true metals, you would probably have included
elements such as copper, nickel, iron, silver and gold. It’s surprising
that these elements we know as metals are not in the true metal
family on the Periodic Table. When chemists named the groups, they
were looking primarily at the electron arrangements, not at how the elements are used. The “true”
metals are “true” because of their electron configurations and, therefore, their location on the Table.
Here we have another case of chemists using common words in a different way. We saw this with the
word “salt.” To a chemist, a salt is not something you put on food. It’s what you get when you combine
a halogen with an alkali element. Similarly, chemists use the word metal in a way that is different from
our everyday speech. To a chemist, most of the elements on the Periodic Table are metals.

Next we come to the very large neighborhood right

in the middle of the table, where all the transition metals
live. In our story, they were the hard-working people
of the kingdom who worked at industrial jobs. Many of
the elements in this block have familiar names, such as
titanium, chromium, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc,
silver, cadmium, tungsten, platinum, gold, and mercury. Others are strangers to you, such as yttrium,
niobium, molybdenum, osmium and iridium. You might look at some of their names and be afraid to
pronounce them. One way to become comfortable with things that seem hard is to introduce them in
ways that seem amusing. So here’s a funny introduction to five of these strange transition metals.
The strangest neighbor on the block is
technetium (tek-NEE-shee-um). His next-door
neighbors report that they’ve seen harmful
radioactivity coming out of his house. And most
of the time he isn’t even home. Everyone says
he doesn’t belong in this neighborhood because
no one else is radioactive, but when he shows
Molly leans over to gossip with Mr. Niobium, and Ruth
them his electron configuration, he does indeed fit whispers to her friend, Rhoda.
right between molybdenum (moll-LIB-den-um) and
ruthenium. Poor Molly and Ruth! Ruth spends a lot of time gossiping to her neighbor, Rhoda, about
it. Before technetium moved in, he lived at the nuclear power plant. He said that’s where he was born.
Fortunately for the neighbors, he’s not around most of the time.
Technitium’s stable neighbors, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium and rhodium are often
combined with other metals in order to improve their chemistry for making things like tools, heaters,
bulbs, lasers, and spark plugs. Unlike its neighbors, technetium is a synthetic (man-made) element and
is often a by-product of nuclear fission in a nuclear power plant. Since it is man-made, the number
of neutrons in its nucleus can be controlled to some degree. Technetium atoms with 56 neutrons are
less dangerous and their radioactivity wears off in about 6 hours. This makes them suitable for use in
medical applications such as doing scans to determine areas of disease. (Molly won’t want to admit
this, but sometimes atoms of molybdenum are used to make this type of technetium. How can this be?
Remember, it’s the number of protons that defines an element. Add a proton to Mo, and you get Tc.)

60
 There are so many transition metals that we can’t discuss each one. Fortunately, you are
probably already at least somewhat familiar with many of them, such as gold, silver, iron, copper,
nickel, zinc, platinum and mercury. Others, such as tungsten, might have unfamiliar names, but we
interact with them all the time without even knowing it. Tungsten is what those thin filaments inside
light bulbs are made of. Cadmium is used in rechargeable batteries, and we see chromium on the
surfaces of shiny tools and car parts. Vanadium is an ingredient in the metals that are used to make
wrenches and pliers.
When two or more metals are mixed together we call this mixture
an alloy. One of the first alloys ever discovered was bronze. Ancient metal
workers found that when they added some tin to their molten copper, the
result was a metal that was much better than just plain copper. Bronze
was harder and more durable than copper, making it better for weapons
and statues. Later, during the Roman period, zinc was added to copper to
make brass. Brass was even more durable than bronze, and if you added
some aluminum or iron to the mix, the resulting metal was very resistant to
corrosion and could be used to make parts for boats that were constantly
exposed to salty ocean water. Metal workers over the centuries tried adding
tiny amounts of various other elements, such as arsenic, phosphorus or
manganese. Each element would have an effect on the final product, letting
them adjust the quality of the metal to suit the application it was being used
for. One of the brass alloys is ideal for making musical instruments such as a bronze statue
trumpets and trombones. Another variation of brass is used to make cymbals.

Metals have another important characteristic, besides being durable—

they can carry an electrical current. Some metals are better than others at
conducting electricity, but all metals are at least somewhat conductive. The
very best conductors are silver, copper and gold. Since copper is much less
expensive than silver and gold, it is the best choice for electrical wires. Nickel,
zinc, iron, cobalt and tin are in the middle, and lead is at the bottom of the list.
(The transition metals we have not mentioned are somewhere in the middle,
too, but listing all of them is a bit much. If you want to see a list, you can
always consult the Internet.)
An Italian scientist named Alessandro Volta figured out how to use copper
and zinc to produce electricity. He made a stack of three types of discs: copper,
A volatic pile similar to the
zinc and leather saturated with salt water. The salt water discs between the
ones that Humphry Davy copper and zinc allowed the electrical current to flow to the next set of discs.
used to discover sodium. Voltaic piles were fairly easy to make, and soon many scientists were making
(Image: Wikipedia, GuidoB.)
them. One of those scientists was Humphry Davy, who used as many as 100
piles hooked together to make a dangerously strong current. Davy’s electricity was strong enough to
isolate pure sodium atoms. But how did these piles work? What was happening inside the metals? It
wouldn’t be until the 20th century that the answer was discovered.

A copper wire is made of millions of copper atoms stuck together,

so obviously copper atoms stick to other copper atoms. They don’t
use ionic or covalent bonding, though. The transition metals use their
own type of bonding called metallic bonding. When these elements get
together, they don’t keep track of their own personal electrons very well.
Their electrons are free to wander about. It’s sort of like a parent saying
to a child, “You can play anywhere in the neighborhood, just don’t leave Copper’s outer shell electrons are
free to move about.

61
the neighborhood.” The child might go next door to play in his neighbor’s yard, or he might wander
down the street a bit. However, in the atomic world (unlike the real world) you can’t rule out
the possibility that the electron “child” might actually wander off permanently. Electrons are not
individuals like humans are. All electrons are the same. If a copper atom’s outer electron wandered
off and another one came to take its place, the copper atom would never know the difference. Will the
copper’s electron stay in the area? Probably. Will it leave? Maybe.

While it is true that electricity is made of moving electrons, we shouldn’t think of a stream of
electricity as being like a stream of water. Rather, a better analogy might be a row of dominoes. In a
domino rally, the dominoes move and we see a pattern of motion being carried along from one end
to the other, but the dominoes basically stay in the same place. Or, you could think of a row of people
standing in a line. The first one in the line pushes the second
one, who pushes the third one, and so on down the line.
(The people would not have to be reset like the domino rally
would, so perhaps the people are a slightly better analogy.)

Look at the Periodic Table and you will see that copper, silver and gold are all in the same
column, with copper on top, silver in the middle and gold on the bottom. Remember, the columns tell
us about the arrangement of the electrons in the outer shell. For example, all the elements in the noble
gas column have full outer shells and all the halogens have one less than they’d like. The Quick-And-
Easy Atomizer activity showed us that the placement of electrons up to argon is fairly straightforward.
If we had kept going, however, it would have gotten messy. With the transition metals, things are
not so straightforward. The addition of the 10-seater “d” shell makes things
more complicated. Every time an electron is added, the “math” changes.
Transition metals can decide how to split up the electrons into the s, p and d
orbitals in a way that maximizes electron “happiness” (or at least minimizes
“unhappiness”). The diagram shown here is the one you will see if you search
the Internet for “copper electrons.” It shows you the end result of what
copper has done with its electrons, but it does not show you the s, p and d
orbitals. That one outer electron is actually sitting in the 2-seater s orbital,
which should have been filled first, according to our Atomizer rules. Copper
An over-simplified drawing of decided that it was better to have a half-filled 2-seater orbital than to have a
copper’s electrons. The s, p
and d orbitals are not shown. 10-seater orbital with one electron missing. Copper likes the fraction “1/2”
better than “9/10.”
Having just one electron in the outer shell doesn’t make these elements act like an alkali
metal, though. Copper, silver and gold certainly don’t explode when you put them in water! Quite the
opposite—they are very stable. In the transition neighborhood, having one outer electron makes you very
good at conducting electricity.
One last characteristic of transition metals really needs to be mentioned. If you start peeking into
higher level chemistry books, it won’t take you long to discover that many of these elements have multiple
valencies (which are usually called “oxidation states”). Chromium, for example, has three options: (+2),
(+3) and (+6). Chromium’s oxidation number (valency) depends on what
atom, or atoms, it is bonding with. It’s the same with copper and iron and
many other metals. Their oxidation states can change so that they can bond
with atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, or carbon. This makes learning
chemistry a lot more difficult, but it also allows for a larger variety of minerals
to exist. Our world is more beautiful, more diverse and more interesting
because transition metals have more than one oxidation state (valency). A colorful opal
from Wikipedia (Dpulitzer)

62
Activity 7.1 “The Bonding Song”

Now that you know about all three types of bonding, you are ready for “The Bonding Song.”
There are two audio tracks, one with the words and one without, so that after learning how the words
go, you can sing it yourself. (If you don’t already have the audio tracks, you can access them by going
to: www.ellenjmchenry.com/audio-tracks-for-the-elements) The tune might sound familiar, as it was
borrowed from the American folk song, "Turkey in the Straw."

The Bonding Song

There were two little atoms and they both were very sad,
They wanted eight e’s but six was all they had,
Then they hit upon a plan and decided they would share:
They each gave the other an electron pair.
Covalent bond – sharing is great!
Covalent bond – now they both have eight!
Outer shells want eight electrons,
So non-metal atoms form covalent bonds.

There were two little atoms, they were sad as you might guess,
They wanted eight e’s, one had more and one had less,
Then they hit upon a plan and one atom said,
“I’ll give my extra e’s if you agree to wed.”
Ionic bond – one atom gives!
Ionic bond – one atom gets!
Atoms give and take their electrons
And they stay right close together with an ionic bond.

There were lots of little atoms, they were metals every one,
They were all in a clump, they were having lots of fun,
And the way they stuck together was to share their e’s around;
They called their little clump a metallic bond.
Metallic bond – everyone gives!
Metallic bond – everyone gets!
Electrons float and belong to everyone,
And the metals stick together with metallic bonds.

__________________________________________________________________

Activity 7.2 An online quiz about metals

Here’s a just-for-fun quiz game you can do to test your knowledge of metals. If you don’t know
the answers, just guess—you’ll still learn! (This link has been stable over the years, but if you find that
it doesn’t work, try searching the Internet with key words “online quiz metals.”)

http://www.syvum.com/cgi/online/serve.cgi/squizzes/chem/metals.tdf?0

63
Activity 7.3 Finish memorizing the Table up to radon
Why in the world would you want to do this? Well... if you are going into chemistry some
day, the answer is obvious. If not, it’s still kind of a cool thing to do and a great way to impress your
relatives at holiday gatherings. If nothing else, it’s good exercise for your brain, like lifting weights is
good for your muscles. However, it is also optional. If you’ve had enough memorizing, that’s okay.
If you want to try it but feel like you need some help, you might want to use a “mnemonic” (the
first “m” is silent). A mnemonic is a story, a picture, or even a silly idea, that helps you to remember
something. It’s not cheating, it’s just being clever about helping your brain to make information stick
better. Here is a mnemonic story about the next two lines on the table, in case you find it helpful, (and
yes, it is very silly), but you could also make up your own.

64
Activity 7.4 Who am I? (A guessing game about pure metals and semi-metals)
1) _____________ I have a very low melting point. This means I might even melt in your hand. I was
named using the old Latin word for France.

2) _____________ Although I am famous for being poisonous and was once used in pesticides, many
living things (including humans) need me in very small amounts. When combined with gallium I am an
important ingredient in electronic devices.

3) _____________ My letter symbol does not match my name. Many years ago, I was used for water
pipes, but not any more because I am fairly toxic. I am very dense, which makes me feel heavy.

4) _____________ I used to be called stibium. In the ancient world, I was used in cosmetics. Now I am
mainly used in fire-proofing and in lead-acid batteries.

5) _____________ My name means “indigo blue” because I have a bright blue line in my spectrum
when I am burned. I am similar to my Periodic neighbors and have a low melting point, making me
useful for soldering. I am also used in high-tech products such as semiconductors.

6) _____________ I am best known for my alloys. If you add me to copper, you get bronze. I used to
be made into cans, but now they use aluminum instead.

7) _____________ I sit right next to a liquid element, but I am not a liquid. My name means “bright
green twig” because I have a bright green line in my spectrum. I am used in high-tech industry as an
ingredient in sensors and detectors, but don’t eat me because I am poisonous.

8) _____________ I sit next to many toxic metals, but I am not poisonous. In fact, I am used in
medicines and cosmetics. I was often confused with antimony since we have many similarities due to
the fact that we are in the same column on the Periodic Table.

9) _____________ My name comes from the Latin word for “earth.” I am very rare so I am used in
small quantities. I am added to copper and lead to make alloys that are more easily “machined” than
they would be otherwise. I have some chemical similarities to selenium and sulfur.

10) ____________ I am the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust. I am one of the least
dense elements, making me feel very light. I am not magnetic at all, but I do conduct electricity.

11) ____________ My atoms are very small. I am found in some laundry powders and I am used to
make fiberglass insulation. One of my acid compounds is used as an antiseptic eyewash.

12) ____________ I am very important to the electonics industry because I can be either an electrical
conductor or an insulator, depending on circumstances. I am also very abundant in the crust of the
earth. You walked on me when you went to the beach.

Activity 7.5 Research your favorite transition metal

Choose a transition metals that you’d like to know more about. Use the following page to record
the findings of your research. If you’d like to research more than one transition element, you can make
an extra copy (or copies) of the page before you write on it.

65
66
 Today on our show we are
going to make a special kind
of recipe called an “alloy.”
Alloys are basically metal
soups. You melt the metals
then pour them into the
pot and mix them
together.

The ingredients This soup is Today I’ll be cooking a mixture

for the first soup called “brass.” that is 75% copper and 25% zinc.
will be copper You can vary This brass will a beautiful yellow.
If I want really tough
and zinc. the amounts
brass that can be used
Yum, yum! of copper and
zinc. for tools or for metal
parts on boats, I can use
less Cu and more Zn.

If I see little flecks I can pour the hot, liquid metal

of yucky stuff floating into a mold. The metal will
on the surface, I know then cool and become hard in-
they are “impurities” side the mold. I can then crack
the mold and take out my
(other elements I don’t
metal object. This mold is
want in my soup). I can
for a brass doorknob.
just skim them off.

67
 My next recipe is for a soup-- I mean an If I want to change
alloy-- called bronze. Bronze was used for the consistency of the
centuries before steel was discovered.
bronze, I can add various
Today I’ll mix a batch that is 88% copper.
other elements, such as
aluminum.
(Just a dash!)

Now remember, you can’t

Hello? Hi, mom. I’m
try this at home. My
cooking bronze soup.
stove gets a lot hotter
Did I remember to
than yours! Wait a
turn off the stove
minute-- I hear my
before answering the
phone ringing. I’ll
phone? Of course
turn off my stove
I did! What’s
for a minute.
the news
from home?
Tell me
everything.

Two hours later... Well, it looks like my spoon

is permanently stuck in the
Oops. I think my bronze
metal. Come back next time
soup got hard while I and we’ll cook something
was on the phone that won’t ruin my
with my dear spoons! See you then!
old mother.

68
 CHAPTER 8: THE LANTHANIDES AND ACTINIDES

The lanthanide and actinide series are almost always shown as two separate rows, sitting below
the main table, as if they were not really part of the table. Actually, they are part of the table, and if we
put them in where they belong, the table would look like this:

The problem with this table is just practical—it doesn’t fit very well on a single page. By the
time you shrink it down enough to get it onto the page, the squares are so small that you can’t read
the information written in the boxes. It’s so long that it’s awkward. Taking out the longest, skinniest
part, the lanthanide and actinide rows, makes the table look much better. The crack in the street in the
Periodic Kingdom is where these two rows should go.
What are these two rows? In the Periodic Kingdom the lanthanides were industrious miners who
provided rare metals for high-tech products. The real science is very close to this picture!

These elements were once thought to be very rare, although we now know they are more
abundant in the Earth’s crust than silver or gold. We can still call them rare, though, because you don’t
find them sitting around in their pure form waiting to be collected. No one has ever gone panning for
neodymium like they would for gold. You don’t find chunks of solid cerium when digging with a shovel,
as you might with copper. These rare earth metals are more difficult to get out of the rocks in which they
are found because they are mixed in with so many other things.

A rock that contains minerals is called an “ore.” This picture shows an

ore that contains rare earths. The penny sitting on it lets you know how
big the rock is. Miners dig up the ore, then have to figure out how to get
the elements out of the ore. This usually involves crushing and heating
the rocks, plus the addition of chemicals. Only after a lot of work is the
pure element obtained. The rare earths present a problem for the refiners
because the temperature at which they melt is very high. However, it can
be done, and, in fact, every year millions of tons of rare earth elements are
mined and refined. (China produces 95 percent of the world’s rare earths.)

69
 The rare earth elements would have been useless to
ancient peoples. They’re not good for making pottery or jewelry
or weapons. In the modern world, the rare earth elements are
used in many “high-tech” products, such as color televisions,
computer screens, lasers, cell phones, solar panels, spark plugs,
camera lenses, x-ray screens, mercury lamps, lasers, medical
imaging film, temperature-sensing optics, nuclear reactors, self-
cleaning ovens and welding goggles. Without rare earths, “green” These powdered rare earths were obtained
from ores. They are not pure elements.
technology would not be possible. You can’t have solar panels Pure rare earths look shiny.
and wind turbines without mines that dig up and process rare
earth ores.
What makes rare earth elements so useful for technology? Basically two reasons: their
magnetism and their ability to fluoresce (flor-ESS).
Magnetism occurs when most of the electrons in a substance are spinning the same way.
Remember those rules that electrons live by? The first rule was: “Spin!” When electrons pair up
(another rule they live by) they always choose a partner who is spinning the opposite way. Pairing up
with their opposite “neutralizes” their spin, so the more unpaired
electrons an element has, the more likely it is that the element will
be magnetic. The elements in the middle of both the transition
neighborhood (such as iron and cobalt) and in the lanthanide
row (from neodymium to gadolinium) have the greatest number
of unpaired electrons, so they are the most magnetic elements.
(Promethium might be magnetic, but because it is radioactive it is
not suitable for use in magnets.) How many unpaired electrons can a rare earth element have? The
outer shell is an “f” shell, which can hold up to 14 electrons arranged into 7 pairs. The first 7 electrons
get their own “seat” in the shell, then after that, the additional electrons have to start pairing up. So
the maximum number of unpaired electrons is 7. This corresponds to the element gadolinium.
Neodymium and samarium might not have the maximum number of unpaired electrons,
but they actually turn out to be the most useful for making magnets. On their own, however, their
magnetism occurs only at low temperatures. They are mixed with transition metals such as iron, nickel
or cobalt, which are magnetic at higher temperatures. One of the most common alloys of neodymium
also has some boron in it: Nd2Fe14B. The crystal structure of this compound also happens to be very
good for magnetism, so between the unpaired electrons and the
crystal structure, this compound is so magnetic that even very tiny
magnets are extremely powerful. This is handy for the electronics
industry because if they had to use regular iron-cobalt magnets,
cell phones would be ten times larger, and who would want to carry
those around?! Computer hard drives also contain neodymium alloy
A bracket containing a neodymium alloy
magnet from the hard drive of a computer. magnets—another item where small size is a definite “plus.”

Not all rare earth alloy magnets are

small. You will also find them in cordless tools,
electric cars, loudspeakers, headphones, and
MRI machines in hospitals. Perhaps the largest
objects that contain rare earth magnets are the
generators inside the huge wind turbines used
to create electricity from wind. Looks like if you
want green energy from wind, you need to mine
those lanthanides!

70
 Most of the rare earth elements also fluoresce.
You see fluorescence (flor-ESS-ence) every time you
look at a fluorescent bulb. (Fluorescent bulbs are
usually very long or are spiral-shaped.) Magic markers
used for highlighting textbooks also fluoresce. Laundry
soaps often have fluorescent dyes that fool your eyes
into thinking that the whites are “whiter than white.”
Other things fluoresce to some degree, but not
enough for your eyes to be able to see it very well.
Fluorescence is caused by “falling” electrons. These liquids fluoresce when exposed to UV light. They
are shown on a graph that gives the exact frequencies of
When an electron (usually in the outer shell) gets light at the bottom. The spike in the graph corresponds
“zapped” with some extra energy (ultra violet light, for to the intense glow of the green liquid. The others glow
example) the electron is “excited” into a higher energy less, which is shown in the graph as a very low line.
state and “jumps” up to the next higher shell. However,
it can’t stay in that higher shell forever. Just as you must come back down
when you jump into the air, so an electron can’t stay at a higher energy level
and must come back down to its normal level. When it falls back down, it
releases the energy that it had absorbed. Often, the energy that is released
doesn’t look or act the same as the energy that went in. For example, when
UV (ultra violet) light hits some atoms, the released energy isn’t UV, but is a
visible light such as green or red or blue. Scientists like to hit atoms with X-rays
and watch what happens. X-rays are particularly useful in helping to figure
out the molecular shape of a crystal or the identity of a mystery atom in the
crystal. Heat can also cause electrons to jump. Think back to the discovery
of helium. The scientists saw a striped pattern of colored lines in their
spectrometer because the sun’s heat was causing electrons in helium atoms
to jump up and down, releasing their energy as bands of visible light. Each
element has a unique pattern of electrons, and therefore a unique pattern of
emitted light.
You may be wondering how an electron in an outer shell can jump to
a higher shell. Is there an empty shell sitting around the outer one? Basically,
yes. ALL the shells exist in every atom, whether they are filled or not. Imagine
that each atom has an Atomizer pattern printed around it (but with many more
orbitals than in our Atomizer activity). The rings are waiting for electrons to There are empty levels above
come and fill them. The outer rings of small atoms never get filled, of course. the outer electron shell. One
electron has jumped and then
Large atoms such as uranium and plutonium use all, or at least most, of their rings. fallen back down, emiting light.

Now, back to the rare earth elements. Europium can fluoresce with either a red or blue light,
depending on what other atoms are surrounding it. Terbium fluoresces bright green. These two elements
are the key ingredients in making the colors you see on televisions and computer screens. Believe it or not,
red, blue and green light can be combined to make any color—even yellow, brown, black and white.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 8.1 Look at a screen
You will need a magnifier for this activity (at least 10x). Look at a computer or television screen while
it is on. If your magnification is high enough, you will see that the image is nothing but red, green and blue
dots or rectangles. Choose a place where you think it looks white or yellow or brown, then zoom in again. Is
there really any white or yellow or brown? How can red, green and blue make white? Amazing!

71
 Our Periodic Kingdom story ended with “Beware the Actinides!" because the elements in this row
are all radioactive. Radioactivity was first discovered by a French scientist named Henri Becquerel in 1896.
He was experimenting with rocks that were fluorescent and phosphorescent. (Phosphorescence (foss-for-
ESS-sense) is when the electrons keeping falling for a number of minutes, causing
the "glow in the dark" phenomenon.) Becquerel would cover a photographic
plate with black paper then allow sunlight to strike the rocks, which would
fluoresce. He hoped the fluorescence would go through the black paper and
make an image of the photographic plate. When weather turned cloudy one day,
he put the experiment away in a drawer. Several days later he opened the drawer
and was shocked by what he saw. The photographic film had a very clear image
of the rocks on it. How could that have happened in a dark drawer without any
light? Becquerel correctly guessed that something in the rocks was giving off a
type of energy that did not depend on sunlight. He knew that the rocks contained
the element uranium, and supposed that it might be the uranium that was doing This is Becquerel's image of
the rocks in the drawer.
this. Becquerel then handed off the investigation to Maire Curie.

Marie Sklodowska had come to France from Poland. While

studying and working in Paris, Marie and met and married Pierre
Curie, another brilliant scientist who was discovering many new
things. Marie began studying a mineral ore called pitchblende that
was known to contain uranium. She boiled samples of pitchblende
for several years, trying to get all the uranium out. After the uranium
was gone, the remaining minerals still gave off rays of energy. This
led her to believe there was another element still in the rock that was
capable of producing the same rays of mysterious energy. Eventually
she managed to isolate a small amount of a new element. She decided
to name it polonium after her native country, Poland. She named this
new type of energy radioactivity.
After the polonium had been extracted from the rocks, they STILL
Marie Curie in her lab in Paris. gave off radioactivity! Could there be a third radioactive element?
Sure enough, there was. When she finally isolated this third radioactive
element, she named it radium, and calculated that it was 200 times more radioactive than uranium.
Good thing she'd been wearing protective gear while... oops—she hadn't been wearing any protection
at all. No one at that time had any idea how harmful radiation was. They thought it was just an
interesting thing that some elements did. Amazingly, Marie lived until the age of 60 before she died of a
cancerous illness caused by the massive amount of radiation she had been exposing herself to for years.

Most of the chemical properties of an atom

come from the electrons in its outer shell. Radioactivity,
though, is all about the nucleus.
The atomic mass of [the most common form] of
uranium is 238. That means if you add up all the protons
and all the neutrons, you will get a total of 238 particles.
That’s a huge nucleus! In fact, it is so huge that it has
trouble staying together. It’s like a big crumbly cookie;
little bits can break off easily. When an atom’s nucleus
begins to crumble, it doesn’t drop crumbs or chocolate chips, of course. It flings out protons, neutrons,
and rays of dangerous energy. "Radioactivity" is the name for those particles flying out of the nucleus.

72
 The particles that are ejected from the nucleus are classified into three groups:
alpha, beta, and gamma. Those are the first three letters of the Greek alphabet, so
it's like saying A, B and C. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons.
Beta particles are basically high energy electrons, and gamma particles are made of
the same kind of energy as light (electromagnetic energy) but carry a dangerously
high level of that energy. Let's focus on alpha particles for a few minutes because
they turn out to be part of the process of one element turning into another. (The
alchemist's dream comes true!)
An alpha particle is made of two protons and two neutrons. If this particle
can capture two electrons, it will then have exactly the same structure as a helium
atom. Electrons are pretty much everywhere all the time, so it is not hard for an
apha particle to find two electrons. Once it has captured the electrons, it is no longer
an alpha particle but has become a genuine helium atom. This is what eventually
happens to all alpha particles—they become helium atoms. So when geologists find
helium atoms inside rocks or between rock layers, they assume that there was once
radioactivity in that area.
What happens to a uranium atom if it ejects an alpha particle? The nucleus no
longer has 92 protons; it now has only 90. Since the number of protons defines what
element an atom is, the uranium is no longer uranium, but has turned into element These symbols are
used as warnings
number 90, thorium. Thorium is still radioactive, however, and will about radioactivity.
eventually eject an alpha particle. When it does, the nucleus will
no longer have 90 protons, but will have only 88. Thorium has turned into element
88, radium. If this happens again, radium will lose two protons and turn into radon,
86. Radon is radioactive and could lose two protons and become element 84,
polonium. Polonium is also radioactive, as Marie Curie found out, and is capable of
An alpha particle that giving off an alpha particle. If polonium loses two protons, it will turn into 82, lead.
has captured two
electrons and turned Lead has a stable nucleus and is not radioactive. Lead won't turn into anthing else.
into a helium atom Lead is a stopping point for this process that we call radioactive "decay."

The entire actinide row is radioactive, but as we've seen already, there are other elements on the
table that are radioactive, as well. Starting with 84, polonium, all the higher elements are radioactive.
There are also two radioactive elements with numbers less than 84: technetium, 43, and promethium,
61. So we can say that all actinides are radioactive, but not all radioactive elements are actinides.

Uranium is generally considered to be the last naturally occurring element on the Periodic Table.
(We must say “generally” because recently there have been reports of very tiny amounts of neptunium
being discovered in uranium ore. However, most science books still list uranium as the last naturally
occurring element.) Plutonium and the other actinides can’t be dug out of the ground. They simply do
not exist anywhere in nature. They are completely man-made elements. Man-made? Can elements be
manufactured? Yes, if you have a nuclear reactor and a particle accelerator.
We just saw the process of radioactive "decay," where elements lost pairs of protons and
changed into lower elements, all the way down to lead. What would happen if you could add protons?
Because elements are defined by the number of protons they have, if you added a proton to uranium, it
would no longer be uranium. Until the 1940s, there was
no way to add protons to atoms. Then, during World War
II, scientists in both Germany and the USA discovered how
to make machines that would shoot protons at atomic
nuclei. Unfortunately, the reason they wanted to do this
was to make nuclear bombs. However, aside from bombs,

73
this technology proved to be useful because it could allow chemists to make many new elements.
They would shoot protons at an atom that was already very large, such as thorium or protactinium
or uranium, and hope that some of the protons would stick to the nucleus. They were very careful
about their technique so that they knew exactly how many
protons were sticking. As the number of protons grew, so
did the number of new elements. Each time they got one
more proton to stick, they created a new element. These new
elements needed names, and this ended up being a way to
honor the memories of great scientists such as Marie Curie,
Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Dmitri Mendeleyev, and Alfred
Nobel. Some of the new actinides were named after the
Sometimes two medium-sized atoms are places where they were created, such as Berkeley, California,
crashed together in the hopes that they will USA (berkelium, californium and americium), hassium (Hesse,
stick and make a super heavy element. To Germany), dubnium (Dubna, Russia) and hafnium (Hafnia, the
make 106, chromium (24) and lead (82) were
used. The math works: 82 + 24 = 106 old name for Copenhagen, Denmark).

A big problem with these super heavy elements is that their nuclei are too large to ever be stable.
They are doomed to fall apart eventually. However, some super heavy nuclei are stable enough to stay in
existence for weeks or months, long enough that scientists can observe them and determine some of their
chemical properties. They always turn out to be similar to the elements that are above them in the same
column. Other super heavy elements fall apart after a few seconds, or even a fraction of a second. They
wink out of existence before any tests can be done on them, so we know much less about them.
Scientists made so many
new elements that they filled
up the actinide row and had to
go back to the bottom row of
the transition block (the ghost
town in the Periodic Kingdom,
where the residents are rarely
seen). When someone claimed to have "discovered" a new element, it would take a long time, perhaps
even years, to verify that they had actually done so. Experiments and data would have to be published
so that scientists all over the world would be able to read about what had been done and agree that a
new element had indeed been made. Only after the discoverer's claims were judged to be valid would a
name be chosen for the new element.
Naming an element is often complicated by disagreements about who
was first to make it. For example, Russia and America argued over element
106 for a long time before the international chemistry naming group,
IUPAC, decided that America had been first. Whoever discovers an element
gets to name it, so, of course, the Americans choose to name it after an
American scientist. They chose Glenn Seaborg, who has been given credit
for discovering, or helping to discover, plutonium, americium, curium,
berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium and nobelium.
(As you might guess, Seaborg's lab is located in Berkeley, California.)
When chemists realized that it might be possible to make a lot more new elements, they began
labeling the empty blocks in the bottom row with temporary, fictional names made from Latin and
Greek words. For example, before 106 was named seaborgium, it was called "unnilhexium." ("Un" is
Latin for "one," "nil" is Greek for "zero," and "hex" is Greek for "six.") There are still many Periodic Table
images on the Internet that have some temporary names such as UUT, UUP, UUS, and UUO. However,
the most up-to-date tables will show the decisions made by the IUPAC up to 2015, and will display
the actual names of the elements: darmstadtium, roentgenium, copernicium, nihonium, flerovium,
moscovium, livermorium, tennessine, and oganesson.
74
Activity 8.2 A video about Marie Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium

Marie Curie discovered polonium in 1898 and then radium soon after. Marie's life story is
amazing and inspiring. There are several videos about her posted on YouTube playlist.

Activity 8.3 A virtual field trip

The professors who made the Periodic Table of Videos filmed a trip they made to Ytterby, Sweden,
to find the famous mine that was the source of the mineral ore that allowed the discovery of Yttrium,
Terbium, Erbium and Ytterbium.
The mnemonic story below will make more sense if you’ve seen this video first. Watch “Ytterby
Road Trip” on The Elements playlist on the YouTube channel.

Activity 8.4 Memorize the Lanthanides and Actinides

This activity is optional, of course. But for those of you intent on memorizing the table, perhaps
this little mnemonic story might help. (You can always make up your own story, too!)

The Lanthanides are for those who are SERIOUS about learning the whole table.
(cerium)

Begin by PRAISING NEODYMIUM for its wonderful magnetic properties. Then tell this
(praseodymium) (Neodymium magnets are extremely strong.)

story: “I PROMised to take SAM to EUROPE so he could see the famous mine where
(promethium) (samarium) (europium)
(This)
Johan GADOLIN discovered TERBIUM. When we got there, he said, “DYS HOLE isn’t
(gadolinium) (dysprosium) (holmium)

what I was expecting! I was expecting an URBan area with “inTHULated” buildings.
(the mine was a big disapointment) (erbium) (thulium) (It’s cold in Sweden!)

Let’s leave YTTERBY and go back to the row with the LOOT! (meaning the row that has gold in it)
(ytterbium) (lutetium)

For the Actinide Series, you need to be THORoughly PROTECTed because they’re all
(thorium) (protactinium)

radioactive. URANIUM, NEPTUNIUM and PLUTONIUM are the most famous members

of this row because they were used by AMERICA to make atomic bombs. Marie CURIE
(americium) (curium)

would have loved to visit BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA to see the scientists make
(berkelium) (californium)

EINSTEINIUM and FERMIUM. But she, MENDELEYEV and Alfred NOBEL all died when
(named for Enrico Fermi) (mendelevium) (nobelium)

elements beyond uranium were still folkLORE.

(lawrencium)

75
Activity 8.5 Four new elements are named

Go to periodicvideos.com and watch the video about the naming of four new elements.

Activity 8.6 "Odd one out" (Which one of these doesn't belong?)

Now that we've finished our tour of the Periodic Kingdom, we can do an activity where you use
your knowledge of the table to try to figure out which element doesn't belong in the group.

EXAMPLE 1: Ne Ar Xe Cl (Chlorine does not belong because it is not a noble gas.)

EXAMPLE 2: Sn Bi Ti Al (Titanium does not belong because it is not a true metal.)

1) Ca Sc Co Ag 6) Na Ca Ra Ba

2) Rb Be K Cs 7) Pt Pu Pa Np

3) S C K P 8) B Ge Br Si

4) Cd Cm Cr Cu 9) Rh Re Rn Ru

5) Pm Sm Tm Fm 10) Te Tb Eu Er

Activity 8.7 "Who am I?"

Figure out which lanthanide or actinide is being described.

1) I fluoresce bright green, so I am used in televisions and computer screens. _______________

2) I was made by smashing a chromium atom into a lead atom. ___________________

3) I am the only radioactive lanthanide. ____________________

4) I am the last naturally occurring actinide. Elements above me are man-made. ______________

5) If I were to lose an alpha particle, I would turn into uranium. _______________

6) We are used to make very strong magnets. (The element right between us might also be magnetic,
but it can't be used because it is dangerous.) ______________ and _______________

7) I was named after the man who invented the Periodic Table. ________________

8) I can fluoresce either bright red or bright blue, depending on the atoms around me. _____________

9) I was named after a mine in Sweden where I was first discovered. My name does not ­begin with Y,
nor does it begin with T. _______________

10) I was named after the US state where my discoverer lived and worked. ___________________

76
 Today’s cooking adventure will be
everyone’s favorite subject:cookies!
But these won’t be your ordinary
cookies because we’ll be using some
lanthanides and actinides
from the bottom shelf.

Let’s start with My, this dough In fact, this

making “Neodymium seems clumpy! dough is so sticky
Nut Clusters.” All the neodymium I can’t even make
Doesn’t that seems to be individual cookies!
sound delicious? sticking together. It’s like the dough
is magnetic!

The recipe says: Let’s try something less

Okay, this isn’t
“Warning: Neodymium magnetic. Let’s make “Chewy
funny! The dough is is highly magnetic.
so magnetic it won’t Thorium Cookies.”
In fact, it is used to Do you know
come off the pan! make the strongest anything about
I’d better check the permanent magnets thorium?
recipe... in the world.”
Use caution when
cooking with Nd.”

77
 This dough is Thorium is one of the actinides that
much easier to you don’t usually hear about. Ura-
work with. That nium, neptunium and plutonium steal
neodymium was the show, so to speak. But thorium
very hard to is very interesting and has many
work with. This uses. Thorium is a key ingredient
is much easier! in the “mantle” part of a
camping lantern. It’s also
used to coat tungsten wires,
to make airplane engines
and high-temperature
lab equipment, and
as a fuel in nuclear
reactors.

Now I’ll just pop my thorium cookies into my The cookies look like they’ve
atomic oven. Hmmm... if thorium is used in crumbled at bit. I think the large
nuclear reactors, that means it’s at least a nuclei had trouble staying together.
little bit radioactive. That could be a problem. I’ll check my recipe to see how long
they need to cool... I know they
might still be a bit radioactive.

The recipe says:

Warning: Thorium cookies will need a Well, thanks for cooking with me
long time to cool before the radio- today. We may not have cookies
activity is gone and they are to eat, but we sure learned a lot
safe. Depending on what
about the elements! Keep
type of thorium you used,
this can take up to on learning about those
14 billion years. elements and don’t ever
forget our crazy
14 BILLION cooking adventures!
YEARS?!!!

PS: And after

all that time,
they probably
turned to lead.

78
ANSWER KEY

79
80
ANSWER KEY
CHAPTER 1
Answers will vary for the activities not listed here.

Activity 1.5:
1) C= 2, O= 6 2) 3 3) 2 4) Si= 2, O= 8

Activity 1.6:
1) nobelium 2) vanadium 3) gadolinium 4) polonium 5) einsteinium 6) berkelium
7) tellurium 8) scandium 9) ytterbium 10) niobium 11) tin 12) holmium
13) neptunium 14) curium 15) mercury 16) tantalum 17) cerium 18) gallium
19) selenium 20) bromine 21) iridium 22) thorium 23) nickel 24) cobalt 25) chlorine

CHAPTER 2
Activity 2.2
1) phosphorus 2) fluorine 3) calcium 4) gallium 5) titanium 6) silicon
7) rhodium 8) iodine 9) scandium 10) palladium 11) tin 12) sulfur
13) chlorine 14) argon 15) nitrogen 16) hydrogen 17) carbon 18) boron
19) potassium 20) xenon

Activity 2.6
1) Why did the mouse say, “Cheep, cheep,” when the bird’s cage fell apart?
He was filling in for the bird who had the day off.
2) What do you get when you cross a vampire with a mouse? A terrified cat!
3) What were Batman and Robin’s new names after they were run over by a car? Flatman and Ribbon!

CHAPTER 3
Activity 3.4
Nitrogen: 1s2 2s2 2p3
Sulfur: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Neon: 1s2 2s2 2p6
Chlorine: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Lithium: 1s2 2s1
Boron: 1s2 2s2 2p1
Silicon: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
Fluorine: 1s2 2s2 2p5

Activity 3.5
Ag-47 H-1 Os-76
Am-95 He-2 P-15
At-85 I-53 S-16
As-33 In-49 Se-34

Activity 3.6
1) Be 2) N 3) Na 4) S 5) P 6) Ca Challenge: Fe

Activity 3.6
Just use the Periodic Table as your guide. It tells you what all the symbols are!

81
CHAPTER 4
Activity 4.1 Activity 4.2

Activity 4.3
1) B- boron (boring) 2) Ar- argon (“are gone”) 3) Ba- barium (“bury ‘em”)
4) Es- einsteinium (after Einstein) 5) Pu- plutonium (named after Pluto, which is way out there!)
6) Eu- europium (named after Europe) 7) Fe- iron (as in ironing clothes) 8) Kr- krypton
9) Hg - mercury 10) Cf- californium 11) Si- silicon (“silly con”) 12) Ni- nickel
13) Po- polonium (“polo” like field hockey played while riding horses) 14) Os- osmium (sounds like “Oz”)

CHAPTER 5 does not have any activities that need answers.

CHAPTER 6
Activity 6.4
1) PLaSTiC 2) GaSOLiNe 3) PrOPaNe 4) AsPHAlt 5) AlCoHoL 6) BUCKY BAlL
7) CaFFEINe 8) AmInO AcID 9) FAtS 10) PaRaFFIn 11) PoLYEsTeR 12) GLuCoSe
13) HaIr 14) GLuTeN 15) NYLON 16) ArTiFICIAl FLaVORS 17) PLaNT FIBeR
Trivia question: The letters J and Q do not appear in any element symbol, assuming you are using the most up-to-
date version of the table. Uuq was a symbol until recently, so if you have an old table, you might see a Q.

Activity 6.5
1) b 2) d 3) a 4) noble gases 5) alkali 6) halogens 7) S 8) C 9) N 10) He
11) sand 12) salt 13) bleach 14) Teflon 15) plaster 16) c 17) e 18) protons
19) d 20) c BONUS: 1) sulfur 2) 146 3) 38

CHAPTER 7
Activity 7.4
1) gallium, Ga 2) arsenic, As 3) lead, Pb 4) antimony, Sb 5) indium, In 6) tin, Sn
7) thallium, Tl 8) bismuth, Bi 9) tellurium, Te 10) aluminum, Al 11) boron, B 12) silicon, Si

CHAPTER 8
Activity 8.6
1) Ca (not transition metal) 2) Be (not alkali metal) 3) K (not non-metal)
4) Cm (not transition metal) 5) Fm (not lanthanide) 6) Na (not alkali earth metal)
7) Pt (not actinide) 8) Br (not semi-metal) 9) Rn (not transition metal) 10) Te (not lanthanide)

Activity 8.7
1) Tb, terbium 2) Sg, seaborgium 3) Pm, promethium 4) U, uranium 5) Pu, plutonium
6) Nd and Sm, neodymium and samarium 7) Md, mendelevium 8) Eu, europium
9) Er, erbium 10) Cf, californium

82
 The following pages are a preview of:

If you find these coloring pages helpful, the full book (all 118 elements) is
available at your favorite book distributor. ISBN 978-1-7374763-0-6
H
Hydrogen
1 proton
1 electron
Atomic mass: 1.0

From Greek words “hydro" (water) and “genes” (make)

Hydrogen is the smallest and lightest of all the elements. It is made of just one proton and one electron.
Most of the time it doesn’t have any neutrons. On rare occasions when hydrogen does gain a neutron, we call it
“heavy hydrogen.” Adding a neutron doesn’t change its identity; it will still be hydrogen because it has one proton.
Hydrogen is a gas. If you put hydrogen into balloons, they will float. But don’t try this because hydrogen is
very flammable (catches fire easily). There was a terrible accident in 1937 in New Jersey, USA, when a hydrogen-filled
blimp caught fire. That was the last time anyone put hydrogen into a blimp or balloon. The flammability of hydrogen
can be put to good use, however, by using it as fuel in rocket engines. On a smaller scale, welders use tanks of hydro-
gen as a source of intense heat for joining steel parts.
Stars, including our sun, are made primarily of burning hydrogen gas. The extreme heat causes the hydrogen
atoms to bump into each other and sometimes they combine to form larger elements such as helium, lithium or sodium.
Hydrogen bonds to many other elements and is found in thousands of molecules. The reason it likes to bond
to other atoms is because its one electron is “lonely” and would like to be part of a pair. There are many atoms who
would be very happy to have hydrogen come over and share its electron with them. Atoms that frequently bond
with hydrogen include oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and chlorine. When carbon atoms join together to make very long
chains, hydrogen atoms will attach themselves to any free place they can find along the chain. This type of molecule
(a chain of carbon atoms with hydrogens attached) is called a “hydrocarbon.” Hydrocarbon molecules include meth-
ane (natural gas), octane (liquid gasoline), vegetable oils, animal fats, wax, and many types of plastics.

You can assign your own

H2O
water NH3
colors to the atoms, but
ammonia
here is what a professional N
scientific illustrator would
be most likely to use:
O
White: Hydrogen (blank) H2 hydrogen gas
Red: Oxygen (O)
Black: Carbon (C)
Green: Chlorine (Cl)
Blue: Nitrogen (N)
CH4 methane Hydrogen peroxide
(natural gas) Cl H2O2
The hydrogens look pretty
big in these models. They
are actually much smaller
C O
than these other atoms,
O
HCl hydrochloric acid
but it looks nicer if the balls
are close to the same size.

C8H18 octane

C C C Octane is liquid
C gasoline (petrol).
Hydrocarbon chains can
C C C C grow to be very long.
Plastics are made of
chains that contain thou-
sands of carbon atoms.

sample-2
1 H
Hydrogen
Stars, including our sun,
use hydrogen as fuel.

Water is H2O.

Deuterium, or
"heavy hydrogen,"
has a neutron.

Gasoline (petrol)
is made of carbon Hydrogenated oils are
and hydrogen. made of chains of
carbon atoms with
hydrogen atoms
attached.

Hydrogen peroxide,
Natural gas is H2O2 is used to
methane, CH4. clean wounds.

Liquid hydrogen is often used

as rocket fuel (in combination Atomic hydrogen welding uses two metal electrodes Some cleaning products
with liquid oxygen). with a stream of hydrogen gas between them. contain ammonia, NH3.

sample-3
He
Helium
2 protons
2 neutrons
2 electrons
Atomic mass: 4.0
From the Greek word for sun: “helios”

Helium was first discovered in the sun, which is why it was named after the Greek god of the sun, Helios.
Scientists in the 1860s were beginning to use a new tool, called the spectrometer, to look at light produced by
various things, including the elements as they were burned. They noticed that each burning element seemed to
give off a unique light pattern, almost like a fingerprint, by which it could be identified. When they saw a new light
pattern as they looked at the sun, they knew it must be a new element. In 1868, Norman Lockyer announced the
discovery of a new element that he had named “helium.” Then, in 1895, William Ramsay discovered helium in a
sample of rock that contained the element uranium. Helium was not just in the sun, but on earth as well! It was
later found that helium is produced as uranium atoms break apart, or “decay.”
The element helium is a very light gas. Unlike hydrogen, helium is not flammable. Put a spark to helium
and nothing happens. This makes it very safe to put in blimps, party balloons, and weather balloons.
Helium is so unreactive that it can be put into rocket engines that are filled with hydrogen. It is also used as a
“shield gas” in arc welding, surrounding and insulating the dangerously hot arc of electricity.
Another place the safety of helium comes in handy is in air tanks used by scuba divers. The air around us is
mostly nitrogen, with some oxygen mixed in. If divers take normal air down with them, the nitrogen can do some-
thing harmful. If the divers come up too quickly, the nitrogen can bubble into their blood, much like bubbles appear
when you open a carbonated beverage. Bubbles in your blood is not good! This dangerous condition is called “the
bends.” (Divers hurt so much they bend over with the pain.) However, if helium is used in place of nitrogen, divers
can come back up without having to worry about getting "the bends."
Helium has other technological uses. A mixture of helium and neon is used in red lasers, the kind that are
used to read bar codes at check outs in stores. Extremely cold liquid helium is used in machines and devices that
need extremely powerful magnets, such as MRI machines in hospitals, and the particle accelerators used by physicists
to do experiments with electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Helium atoms This is a spectrometer from the 1800s,

don't bond to similar to the one used to discover helium.
other atoms.
They float around
by themselves.

He The triangular prism in the

middle splits the light into a
He spectrum of rainbow stripes.

He

He B G Y R R

Helium's spectral lines

sample-4
2 He
Weather
balloons
are filled
with helium.
Helium

Blimps (air ships) are filled with helium.

This box contains

scientific equipment

tanks.
en in scuba
m is mixed with oxyg
Heliu

Helium is used to cool powerful

magnets inside MRI machines.

HeNe lasers
(helium-neon)
make a beam
of red light.

Helium is used to pressurize the

hydrogen in rocket engines.

sample-5
Li
Lithium
3 protons
4 neutrons
3 electrons
Atomic mass: 6.94
From the Greek word for stone: "lithos"
Lithium is most well-known for its use in long-life batteries, but it's also used in lubricants, fuels, metal alloys,
glass making, and even medicines. Some of its useful qualities come from its electron configuration. Do you see that
one lonely electron in the outer ring? It's very "unhappy" because it doesn't have a partner to pair up with. The two
electrons in the inner ring are paired up, and are therefore very content. The unpaired electron in the outer ring is so
"unhappy" that it would rather go off and be part of another atom than stay where it is. Some atoms, like fluorine,
chlorine, and bromine (members of the halogen family) are desperate to grab an extra electron that doesn't belong
to them, so if they run into a lithium atom, it's a perfect match. Molecules like LiF, LiCl and LiBr are relatively easy to
make in a lab. LiF, lithium fluoride, takes the form of a clear crystal which can be used in optical lenses and in radi-
ation detectors. LiCl, lithium chloride, is a white powder that is used in fireworks and emergency flares because it
produces a bright reddish-pink flame. LiBr, lithium bromide, can be used to trap moisture in air conditioning systems.
Lithium atoms will bond to small groups of atoms, such as the carbonate ion, CO32-. Lithium carbonate,
Li2CO3, is used by the ceramics industry to make glazes and tile adhesives, by the metal industry to process aluminum,
by the glass industry to make ovenware, by the pharmaceutical industry to make medicines, and by the battery indus-
try to make long-life lithium ion batteries. Lithium bonds well to the hydroxide ion, OH-, to form LiOH, a compound
that can remove carbon dioxide from the air that circulates inside an airplane. Lithium will also bond to metals such
as aluminum, copper and manganese, making lightweight alloys (metal mixtures) that are used to make airplanes.
Lithium atoms are never found alone in nature. To get a pure sample of lithium, a strong electrical current
must be used. Pure lithium looks like a silvery metal and is so light it will float on water. It will also react with the
water, trying to get rid of that lonely electron, and this will cause it to look like it is burning on top of the water.

When Li bonds to F, Cl, or Br, it forms a crystal shape:

When two Li atoms connect to a CO3, they don't
bond in the way that C and O do. (The sticks
represent bonds.) Instead, the Li atoms are held
in place by electrical attraction. The positively
charged Li atoms (ions) are attracted to the
negatively charged oxygen atoms in the CO3.

This Li2CO3 molecule

will join with others
just like it to form a Li+
crystal-like structure.

O-
Large Li+
balls
are F,
C
O-
Cl or Br.

Small
Red: Oxygen (O)
Black: Carbon (C)
O
balls You can decide what color
are Li. to make lithium. A professional
artist would probably use purple or pink.

sample-6
3 Li
Lithium makes red sparks when
it burns so it is used in fireworks.

Li is used to make
special lenses for Alloys of
high-tech optics. aluminum, copper
and manganese
are lightweight, and
therefore are
used to make
airplanes.

Li.
ntains .
r co vity
i m ete ioacti
dos s rad
This easure
It m

Li is used in
chemical
reactions.
This lubricant
contains
lithium.

Li is used
in medicines.
long-life
lithium
batteries

glazes for
ceramics

sample-7
Be
Beryllium
4 protons
5 neutrons
4 electrons
Atomic mass: 9.01
From the mineral "beryl"
Beryllium's name comes from the mineral beryl. Beryl is made of beryllium, aluminum, silicon and oxygen,
with this chemical formula: Be3Al2(SiO3)6. When beryl is made into a gemstone, we call it an emerald. Beryllium was
first extracted from beryl in 1828 by two people working independently, one in France and one in Germany.
Beryllium is the smallest and lightest member of the alkali earth family (the second column from the left on
the Periodic Table). This means that it has two electrons in its outer shell. This is better than just one, but beryllium
would prefer to have 8 electrons in its outer shell, so it will easily give up its electrons to another atom or group of at-
oms. Oxygen makes a natural pairing, since it is looking for two electrons to complete its shell. BeO, beryllium oxide,
is used to make parts for rocket engines, as a protective coating on telescope mirrors, as semiconductors in radios,
and for ceramic parts in microwave devices, vacuum tubes, and lasers.
Pure beryllium can also be very useful, due to the fact that x-rays will go right through very small atoms. If
you want to put a "window" in a vacuum tube, you need a substance that is both strong (won't cave in when the
pressure drops inside the tube) and yet will let x-rays pass through. Beryllium is perfect for this.
When a little bit of beryllium is added to another metal, such as copper or aluminum, it makes it stronger.
Beryllium bronze is made of 2% beryllium and 98% copper. The strength of beryllium bronze makes it an excellent
choice for the manufacturing of parts such as heavy duty springs, which must maintain their shape even under a
lot of stress. Beryllium bronze is special in another way, too. It won't create a spark if it strikes another metal, even
steel. There are some places where sparks can be very dangerous, and you don't want to take the risk that your tool
will start a fire or cause an explosion. Beryllium bronze tools are used on oil rigs, in coal mines, in satellite manufac-
turing, and by people who repair MRI machines.
Beryllium's claim to fame is that it was used to discover neutrons. In 1932, James Chadwick shot alpha particles
(nuclei of helium atoms) at a piece of beryllium, and unknown particles (neutrons) were produced. Beryllium can be
used as a source of neutrons for lab experiments, particle accelerators, nuclear power plants, and in atomic bombs.

Cl Be Cl
Beryllium chloride is a common Be compound.

Chadwick used this device to shoot alpha particles at beryllium.

The alpha particles dislodged neutrons from the beryllium nuclei.
Beryllium oxide (BeO) will make a crystal lattice shape.

sample-8
4 The green mineral beryl,
Be3Al2(SiO3)6, contains beryllium.
Be
Beryllium
Emeralds are
made of beryl.

"windows" for x-ray chambers

The James Webb satellite

has hexagonal mirrors
made of beryllium alloys.

Non-s
parkin
g tools
are m
ade of
berylliu
m allo
ys.

contacts for
spot welders

Beryllium inside this machine is used to heavy duty

produce a source of neutrons. springs

sample-9
B
Boron
5 protons
5 or 6 neutrons
5 electrons
Atomic mass: 10.81
From the mineral "borax"

Boron is happy with either 5 or 6 neutrons. It is shown here with 6 neutrons because 80% of all boron atoms
have 6. However, if it loses a neutron, it's no big deal. In many atoms, losing a neutron IS a big deal, and this will
make the nucleus unstable. (Unstable nuclei tend to fall apart and spit out dangerous particles that can cause dam-
age to plants and animals.) Boron atoms with 5 neutrons can safely add one more. The atoms with 5 neutrons are
useful in nuclear power plants that use radioactive (unstable) elements that emit neutrons when they fall apart. Rods
containing boron atoms are placed in areas where dangerous free neutrons need to be safely absorbed.
The fact that boron can have either 5 or 6 neutrons explains why its mass is listed as 10.81. The mass is the
total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Since boron can have either 5 or 6 neutrons, we must look at
as many boron atoms as we can, and then calculate the average. The average turns out to be 10.81, so this is listed as
the official atomic mass. But you'll never find a boron atom with 10.81 things in its nucleus! It will always be 10 or 11.
Boron is added to glass to make it less likely to shatter at high temperatures. This "borosilicate" glass is ideal
for both kitchens and science labs. (The glassware called Pyrex® is borosilicate glass.) Tiny borosilicate glass beads
can be added to paint that is used to put lines on roads. The glass beads in the paint will reflect shining headlights at
night. Boron is added to glass that will be spun into the very thin fibers that make fiberglass insulation.
A very useful property of boron is that it won't burn (meaning combustion in the presence of oxygen). Boron
compounds, such as zinc borate, can be sprayed onto fabric or wood to make them fire resistant. Boron's presence
in fiberglass increases its resistance to fire as well as making the fibers stronger. When boron is used in fireworks, the
atoms don't "burn" but they do heat up, showing a bright green color.
Boron is usually extracted from the mineral "borax" (Na2B4O7 - 10H2O). Borax is used to make laundry washing
powder. (Kids might know this powder as the stuff you combine with white glue to make an oozy substance known
as "slime" or "goop.") The cleaning power of borax is useful in medicine, too. Borax can be turned into boric acid,
H3BO3, and put into germ-fighting eye washes. Borax is poisonous to insects and is often used in ant and roach traps.

Boric acid, H3BO3 Tetraborate, B4O5(OH)4

O
O
"Tetra" means "4."

Notice that both of O O

these structures are B
made of B, O, and H. B
B O O
O O
O B
B
O O
O
You can assign colors as you wish, but scientific illustrators usually make This structure is the basic unit of borax crystals.
oxygen red and hydrogen white. (The unmarked atoms are H.) The unmarked atoms are hydrogens.

sample-10
5 It's fun to watch
borax crystals
grow on top
of shapes you
make. B
Ulexite is a boron
mineral with
interesting optical
properties.

Boron
borosilicate glass

Borax washing powder

White glue
and borax
powder can
be used
to make
"slime."

Antiseptic
Fiberglass insulation
eye wash

Ant poison

sample-11
C
Carbon
6 protons
6 neutrons
6 electrons
Atomic mass: 12.01
From the Latin word for charcoal: "carbo"

Carbon is the most flexible and "friendly" atom on the Periodic Table. It will bond with many other elements,
although its favorites are hydrogen and oxygen. If there are no other atoms around to bond with, carbon will bond to
itself, forming pure-carbon substances such as diamonds, graphite and coal. That's right, coal and diamonds are made
of the same stuff! The most fascinating pure-carbon structure is the buckyball, a hollow sphere of 60 carbon atoms
arranged in the same pattern as a soccer ball (hexagons surrounded by pentagons).
Carbon is found in the air around us as carbon dioxide, CO2. Vehicles can put both CO2 and CO (carbon mon-
oxide) into the air as by-products of combustion. CO is very dangerous and many people have CO detectors in their
homes if they have a furnace that burns natural gas, CH4.
Carbon can bond to three oxygen atoms and make the carbonate ion, CO32-. If a calcium atom sticks to carbon-
ate, we get calcium carbonate, CaCO3. Calcium carbonate is the main ingredient in the mineral calcite and in the rock
known as limestone. Sea shells are a biological form of calcium carbonate.
Hydrocarbon molecules are made of just carbon and hydrogen atoms and can be small (CH4, natural gas),
medium-sized (C8H18, octane, liquid gasoline) or so long we can't even count the carbon atoms (plastics and rubbers).
Carbon and hydrogen atoms can also form a ring known as benzene. The benzene ring, or an adaptation of it, is
at the heart of thousands of molecules, including polystyrene plastic, Styrofoam®, food preservatives, cholesterol,
natural almond flavor, spot removers, moth balls, paints, and medicines.
Many biological molecules have carbon at their core. Proteins, fats and sugars are all carbon-based substances.
DNA, the extremely long ladder-shaped molecule that is like a library of information for living cells, has carbon atoms
at key points in its structure. Carbon is also at center of many other molecules essential to life, including enzymes.

Octane C8H18
Limestone Methane These are
CaCO3 CH4
O- all H
C C C C
Ca2+ C
C C
O C C C
O -

Benzene C6H6
Diamond
lattice
(pure C)
C
C C

C C
C
These are
all H
Graphite lattice (pure C)
sample-12
6 C

Carbon atoms determine the structure of DNA.

Diamonds
are made
of pure
carbon.

Pencil
tips are
made of
graphite,
a form of
pure carbon. "Buckyballs" are made of 60 carbon atoms.

Gasoline
(petrol) is
made of
chains of 8 to
10 carbon atoms.

All forms of plastic are made of long chains of carbon atoms (with hydrogens attached).

Coal is also a form of carbon. Miners in the

19th century used mules to pull heavy
coal cars out of mines.

Natural gas (methane) is CH4.

sample-13
N
Nitrogen
7 protons
7 neutrons
7 electrons
Atomic mass: 14.0

From Greek words "nitron" (saltpeter) and "genes" (make)

Nitrogen is named after one of the compounds in which it is found, potassium nitrate (KNO3), which was
known in the ancient world as "nitron" and was named "saltpeter" by the Europeans. ("Peter" means "rock.") Since
ancient times, this mineral has been used to preserve meats, and nitrates are still used today to keep packaged
meats from turning brown. Eventually, it was discovered that saltpeter could be made into gunpowder if charcoal
and sulfur were added it to. Gunpowder isn't just for guns; large amounts of gunpowder are also used to make fire-
works. Nitrogen is found in other explosive chemicals, such as TNT (trinitrotoluene), nitroglycerin (dynamite), and
sodium azide (NaN3) which is found in air bags in cars. The explosive nature of all these chemicals is due to the fact
that they allow nitrogen gas, N2, to form very quickly.
The air around us is mostly nitrogen in its stable form, N2. When two nitrogen atoms are bound to each
other, they form one of the most stable molecules in nature, unwilling to react with anything around it. N2 is so
stable that it can be used as a fireproof shield in high temperature welding. Pure nitrogen gas can also protect and
preserve fruits such as apples, keeping them fresh (in cold storage) for up to two years.
N2O is nitrous oxide, often called "laughing gas." It has a slightly sweet smell and is used by doctors and
dentists as a mild anesthetic for minor surgery or dental procedures. It's easy to confuse N2O with NO2, but NO2 is
nitrogen dioxide, a reddish-brown gas that is a common form of air pollution.
NH3 is ammonia, a gas with a pungent odor that can sting your nose. It's that strong smell that comes from
wet diapers or cat litter boxes that have been sitting for a while. NH3 is used in many industrial processes, including
the manufacturing of fertilizers that can put nitrogen into the soil. Plants need nitrogen but can't get it from the air.
In biology, we find nitrogen in more complex molecules, such as amino acids, which are strung together to
form proteins. Proteins are the building blocks from which cells and tissues are made.

N2 Nitrogen gas N2O Nitrous oxide NH3

Ammonia
N+ O- N
N N

N N+
O Amino acid structure
NO2
Nitrogen dioxide
O- O
Sodium azide
N3Na

Na+ Remember, if a small atom N C C

is not labeled, it's H.

The "R group" is what makes each amino

O
N- N+ N- acid unique. It can be as simple as one
hydrogen atom, or it can have many
R
atoms, like this: C6H14N4O2.

sample-14
7 N
Nitrogen
If leaves don't get
enough nitrogen
they lose their
green color.

Nitrates and nitrites are used

to preserve meats.

Dynamite
contains
a nitrogen
compound: Throughout history, horns have often been used to store
nitroglycerin. gunpowder (a nitrogen compound).

Some cleaning products

contain ammonia, NH3.
Plant fertilizers often contain nitrogen.

Air bags in vehicles are inflated with nitrogen. N2O, nitrous oxide, is used by dentists as a mild anesthetic.

sample-15
O 8 protons
8 neutrons

Oxygen 8 electrons
Atomic mass: 15.9

From Greek words "oxy" (sour) and "genes" (make)

Oxygen's name comes from the fact that when it was discovered in the late 1700s, it was mistakenly believed
to be the key factor in the formation of acids, which taste sour (lemon juice, for example). This idea was eventually
proven wrong, but by that time the name "oxygen" was being used by everyone and it was too late to change it.
Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. Oxygen is in the
air all around us as O2. Nitrogen, N2, makes up about 78% of our atmosphere and oxygen comes in second at about
20%. In the upper atmosphere we find three oxygen atoms stuck together to form ozone, O3. Ozone layers help to
protect earth from dangerous ultra-violet radiation produced by the sun.
Oxygen is a very reactive element and will bond to most of the other elements to form compounds whose
names usually end in "ate," "ide," or "ite." The most well known oxide compound is water, H2O. A similar molecule
is H2O2, hydrogen peroxide, whose usefulness as a disinfectant is due to the fact that the second oxygen atom falls off
easily, reverting back to H2O. A single oxygen atom is very dangerous and will try to steal electrons from any atom or
molecule it comes into contact with. We have body cells that use single oxygens as "bullets" to fire at germs.
All forms of animal life need oxygen for cellular respiration, the process by which cells extract energy from
sugars and fats. Fish and other sea life use oxygen that is dissolved into the water around them. Plants produce
oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis, so there is a balance between oxygen produced and oxygen used.
Plants use carbon dioxide, CO2, from the air to make sugar molecules (glucose, C6H12O6).
Oxygen is found in the crust of the earth bound to the element silicon to form minerals such as quartz, feld-
spar, mica, and olivine. All these minerals are based on the silicon tetrahedron, SiO4, which forms crystal lattices.
When oxygen is cooled down to -183° C it becomes a liquid. Oxygen is often transported in its liquid state
because it takes up less space. One liter of liquid oxygen expands to become 840 liters of oxygen gas. Oxygen gas is
used in medical devices, in steel production, in plastic manufacturing and as fuel in welding. Liquid oxygen is used
(along with liquid hydrogen) as rocket fuel.

H2O Standard colors:

O2 Oxygen gas O3 White: Hydrogen
Water
Ozone Red: Oxygen (O)
O O Black: Carbon (C)
O O
O O
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide SiO4
CO2 Carbon dioxide
O Silicon
Four oxygen atoms tetrahedron

O
will also combine
O O C with sulfur (S) or
phosphorus (P).
O
NaClO Sodium hypochlorate (bleach)
Si
O
O Na O
Cl O- +

sample-16
8 O
Combustion
produces carbon
dioxide.

Oxygen is
Hydrogen peroxide very abundant
is used in first aid. in the crust of the
earth, often as quartz.
Oxygen is
necessary for combustion.

Oxygen and hydrogen

make water.

The oxygen
we take in with our
lungs is used in the process
of cellular respiration.

When iron combines with

oxygen, it produces rust.
Many
rockets use
liquid oxygen
to burn fuel. Bleach, NaClO, has an oxygen
atom that falls off easily.

sample-17
F 9 protons
10 neutrons

Fluorine 9 electrons
Atomic mass: 18.9

From Latin word "fluere" meaning "to flow"

Fluorine is famous for being the most "electronegative" element on the Periodic Table. This means that it
can hold on to other atoms more tightly than any other element can. This is due to its size and its number of elec-
trons. Because fluorine is a fairly small atom, its electrons are very close to the positively charged protons in the
nucleus. Opposite charges attract, and fluorine's protons are able to hold the electrons very tightly. (Larger atoms
can lose some of their outer electrons.) Because fluorine's outer shell has only 7 electrons, it falls one short of the
perfect number: 8. Atoms with one empty place in their outer shell desperately want to steal or borrow an elec-
tron to fill that slot. Fluorine is so desperate that it will grab the first available electron it finds, usually an electron
belonging to another atom. Thus, fluorine is never found alone in nature. (A single F atom is very dangerous!)
Fluorine is often found in the company of the element calcium, forming calcium fluoride, CaF2. When found
in rocks, CaF2 is a mineral called fluorite (or fluorspar). Very pure fluorite crystals can be made into camera and
telescope lenses. Crystals of lesser value can be crushed into a powder and used as "flux" in metal smelting. The
fluorine atoms will grab impurities that metallurgists don't want in the hot, liquid metal. Getting rid of these con-
taminants makes the hot metal flow more easily. Fluorine's name comes from this ability to make liquid metals flow.
When fluorine grabs a hydrogen atom, hydrofluoric acid, HF, is formed. This acid is very dangerous to work
with. It burns flesh and it steals calcium from bones. It is used to etch designs into glass because it is one of the
few substances that can dissolve glass. Despite the fact that it is so dangerous, fluorine does play an important
role in the body, being one of the minerals that help to make our teeth very strong.
Sulfur atoms can bond to six fluorines, making SF6, sulfur hexafluoride. Unlike HF, this substance is very
safe. SF6 is a gas that won't react with anything and can be used as insulation. A similar molecule is uranium hexa-
fluoride, UF6. This molecule is used to "enrich" uranium by collecting U atoms that have an atomic mass of 235.
When fluorine bonds with carbon, it forms C2F4, tetra-fluoro-ethylene, better known as Teflon®. Teflon® is very
slippery so when pans are coated with it, they become "non-stick." A similar substance is poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene,
better known by the brand name Gore-Tex®. Gore-Tex® fabric is rainproof while still allowing body moisture to escape.
CaF2 Calcium fluorite (crystal lattice)
SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride
The central atom is sulfur.
Artists usually make
sulfur yellow. All the
other atoms are fluorine.

Ca Ca
C2F4 Teflon®
Ca Ca
This molecule is a very long polymer made
of thousands of carbon atoms bonded to
Ca fluorine atoms.
Ca Ca
Ca

C C C C Etc.

C C C C
This cube is called a unit cell. We see only part of the
crystal, so it seems like the math is wrong. If you looked
at the entire crystal, there would be 2 Fs for every Ca.

sample-18
9 Fluoride is often
found in toothpaste
because it helps to
prevent cavities.
F
Fluorite crystals are often green or purple.

Fluorine
Hydrofluoric acid,
HF, is dangerous!

Fluorite is used
for high magnification
camera lenses.

Gore-Tex® clothes use a modified form of Teflon®.

Teflon® makes
Teflon® tape for plumbing cooking pans "non-stick."

Fluorine is used as a "flux" in the

smelting of metal. Smelting means
heating mineral ores until they
become a liquid (often bright yellow
in color). Metals can then be
collected and cooled.

Someone
during Roman
times carved this
vase from a piece of
calcium fluoride. It has
stripes of dark green,
dark red, and yellow-tan.

sample-19
Ne 10 protons
10 neutrons

Neon
10 electrons
Atomic mass: 20.2

From the Greek word for "new"

Neon belongs to the family of elements called the noble gases. They are found in the last column on the
right side of the Periodic Table. The noble gases are very lucky because their outer electron shells are completely
filled. They do not have any empty slots, nor do they have any extra electrons to give away. This is why they will not
interact with other atoms. The noble gases are called "inert" because they are so nonreactive. Neon is sometimes
called the most inert element on the Periodic Table.
Like most of the noble gases, neon can be safely used in places where there is electricity, such as inside
fluorescent light tubes. Neon lights (the ones that actually have neon in them) glow with an orange-red color. Most
of the lights that are called "neon" lights are actually filled with other gases and with powdered minerals that pro-
duce colors like green, yellow, or blue.
Neon is used in cold-cathode voltage regulator tubes, which look a lot like old-fashioned vacuum tubes. A
similar product, called "nixie tubes," are used to make an unusual type of digital clock. Neon can also be used in
high-voltage indicator devices, and in structures that absorb lightning strikes. Helium, another noble gas, is used
with neon to make helium-neon (HeNe) lasers, which produce a bright red line of light.
Neon is found in the air all around us, but in very small quantities. The way you collect it out of the air is to
chill the air to hundreds of degrees below zero, until all the gases turn to liquid. Then the temperature is turned up
very slowly, one degree at a time. At -246o C, liquid neon turns back into a gas and is captured.
Neon was discovered at about the same time as the elements krypton and xenon, in 1898, by Sir William
Ramsay and his assistant Morris Travers, using this chilling technique. As they watched the gases appear, some
of them were familiar, such as oxygen, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide. Then they found a "new" one, so they
named it neon, after the Greek word for new.
Neon does not form molecules

Ne Ne

Ne Ne

Ne

This antique drawing

Ne shows some equipment
that scientists like Ramsay
used to "distill" gases out
Sir William Ramsay in his lab of the air by chilling them.

sample-20
10 Neon Ne

OPEN
CLOSED
This is a
cold-cathode
voltage regulator
tube. They are This is a "nixie" tube.
used only rarely It contains tiny neon
now, as solid tubes shaped like num-
state regulators bers. The tubes can be
have mostly used to make clocks
replaced them. that are purchased by
Neon signs (that actually have neon in them) glow bright orange-red. collectors as novelties.

500 nm 600 nm

HeNe laser

blue green yellow orange orange-red red

If you look at glowing neon gas through a spectrometer, this is what

you will see. The small amount of blue and green light that comes HeNe lasers
from glowing neon atoms is drowned out by all the orange and red. make a bright red line
of light that can bounce off of mirrors.

sample-21
Na 11
Sodium
protons
12 neutrons
11 electrons
Atomic mass: 22.9

The name comes from the substance in which it was discovered, "caustic soda."
The symbol, Na, is from the Latin "natrium," meaning "sodium carbonate."

Sodium was discovered by the famous chemist Sir Humphry Davy, in 1807. He discovered both sodium and
potassium in that year, using electricity to pull the atoms out of a solution. The solution he used for sodium was
called caustic soda (known to us today as sodium hydroxide, NaOH), and it is from that substance that sodium gets
its name. Pure sodium is a very soft, shiny silver metal that quickly turns dark gray if it is exposed to air. Putting
sodium into water causes it to burst into bright yellow flames, so chemists keep their samples of sodium in jars of oil,
protected from both water and air.
Sodium has only one electron in its outer shell, making it desperate to get rid of that lonely electron, even
though getting rid of it will mean upsetting the equal balance of electrons and protons. It prefers having a positive
electrical charge to having a lonely electron in an orbit all by itself. After a sodium atom loses that outer electron, it is
called an "ion" instead of an atom. An ion is an atom that does not have an equal number of electrons and protons.
Sodium is always found attached to other atoms, and one of its favorites is chlorine, making a molecule of
NaCl (sodium chloride). NaCl forms crystals that we know as table salt. Salt has a long history of being useful in
many food preparation processes, including preserving meats so they do not spoil.
Sodium lights were used widely in public areas before the invention of LED lights because the bulbs had a
very long life. Sodium bulbs give off a very yellow glow, which comes from sodium's spectral lines.
Sodium plays important roles in the body. In the blood, it helps to maintain proper blood pressure; it flows
in and out of nerve cells, allowing them to transmit electrical signals.
NaCl Sodium chloride (table salt) crystal lattice NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda)
(The atoms that are not marked are chlorine, Cl.)

Na
Na+ O
Na
Na
O-
Na
Na
C
The sodium ion
Na has a positive
Na electrical charge,
Na so it is attracted O
Na to the negatively
charged oxygen.
NaClO Sodium hypochlorite
Na (bleach)
Na
Na
Na Na+ O- Cl
Na

sample-22
11 Na
NaCl crystals
are white and
have a
cubic
shape.

Sodium
Sodium vapor lights
keep the Na atoms
at high pressure.

Table salt is NaCl.

Baking soda
makes things Bleach and Borax both
rise in the contain sodium.
oven. Its
formula is
NaHCO3.

The sodium- Na+

potassium pump
K+ (potassium)
is found in cell
membranes.

The membrane is This is not an air tank. It is a

made of molecules "re-breather." It recycles air,
called phospho- using NaOH and CaO
lipids. to remove CO2.
Na+ K+

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

The diver
doesn't make
any bubbles,
yellow which allows him
Sodium has a very distinct emission spectrum. to approach very
Burning sodium produces just two yellow lines. shy fish.

sample-23
Mg 12 protons
12 neutrons

Magnesium 12 electrons
Atomic mass: 24.3

From the area of Greece called Magnesia

Magnesium was discovered and named in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy. He used electricity to pull magnesium
atoms out of a chemical solution. This technique, called electrolysis, was used by Robert Bunsen in 1852 to produce
enough magnesium that it could be evaluated for use in many industrial processes. Magnesium was found to be
light and strong but melted at low temperatures. It is most useful when combined with aluminum to make an alloy.
Today, magnesium is usually extracted from ocean water, which has almost as much magnesium as it does
sodium and chlorine (NaCl, salt). Water from underground sources can also contain magnesium, as John Epsom
discovered in the early 1600s. His well water tasted bitter but it turned out have wonderful healing properties,
especially for skin. When the bitter water evaporated, it left behind crystals that are known today as Epsom salts,
MgSO4. These salts are still commonly used to make soaking baths as a remedy for unhealthy skin or sore muscles.
Another health product containing magnesium is "milk of magnesia," Mg(OH)2, which is used as an antacid.
Magnesium is very abundant in the Earth's crust, particularly in a mineral called dolomite, which is very
similar to limestone. Limestone is CaCO3, and dolomite is MgCO3. Magnesium can easily replace calcium because of
the fact that both of these elements have two electrons in their outer shell. The number of electrons in the outer
shell is what gives elements their ability to bond with certain atoms or molecules. Magnesium also likes to bond to
oxygen to make MgO, magnesium oxide, a mineral commonly found in rocks.
Metals that contain magnesium are used to make parts for many machines and devices, including airplanes,
rockets, cars, sports equipment, and electronic devices.
Magnesium burns with a brilliant white light, which makes it ideal for use in fireworks, sparklers, flares, and
tracer bullets. (Tracer bullets produce a flash of light so you can see them as they speed through the air.) Before the
age of LEDs, magnesium was used to make flashbulbs for cameras.
MgSO4 Magnesium sulfate
MgO Magnesium oxide MgCO3 Dolomite (Epsom salt)
MgS Magnesium sulfide
O
Both MgO and MgS will form lattices.
O- Mg2+ O
(The smaller balls represent Mg atoms.)
S
What element
C is magnesium
attracted to O-
O- in all of these O -

O molecules?

Mg2+
Mg2+
O-
O-

Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide Hydrogen is often

unlabeled.
This substance can also form a lattice, but much
more complicated than MgO or MgS.

sample-24
12 Mg
Old fashioned
camera flashes
used magnesium.

Tracer bullets make a bright flash.

Magnesium
Magnesium Magnesium alloys used to be restricted
is the central to small parts in airplanes, but now
atom in the they can be used more widely if
chlorophyll they pass flammability tests.
molecule.

fire starters

Some car parts use

magnesium alloys.

Epsom salt is used for soaking baths.

It is also great for plants!
sports equipment,
including horseshoes

cell phone
cases

white
sparklers Many
electronic
devices use
magnesium.

sample-25
Al 13 protons
14 neutrons

Aluminum 13 electrons
Atomic mass: 26.9

(or Aluminium)
From the chemical compound called "alum"

Alum is a natural mineral compound that has been used since ancient times by doctors (to quickly shrink
tissues and to stop bleeding) and in the fabric dyeing industry. In the 1700s, chemists figured out that alum con-
tains either potassium or sodium, and sulfate, SO42-, and also an unknown element. In 1754, a German chemist
succeeded in making artificial alum by boiling clay (which happened to contain aluminum) with sulfuric acid and
potash (wood ashes). In 1824, a Danish chemist managed to pull pure aluminum atoms out of a solution to produce
a solid lump of silvery metal that was very lightweight. The metal was not officially named until Humphry Davy
began working with it in the 1800s. He chose the name "aluminum," which is the name that is now used in Canada
and the U.S. Years later, some scientists in the UK decided that they preferred "aluminium" because it ends in "-ium"
like the names of many other elements, and they began using that spelling in their publications.
Today, aluminum is usually extracted from a rock called bauxite (box-ite) by grinding the rock into a powder,
then making it into a hot liquid solution into which electrodes are placed. The aluminum atoms come out of the
solution and stick to one of the electrodes. The pure aluminum will often have small amounts of other metals added
to it to make an alloy that is suitable for various industrial processes.
Adding magnesium to aluminum makes it stronger without adding extra weight, so this alloy is widely used in
the manufacturing of airplanes, boats, army tanks, and window frames. Sometimes both silicon and magnesium are
added to make a three-metal alloy that is strong and very resistant to corrosion—great for making cars and trucks.
Copper and zinc are also widely used in alloys because they add strength. The element manganese makes an alloy
that is excellent for cooking utensils and beverage cans. Adding nickel and cobalt will make an alloy known as AlNiCo,
which is used to make magnets. Aluminum foil and aluminum food trays are made of almost pure aluminum.
Aluminum sulfate, Al2(S04)3, is used in paper manufacturing and as a fertilizer for plants. Aluminum chloro-
hydrate, Al2Cl(OH)5, is the active ingredient in many antiperspirants. Aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, is the active
ingredient in some brands of antacids.

Al2O3 Aluminum oxide Al(OH)3 Aluminum hydroxide

O
All of these
Al Al molecules are
capable of
bonding with
O O O Al
O others of the
same type to
form mineral
crystals.
Al2(SO4)3 Aluminum sulfate O
Unmarked
atoms are The unmarked
oxygens. atoms are
S Al3+ S Al3+ S hydrogens.
Oxygen
is usually
colored
red.

sample-26
13 Rubies
are a red
variation of
the mineral
corundum, Al2O3.

Sapphires are also corundum, but are blue.

Al
Aluminum
Aluminum foil is made of almost
pure aluminum.
L
RAND FOI
TOP B
Airplanes are made
of aluminum alloys.

an aluminum
beverage
can

Aluminum is fairly
Alnico magnets are made of easy to recycle.
aluminum, nickel, and cobalt.
Many antiperspirants
contain aluminum.

Lightweight
bicycle frames are
often made of Al.
Bauxite
is the main
ore rock from which
aluminum is extracted.

recyclable food pans and trays

sample-27
Si 14 protons
14 neutrons

Silicon 14 electrons
Atomic mass: 28.08

From "silex," the Latin word for flint

Silicon was observed for the first time in 1824 by Swedish chemist Jöns Berzelius by heating a compound
that contained fluorine, potassium, and silicon. Previous chemists had suspected that silicon might be an element
but they were never able to get it separated from the oxygen atoms it was attached to. Pure silicon (not attached to
any other atoms) is a dark blue-gray, with a very shiny surface. It is not surprising that pure silicon is shiny because
silicon combines with oxygen to make glass, SiO2.
Silicon and oxygen are the basis for the large family of silicate minerals. Silicate gemstones include agate,
amethyst, flint, jasper, carnelian, calcedony, onyx, and opal. Silicate minerals that are not gemstones include
olivine, hornblende, asbestos, mica (biotite and muscovite), and feldspar. Granite is a rock that is made of mixtures
of quartz, feldspar and mica. Sand that is light in color is usually made of very tiny pieces of quartz and feldspar.
Quartz is an extremely useful mineral because its crystal structure produces electricity when it is squeezed.
Quartz crystals can be used to make clocks, sonar devices, and ultrasound machines.
Pure silicon can be grown into crystals that become very useful when they have small amounts of boron,
germanium and arsenic added to them. The crystals are used to make solid-state electronic parts such as micro-
chips and transistors, which are found in devices such as computers, tablets, and cell phones.
Another way silicon can combine with oxygen is in long chains, with other small molecules attached. These
long chains are called polymers and the substances they make are called silicones. Silicone substances you may be
familiar with are Silly Putty®, silicone baking trays, and silicone caulk (used around windows, sinks and tubs).
A few forms of life use silicon to make their shells. Diatoms and radiolarians are beautiful microscopic pro-
tozoans with shells made of SiO2 (glass). One type of sea sponge, the glass sponge, uses silicon to build its skeleton.

SiC Silicon carbide SiCl4 Silicon tetrachloride SiO4 Silicate tetrahedron

These silicon-carbon
units stack together to Cl- O-
C Si form the lattice shape
shown below.

Cl - O-
Si Si
Cl- O-
Cl - O-
Si Si
These tetrahedral molecules usually bond with many others identical
to themselves to form some kind of lattice shape.

Silicone polymers (There are many options for what R can be.)

Si Si R R R R

Si O Si O Si O Si

Unmarked atoms are C. R R R R

sample-28
14 Silicon
quartz crystals, SiO2
Si
Diatoms are
microscopic
cells that
make "glass"
shells using
silicon from
the water.

Silicone caulk keeps water out of cracks.

Agates, with their colorful rings,
are often sliced and polished.

Electronic
devices have
Silicon can be made into silicone, which can be microchips made
ancient Roman molded into flexible baking dishes. with silicon.
glass vase
Sand is made of
tiny pieces of
silicate rock,
such as
quartz,
feldspar,
and mica.

sample-29
P 15 protons
16 neutrons

Phosphorus 15 electrons
Atomic mass: 30.97

From Greek words meaning "light-bearer"

The discovery of phosphorus came about quite accidentally. In 1669, a German chemist named Hennig
Brand was trying to find a way to make gold. (Chemists at this time didn't know that gold was an element and could
not be made.) Since urine was yellow, he thought it might contain very small amounts of gold, so he collected gallons
and gallons of urine and starting boiling it down to get the "yellow stuff" out. What he got instead was white stuff
that glowed in the dark. He named it phosphorus mirabilis, meaning "miraculous bearer of light."
It wasn't until 1769 that another source of phosphorus was discovered. Bones also contained phosphorus,
and working with bone ash was certainly less smelly than working with urine. Phosphorus was not recognized as an
element until French chemist Antoine Lavoisier began experimenting with it in 1777. In the 1840s, another source
of phosphorus was discovered: bird droppings (guano). Vast supplies of bird guano were found on tropical islands
and they became an important source of plant fertilizer for European agriculture. Eventually, phosphorus was dis-
covered in rocks in the late 1800s, and rocks continue to be our source of phosphorus today.
Pure phosphorus comes in three colors: white, red, and black. White is the most dangerous to work with
and can burst into flames if not kept under water. It is also toxic and had a brief history of being used as a poison.
Its flammability gave rise to the invention of the match, as well as the invention of new types of weapons. If white
phosphorus is heated to a very high temperature, the phosphorus atoms rearrange their structure and turn red.
Red phosphorus is much less dangerous than white, and was much safer for making matches. If heated further, red
phosphorus will turn black and will become very safe and stable, but much less useful.
Phosphorus is an essential element to both plants and animals. Phosphate, PO43-, is one of the working
parts in ATP, the energy molecule for all forms of life. Phosphate is also a structural component of DNA. Phosphoric
acid, H3PO4 is found in carbonated beverages. Trisodium phosphate, Na3PO4, is used in some cleaning products and
water softeners. Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2 , is used to make baking powder and in the manufacturing of china
dishes. Various other compounds that contain phosphorus are used in fluorescent light bulbs.

Na3PO4 Trisodium Phosphate H3PO4 Phosphoric acid PO43-

O-
Phosphate
O
O
Oxygen is
P
usually red. P
O- O- O-
Na +
Na +
Unmarked
O-
O- atoms are H.
P O-
O
Na+ O

O POCl3
O
Phosphoryl
O O O chloride
P
P P Cl
Cl
P2O5 Phosphorus pentoxide
O O Cl
This compound can form a lattice shape.

sample-30
15 P
Matches are made
with red phosphorus.

Some fluorescent bulbs contain phosphorus.

Teeth have lots of phosphorus.

Apatite
is often
bright blue.
Bones have lots of phosphorus.

Phosphorus Carbonated
beverages
often contain
phosphoric
acid.

Cleaning
products that
contain phosphorus
are great for cleaning White phosphorus
greasy surfaces. glows bright yellowish
green when heated.

phosphate fertilizer for plants

China is made with calcium phosphate.

sample-31
S 16 protons
16 neutrons

Sulfur 16 electrons
Atomic mass: 32.06

(or Sulphur)
From the Latin "sulphurium"

People knew about sulfur in ancient times, but they did not know it was a chemical element. They used
sulfur in some of the same ways we use it today. In the Middle East, sulfur was used as a topical medicine and as
an insecticide. In China, they discovered it was not only useful in medicine but also as an ingredient in gunpowder.
Sulfur was also known and used in India and Greece. The historical name for it translates as "brimstone," meaning
"burning stone," probably because it was often found around volcanoes.
In 1777, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier realized that sulfur was not a compound, but an element. Sulfur
is an element that can exist by itself in nature. You can find lumps of pure sulfur, which are pale yellow and smell
like a lit match. Though it doesn't need to bond with other atoms, it is happy to bond with many different atoms,
becoming a part of lots of different compounds. In geology, sulfur is an ingredient in these minerals: galena (PbS),
pyrite (FeS2), barite (BaSO4), gypsum (CaSO4), sphalerite (ZnS), cinnabar (HgS), and stibnite (Sb2S3). Some of these
minerals are useful in industry, such as gypsum, which is used to make plasterboard walls for houses.
Most of the sulfur used in industry today comes from petroleum, rather than minerals. Sulfur is a natural
by-product when petroleum is refined (made into a usable product like gasoline and oils). The most useful form of
sulfur for industry is sulfuric acid, H2SO4. Sulfuric acid is used to make fertilizer, lead-acid batteries, insecticides and
fungicides, matches, and many other things.
Sulfur is an essential ingredient for all of life and is found in many organic molecules. Sulfur compounds
called "thiols" have a strong odor and are found in smelly things like garlic, rotten eggs, and skunk spray. Sulfur is
found in three amino acids. The sulfur-containing amino acids form cross links, making tough proteins like keratin,
which is found in skin, hair, and feathers. Sulfur cross-linking is also the key to making "vulcanized" rubber, a form
of rubber tough enough to be used for vehicle tires.

S8 Sulfur in crystalline form H2SO4 Sulfuric acid MgSO4 Magnesium sulfate

(Epsom salt)
O

These are O O
all sulfurs. O
S S
O
O-
O O -

H2S Hydrogen sulfide

Standard colors:
White: Hydrogen SO2 Sulfur dioxide
Red: Oxygen (O) O MgSO4 molecules
Yellow: Sulfur (S) can arrange
O themselves into Mg2+
S S a crystal lattice.

sample-32
16
Iron pyrite, FeS2 ("fool's gold")
Volcanoes can
put SO2 and H2S
into the air.
S
forms shiny gold cubic crystals.

Sulfur
Barite, BaSO4, often forms in this
shape, called a desert rose.

Sulfur is used to make

"vulcanized" rubber for tires.
Jupiter's moon, Io, is yellow and orange, due to the large
amount of sulfur produced by its many volcanoes.

Car batteries
use sulfuric acid.

You can
smell the sulfur
in burning matches.

Sulfur compounds are

found in many smelly Epsom salt
things, including MgSO4
skunk spray
and garlic.
Sulfur dioxide, SO2,
is a common form of
air pollution emitted by
many factories.
The smoke might look
light yellow if it
contains a lot of sulfur.

sample-33
Cl 17 protons
18 neutrons
17 electrons
Chlorine Atomic mass: 35.45

From Greek word "chloros" meaning "light green"

Chlorine is very reactive and is capable of bonding with almost any element on the Periodic Table. It is a
member of the halogen family (the "salt makers") along with fluorine, bromine, and iodine. All these elements are
very reactive, due to the fact that they have 7 electrons in their outer shells, one short of having the full number, 8.
When they bond with elements in the first two columns of the Periodic Table, they form salts. Chlorine will form
many salts, including NaCl, KCl, RbCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and SrCl2.
In its pure form, chlorine is a greenish gas. Several chemists discovered chlorine gas, but did not know what
it was. Humphry Davy was the first to realize it was a new element and in 1810 he named it "chlorine."
The most common compound that contains chlorine is NaCl, table salt. Chlorine is one of the essential
elements that all living things need, and it plays many roles in the human body. Our stomachs produce HCl, hydro-
chloric acid, to digest proteins. One of our immune cells uses a chlorine compound to poison and kill germs.
In the early 1800s, chemists discovered chlorine's ability to disinfect, even though germs had not yet
been discovered. Chlorine compounds began to be used to clean surfaces and equipment in hospitals. Soon after,
they found that it could be added to drinking water to prevent illnesses such as cholera. Today, we still use chlo-
rine-based bleaches, such as sodium hypochlorite, NaClO, to disinfect, and we still add chlorine to drinking water.
Public swimming pools are often treated with chlorine to keep them germ-free.
Chlorine is used in thousands of industrial processes, either as a reactant or as part of the final product.
It is used in the manufacturing of paper, plastics, medicines, insecticides, textiles, dyes, paints, and solvents.
Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, is used in dry cleaning. White PVC pipes are made of polyvinyl chloride.
Sadly, chlorine has also been used as a weapon. In World War I, chlorine gas was used in smoke bombs. The
gas would go into the lungs and turn into hydrochloric acid, instantly destroying lung tissue.

HCl Hydrogen chloride CHCl3 Chloroform NaCl Sodium chloride

(also known as hydrochloric acid) Color the larger balls green for chlorine.
H Color the smaller balls yellow for sodium.

H Cl
C Cl
Cl
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride Chloroform is famous Cl
for its ability to put
people to sleep.
Cl
CFCl3 Chlorofluorocarbon
This compound
is used in
F
dry cleaning.

Cl
C C Cl
Cl Cl
Cl
CFCs were used in
Cl
refrigeration.

sample-34
17 Cl
Pure chlorine is a poisonous gas.
Soldiers in World War 1 used this
type of gas mask during
chlorine attacks.

Chlorine
NaCl makes
cubic crystals.

Draw yellowish-green
chlorine gas in the flask.

Salt is NaCl.

Chlorine is used in many

chemical reactions.

Chlorine is used in some paper

manufacturing processes.

PVC pipes are made of

Chlorine bleach can be used chlorinated polyvinyl chloride.
to disinfect surfaces, or it can drinking water
be added to water to
kill germs. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were
used in refrigerators and air
Chlorine is often put into conditioners until they were
swimming pools. banned starting in 1987.

sample-35
Ar 18 protons
22 neutrons

Argon 18 electrons
Atomic mass: 39.9

From the Greek word "argos" meaning "lazy"

Argon is a harmless gas that is found in the air all around us. It makes up almost 1% of our atmosphere, and
is twice as abundant as water vapor. It was discovered in 1894 by Sir William Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh. They used
a technique suggested by Henry Cavendish, who had investigated gases back in the late 1700s. They exposed nor-
mal air to both electricity and a very alkaline substance until all the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide were gone.
They found that there was still a gas left in the jar. When they tested this gas they found that it would not react with
any other element, so they called it "argon," meaning "lazy." Today, argon is produced by simply chilling air until
all the gases turn to liquid, then letting the temperature rise slowly and catching each element as it "boils" off and
becomes a gas again.
Argon isn't the only lazy gas. It belongs to the family of elements called the noble gases, found in the column
all the way to the right on the Periodic Table. These gases don't react with other elements because their outer elec-
tron shell is completely full. They don't need to gain or lose any electrons.
Since argon is so nonreactive, it is ideal for use in places where safety around heat is a concern, such as in
graphite electric furnaces (used for manufacturing of steel) and in gas metal arc welding. Argon acts like a shield around
the intense heat of the weld. It is also perfect for filling all types of light bulbs, both incandescent and fluorescent.
When argon is used in lasers, they emit a blue-green light. These lasers are used in specialized microscopy,
in surgery, in some DNA sequencers, for inspecting semiconductor wafers, and in laser light shows.
A lesser-known use for argon is in the poultry industry where it is used to butcher large numbers of chickens
very quickly. Argon gas is heavier than air, so it will hover at ground level. Once the birds begin breathing the argon,
they fall asleep before being asphyxiated, so they never experience any pain or fear.

Ar Ar Ar Ar

Ar Ar Ar Ar

Normally, argon floats around as single atoms.

Sir William Ramsay

HArF Argon fluorohydride

H Ar F

In the year 2000, some Finnish scientists cooled argon down

to -265° C, and mixed it with hydrogen fluoride while exposing
The apparatus that Ramsay and it to ultraviolet radiation. HArF molecules formed, but they
Rayleigh used to isolate argon. Lord Rayleigh (John Strutt) quickly fell apart when the temperature began rising.

sample-36
18 Argon is used for humane
Argon
Ar Argon lasers are used for
eye surgery. They make a
slaughtering of poultry. bright blue line of light.

This is a cutaway view of a graphite furnace, used

to melt steel. Electricity flows through the graphite
rods and produces a bowl of hot, liquid metal.
Argon is used to fill all
kinds of light bulbs.

Replacing regular air with argon will keep

paint and varnish from drying and oxidizing.

Glove boxes can be filled with

an inert gas like argon so that
technicians can work with
materials that can't be
exposed to oxygen
or nitrogen.
Gas metal arc welding uses argon to shield the
hot welding area from the oxygen in the air.
R
H OLDE
RODE
ELECT
INSULATION
A
R
G
O
N
ARGON WELDING
GAS TUNGSTEN MACHINE
AREA ELECTRODE

sample-37
K 19 protons
20 neutrons

Potassium 19 electrons
Atomic mass: 39.1

From the word "potash" (ashes from plant leaves)

The letter K is from the Arabic word for potash, "kali" (al-kali)

Pure potassium had never been seen before Sir Humphry Davy produced it in 1807 using electricity to draw
the potassium atoms out of a solution of caustic potash (KOH). A few months after this he would use the same
technique to isolate pure sodium. Neither of these elements ever occur in their pure state in nature because they
are so reactive. Their reactivity is due to the fact that they have one lonely electron in their outer shell, and they are
desperate to give it away. Both potassium and sodium in their pure state are soft, shiny silver metals.
In the earth's crust, potassium is found primarily in rocks called feldspar, especially orthoclase feldspar. It
also occurs naturally in deposits of saltpeter, KNO3, and KCl, potassium chloride. Hundreds of years ago, saltpeter was
found to be one of the key ingredients needed to make gunpowder, along with sulfur and charcoal.
Potassium is an essential mineral to both animals and plants. (Potash, the source of potassium before the
20th century, was made from the ashes of plants.) In our own bodies, potassium and sodium flow in and out of cells
through channels called sodium-potassium pumps. These pumps are especially important in nerve cells, which use
them to transmit electrical impulses. Foods high in potassium include potatoes, spinach, avocados, and bananas.
Potassium plays a role in many chemical reactions, both as a reactant and as an end product. Potassium
compounds are used in the manufacturing of inks, dyes, stains, soaps, bleach, matches, glass, and tanned leather.
Potassium compounds are used in food preparation. Potassium bisulfate, KHSO3, is a preservative and potas-
sium bromate, KBrO3, is used to strengthen bread dough. Potassium chloride, KCl, is used as a salt (NaCl) substitute.
Potassium chloride, KCl, is a very useful potassium compound. It is used for de-icing sidewalks, as flux in glass
manufacturing, as a fertilizer, as a source of radiation in scientific research, in petroleum and natural gas extraction,
in heat packs that provide instant heat, and in home water softeners.
KNO3 Potassium nitrate
KCl Potassium chloride KOH Caustic potash (saltpeter, or nitre)

K Cl O- K+ K+

K2SO4 Potassium sulfate KBrO3 Potassium bromate

O- O-
O
O K+ N
O- What element
is K strongly
S attracted to?

O- O
O - Br O

K+ K+ White: Hydrogen Red: Oxygen (O)

O Yellow: Sulfur (S) Purple: Potassium (K)
Green: Chlorine (Cl) Orange: Bromine (Br)

sample-38
19 Cannons
used gunpowder,
made with saltpeter, KNO3.
K
Potassium
These foods
are high in
potassium...

bananas

Plants need
potassium as
one of their
essential
minerals.

sweet
potatoes

avocados

Orthoclase feldspar is often

KBrO3 is used in commercial bread baking. pink or light orange.
LIQUID
Na+ K+ SOAP
The sodium-
potassium pump The membrane is
is found in cell made of molecules
membranes. called phospholipids.

Potassium is used
in soap making.

Potassium bicarbonate
Na+ is in some carbonated
K +
beverages.

sample-39
Ca 20 protons
20 neutrons

Calcium 20 electrons
Atomic mass: 40.08

From the Greek word "calx," meaning "lime"

Calcium is yet another element discovered by Sir Humphry Davy. Its existence was already suspected, but
it was not isolated until 1808, when Davy used electrolysis to pull pure calcium out of a chemical solution. Within
the space of a few weeks, Davy had also discovered the elements above and below calcium on the Periodic Table:
magnesium, barium and strontium. Most people expect pure calcium to be white, like so many of the calcium com-
pounds they know, but pure calcium is a soft, gray metal.
In the crust of the earth, calcium is found in these minerals: limestone, chalk, aragonite (all of these are
CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4), fluorite (CaF2), and apatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2). When limestone is squeezed and heated it
turns into marble, a metamorphic rock that has been widely used for buildings and statues.
Calcium plays many vital roles in the body. Besides being an important building material for bones and
teeth, calcium is used in the transmission of signals in the nervous system, in contraction of muscle cells, as cofac-
tors for many enzymes, in protein synthesis, and in the fertilization of an egg cell.
Many mollusks (clams, snails, oysters, etc.) can take calcium out of the sea water and use it to build shells.
Natural chalk deposits, such as the White Cliffs of Dover, are made of the shells of microscopic single-celled protozoa
called foraminiferans and coccolithophores. England and Denmark have the greatest number of chalk cliffs.
Pure calcium metal is used in steel making, where it binds to oxygen and sulfur. It is added to aluminum
alloys to give the metal greater strength. It is used as a "getter" to remove oxygen and nitrogen from tubes of inert
gas (such as argon). Calcium hydride, CaH2 is used as a source of hydrogen.
Calcium compounds are found in many household products such as baking ingredients, drain cleaner, tooth-
paste, antacids, and medicines. It can also be found in maintenance-free car batteries.
CaO CaH2 Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
Calcium Calcium hydride
oxide
O- Ca2+
Ca
Hydrogens Ca2+
Ca are often O-
O unlabeled.
O- O-
C
White: H
Red: O
Black: C
Orange: Ca O
Any color: P
O O
Ca3(PO4)2 Calcium phosphate

P CaCO3 molecules
O- P O - can arrange
O- themselves into
O- a crystal lattice
O and form calcite.
Ca 2+ -
Ca2+ O- Ca2+

sample-40
20 Ca
Clams can
take calcium
from
the
water.

Calcium
This apatite
is blue.
Like bones, teeth need calcium.
Fluorite,
Sea shells CaF2, is
are made often
of CaCO3. purple
or green.

White
cliffs are
made of
chalk.

The Medici lions are famous marble sculptures in Florence, Italy.

Broccoli is
high in
calcium.

The bones
and cartilage of
all animals require calcium.

Milk from cows or goats is

high in calcium and can be
used to make cheese, butter,
yogurt, and ice cream.
Muscles also need calcium.

sample-41
© The Chemical Elements Coloring and Activity Book by Ellen Johnston McHenry
TEACHER’S
SECTION
Reproducible patterns for
games and activities

Lab experiments

Group games

Skits

83
84
 ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 1

1) GROUP GAME: “Symbol Jars”

The purpose of this game is to learn the letter symbols of some of the common elements. Students do not need to
have any previous knowledge. If players do already know some of the symbols, they can still play along with those who are
beginners and just focus on the symbols that they don’t know. More difficult symbols can always be added to the mix.
NOTE: This game is similar to the fishing game in chapter 2. If you are short on time, you might want to play just one
or the other.

You will need: photocopies on card stock, scissors, pencils or crayons

Set up:
Photocopy the pattern page, (the empty bottles, page 92), onto white card stock. Make enough copies so that you
have a bottle for each element you want to learn. Cut out the bottles. Write an element’s symbol on the bottle, then write the
name of the element on the back. (Important: Make sure you don’t use anything that will bleed through to the other side!
Also, don’t press too hard, or your letters might show through to the back. This isn’t the time to practice your engraving skills!)
You could also reverse this, and put the name on the front and the symbol on the back. Either way is fine.
NOTE: If you are making several copies of the game so that you can play it with a class, make each set of cards a
different color. If some cards get mixed up while the students are playing, they will be easy to sort back into their sets. (You
won’t end up with two of something in one set and none in another.)

How to play:
Before you begin, make sure each player has a little slip of paper with his name on it. Lay the jars out on the table in
random fashion. Each player must “call” the jar he wants to play by saying the letter symbol. For example, a player might say,
“C.” Then the player has a choice: he can either “guess” or “peek.”
If the player chooses “guess,” he must say the name of the element that is represented by that symbol. After he says
the name, he checks his answer by turning over the jar and reading the name on the back. If he is correct, he gets to pick up
that jar and keep it. If not, he must leave the jar on the table.
If the player doesn’t know a symbol and wants to learn it, he chooses the “peek” option. The player still begins by
“calling” the jar he wants to play by saying the letter symbol. Then the player states his option, “peek,” and turns the jar over
to read the name on the back. After returning the jar to its original position, the player may then “reserve” the jar for his next
turn by putting his slip of paper (with his name on it) on top of the bottle. No other player may call that jar while the name slip
is on it. When that player’s next turn comes around again, he can call that jar but this time use the “guess” option (assuming
he does remember the name on the back—if he doesn’t, he can always use the “peek” option again). If he guesses correctly,
he keeps the jar.
The game is over when all the jars have been taken.

NOTE: If you are working from a paperback copy of this book, not a digital download, and you would like a digital file so that
you can print these patterns using your computer's printer, go to www.ellenjmchenry.com, click on FREE DOWNLOADS, then on
CHEMISTRY, and then you will see a link for "Printable pages for The Elements curriculum."

2) GROUP GAME: “Quick Six” (Round one—we’ll play it again later with more cards!)
The purpose of this game is to become familiar with the names and numbers of the elements from hydrogen to xe-
non. Players do not need any previous knowledge for this game.

You will need: scissors, photocopies of the pattern pages (93-98) on white card stock, and colored pencils if you would like the
students to color the cards (I suggest using the digital version of the curriculum to print the cards on your computer’s printer,
or get them printed at a print shop. If you need a digital file, see the note above, in italics.)

Set up:
Cut apart the cards. If you would like the students to add color to the cards, provide colored pencils and some extra
coloring time.

85
How to play:
The object of the game is to be the first player to collect six cards.
Decide which player will be the “caller.” This player must read from the list below instead of being one of the card
players. If an adult is supervising the game, this is the obvious adult job. An adult caller may want to choose particular
attributes from the list below to emphasize facts recently learned. It is easiest to go down the list in order, but the caller need
not go in order, and may also use items from the list more than once. Feel free to add your own ideas to the list given below!
Each card player receives five cards, which he places face up in front of him. The rest of the cards go face down in a
draw pile. The caller reads one of the attributes from the list (the first on the list if they are going in order). Each player looks
at his five cards to see if he has a card that has that attribute. If he does, he slaps his hand down on the card. The caller looks
to see who is the first player to slap his hand down. That player then shows the card under his hand. If the caller agrees that
this card qualifies, then the player may remove that card from the line up and put it face down into a “keeper” pile. Then he
draws a card from the draw pile to replace that card and restore him to five cards, face up.
NOTE: There's a chance that a student might know extra information about an element that is not on the card. If the
adult in charge determines that the student's answer is accurate, I'd recommend allowing the student to use the information.
The caller then reads off another attribute from the list and the game continues in this manner until one player has six
cards in his “keeper” pile. If no player has a card that qualifies, the caller simply goes on to the next one on the list.
NOTE: You might have to institute a rule that says only one slap per round. If they slap and get it wrong, the other
players get to guess again, but they don’t. Sometimes students slap before they read the card carefully. Using this rule will
prevent careless slapping.
If you reach the end of the list below, just start over at the beginning again. (Or, better yet, add your own clues.)
A single game could take as little as 5-10 minutes, so play multiple games. You can switch callers between games.

Atomic number has a 3 in it

Name has two syllables
Used in lasers Used in steel production
Has something to do with the color green Used to repair the human body
Named after someplace in Scandinavia Used in light bulbs
Has something to do with teeth Is found as a gas in the air around us
Starts with the letter C Has something to do with eyes
Atomic number has a 5 in it Conducts electricity
Name has something to do with color Atomic mass is less than 50
Used to make tools of some kind Last three letters of the name are I-U-M
Is named after a city (not a country) Name is from a Latin word
Name has three syllables Is used in batteries or fuel
Atomic mass does not contain a 0 Has something to do with glass
Is used to make jewelry First letter of name does not match first
Named after a country letter of the symbol
Used for something that burns Is found in some kind of gemstone
Named after something in the solar system Name begins with the letter S
Atomic number has a 7 in it Name ends with letters O-N
Is named after a country (not a city) Name starts with the “K” sound (C or K)
Used in fireworks Is used in magnets of any kind
Has something to do with bones Used in something that makes light
Name starts with a vowel Used to make coins
Gemstones are made from it Symbol contains one of these letters: X, Y, or Z
Atomic mass is greater than 100 Name has four syllables
Is named after a country (not a city) Number has a 1 in it
Name has a double letter, such as “dd” or “ss” Atomic mass contains a 1
Symbol has only one letter Name begins with the letter R
Atomic symbol contains a vowel Atomic number is a prime number
Is used to make some kind of medicine Is mixed into metal alloys

86
3) LAB DEMO: “A Recipe in Reverse” (Electrolysis of water)
In this experiment, you will start with H2O and “break” it into its ingredients: H and O.

You will need a clear container, a 9V battery, a piece of cardboard (cereal box is fine), aluminum foil, tape, two pencil stubs
(sharpened at both ends), water, salt

How to set it up: Think about how important the discovery of electricity was
to chemists. If there was no way to separate water into its
ingredients, how would you know it wasn’t an element?
Figuring out which substances were elements and which were
not was a major puzzle for hundreds of years. Elecgtricity was
necessary for the discovery of a number of elements including
sodium, potassium and magnesium.

1) Put 2 teaspoons of salt into the cup of water and stir until dissolved.
2) Cut strips of aluminum foil and roll them into “wires.” Curl one end around a battery terminal (tape in place if necessary)
and put the other end around the sharpened pencil point and secure with tape. Make sure the graphite of the pencil is in
good contact with the foil.
3) Push the pencils through the cardboard, as shown, so that the bottom points are in the water. (You can even strip off
some of the wood with an X-acto knife if you want to, exposing more graphite. The more graphite showing, the more bubbles
you will get.)

What will happen:

You will see bubbles forming around the ends of both pencils. If you look carefully, you will notice that there are
about twice as many bubbles on one pencil as the other. Have the students guess which is which, by thinking about the
recipe: H2O. (Hint: The recipe says that for every oxygen atom there are two hydrogen atoms.)

4) SONG: “The Chemical Compounds Song” activity

Here is an activity you can do with this song. It can be done in pairs or in a group, whatever works in your situation.
Use the song as the chant for any type of hand-slapping game, such as “Miss Mary Mack.” (“Miss Mary Mack, Mack, Mack,
all dressed in black, black, black...”) The students may be able to suggest their favorite hand-slapping patterns. Any hand
slap pattern will work, as long as both partners are doing the same pattern. For a large group, they can sit in a circle and slap
thighs, then clap, then turn hands to the side and slap hands of person on their left and right simultaneously.

Also, there is a funny music video to watch on the YouTube playlist, made by a family who did this curriculum a few
years ago. (www.YouTube.com/TheBasementWorkshop, click on “Show all playlists,” then on “The Elements.”

87
5) “MAKE FIVE” A game about mineral recipes
This game is recommended for older students, or those who are very enthusiastic about rocks and minerals.
If “Symbol Jars” was enough, you can skip this game. You could also wait and play this game after the next chapter.
By definition, a mineral has a definite chemical composition (a recipe). In this game you will be introduced to the
recipes for some common minerals. It’s also an opportunity to keep on learning all those letter abreviations (symbols).

You will need: copies of the pattern pages copied onto card stock, scissors, and white glue (if you are assembling the paper
dice) If you are using wooden cubes for the dice, you’ll also need one or more markers.
(In a pinch for time, just take a fine point marker (red?) and write on real dice. Everyone can ignore the dots.)

NOTE: If you can get three wooden cubes, this is the best option. Most craft stores sell wooden cubes by the “each” or in small
units and fairly inexpensively. If you want this game sturdy enough to survive future uses, consider using wooden cubes.

Preparation:
1) Cut out the dice patterns (copied onto heavy card stock) and make into cubes, using small dabs of white glue on the tabs.
(Or, write the symbols on wooden dice or even regular dice.)
2) Cut apart the 16 mineral cards.

How to play:
Place the mineral cards on the table, face up, so they form a 4 x 4 square. Each player will have a turn rolling all
three dice at once. The goal is to roll the ingredients to form a mineral. (One roll of the three dice per player per turn.) For
example, if the first player rolls: Cu, Fe, and S, he should notice that those are the ingredients of chalcopyrite. Therefore,
that player picks up the chalcopyrite card. If the next player rolls Ca, C, and WILD, he could make the wild card into O, and be
eligible to pick up calcite.
The first player to collect five cards wins the game.

NOTE: If you are working from a paperback copy of this book, not a digital download, and you would like a digital file so that
you can print these patterns using your computer's printer, go to www.ellenjmchenry.com, click on FREE DOWNLOADS, then
on CHEMISTRY, and then you will see a link for "Printable pages for The Elements curriculum."

PATTERN PAGE FOR “MAKE FIVE”

(Die 1)

COPY ONTO CARD STOCK

88
 PATTERN PAGE FOR “MAKE FIVE”
(Dice 2 and 3)

COPY ONTO CARD STOCK

89
FIRST PATTERN PAGE FOR “MAKE FIVE”

COPY ONTO CARD STOCK

90
SECOND PATTERN PAGE FOR “MAKE FIVE”

COPY ONTO CARD STOCK

91
PATTERN PAGE FOR “SYMBOL JARS” COPY ONTO CARD STOCK

92
 H
Hydrogen
1 He
1.0
2 Li 3
Helium 4.0 Lithium 6.9
Greek: “hydro–gen” (water-maker) Greek: “helios” (sun) Greek: “lithos” (stone)

• Has no neutrons.
• Is the fuel for stars (including our sun) • Used in balloons, blimps and scubing • Used in batteries, lubricants, medicines,
• Used in rocket fuel and fuel cells diving tanks. red fireworks, and nuclear bombs.
• Combines with O to make water. • Discovered in the sun in 1895 using a • Is never found by itself in nature, but
• Combines with C to make natural gas. spectrometer. is always in a compound.

Be
Beryllium
4 B
9.0 Boron
5 C
10.8
6
Carbon 12.0
from the mineral “beryl” from the compound “borax” Latin: “carbo” (charcoal)

• Diamonds, graphite (pencil “lead”) and coal

• Found in emeralds. • Used to make heat-resistant glass. are all made of carbon.
• Is mixed with copper to make • Used in boric acid antiseptic eye wash. • Carbon makes long chains (polymers) that
“beryllium bronze,” for making tools • Is a main ingredient in Borax® washing powder are the basis of fossil fuels and plastics.
and parts that won’t create sparks. • Used in nuclear power plants. • Carbon is necessary for organic molecules
• Used for “windows” that let x-rays through. • Combines with white glue to make “slime.” found in living organisms.

N
Nitrogen
7 O
14.0
8 F 9
Oxygen 15.9 Fluorine 18.9
Greek: “nitron” (the mineral saltpetre) Greek: “oxy-gen” (acid-maker) Latin: “fluere” (to flow)

• Most of the air we breathe is nitrogen.

• Used in air bags in cars. • Combines with silicon to make sand. • Combines with Ca to make fluorite.
• Combines with H to make ammonia • Necessary for respiration and • Is put into toothpaste to fight cavities.
(found in some cleaning products) combustion. • Combines with C to make Teflon.®
• Plants need N to stay green. • H2O is water. • Used as flux in steel making
• Found in gun powder. • H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide. (makes hot metal flow better).

“Quick Six” pattern page 1 93 Copy onto white card stock

 Ne
Neon
10 Na
20.1
11 Mg 12
Sodium 22.9 Magnesium 24.3
Greek: “neo” (new) from soda ash from Magnesia, in Greece

• Combines with Cl to make table salt. • Used in white sparklers.

• Used in street lights. • Found in Epsom salt, MgSO4.
• Found in bleach, NaClO. • Is the central atom in chlorophyll
• Used in neon lights and lasers. • Found in sodium/potassium pumps in (the green molecule in leaves).
• Neon doesn’t bond to other elements. cell membranes. • Used to make fire starters.

Al
Aluminum
13 Si
26.9 Silicon
14 P
28.0
15
Phosphorus 30.9
from the compound “alumina” Latin: “silex” (hard stone, boulder) Greek: “phosphoros” (bringer of light)

• Used to build bicycles and airplanes • SiO2 is quartz, which can form sand. • Found in matches and some cleaners.
• Al2O3 is the mineral (gem) "corundum." • Used to make microchips. • Necessary for strong bones and teeth
• Used for foil, and for beverage cans. • Used to make silicon rubber products • Phosphoric acid is often in fizzy drinks.
• Used in AlNiCo magnets. like caulk and flexible baking dishes. • Is an ingredient in many plant fertilizers.

S
Sulfur
16 Cl
32.0 Chlorine
17 Ar
35.4 Argon
1839.9
Latin: “sulfur” (stone that burns) Greek: “kloros” (light green) Greek: “argos” (lazy)

• Used to make matches. • Bonds with Na to make table salt.

• Used to disinfect swimming pools. • Replaces air in lightbulbs.
• Used to vulcanize rubber.
• Is an ingredient in PVC plastics. • Used to make lasers for eye surgery.
• Volcanoes produce gases containing sulfur.
• Makes skunks and garlic stinky. • Found in bleach, NaClO • Used to butcher chickens.
• Combines with Fe to make the mineral pyrite. • In pure form is a poisonous green gas. • Doesn’t form any molecules.

“Quick Six” pattern page 2 94 Copy onto white card stock

 K
Potassium
19 Ca
39.0
20 Sc 21
Calcium 40.0 Scandium 44.9
from the word “potash” Latin: “calx” (chalk) named after Scandinavia

• Used in fertilizers. • Found in chalk, limestone and plaster. • Used in high intensity light bulbs.
• Is an ingredient in gun powder. • Needed for strong bones and teeth. • Used in large television screens.
• Bananas contain a lot of potassium. • Milk and broccoli have lots of calcium. • Alloys containing Sc are used to
• Is found in mineral orthoclase feldspar. • Seashells are made with CaCO3. make sports equipment.

Ti
Titanium
22 V 47.9 Vanadium
23 Cr
50.9
24
Chromium 51.9
named after the Greek Titan gods after the Scandinavian goddess Vanadis Greek: “chroma” (color)

• Used to repair bones. • Gives rubies their red color.

• Added to steel to make very durable
• Used to make white pigment for paint. • Used to make red, green and yellow paint.
and corrosion-resistant tools, springs
• Alloys are used to make airplane • Used as a shiny coating for metals.
and engine parts.
engines, drill bits and tools. • Added to steel to make it “stainless.”

Mn 25 Fe
Manganese 54.9 Iron
26 Co 55.8 Cobalt
27 58.9
Latin: “magnes” (magnetic) from Old English “iren” German “kobald” (evil gnomes)

• Used to remove impurities from steel. • Discovered in ancient times.

• Manganese nodules are on ocean floor. • Used in steel and in magnets. • Used in AlNiCo magnets.
• Found in vitamin B1. • Fe will rust if O2 and H2O are present. • Used in making drill bits and razors.
• Is the "Mn" in YInMn blue pigment. • Used to make cast iron cooking pans. • Can be used to color glass deep blue.
• Red blood cells are red due to iron. or to make blue glaze/paint for pottery.
• Found in pigments in cave paintings.
• Found in vitamin B12 (cobalamin).

“Quick Six” pattern page 3 95 Copy onto white card stock

 Ni
Nickel
28 Cu58.7
29 Zn 30
Copper 63.5 Zinc 65.4
German: “Nickel” (Satan) Latin: “Cuprum” (from Cyprus) Greek: “zink”

• Core of earth likely made of Ni and Fe. • Used for galvanizing (protecting) metal.
• Used for coins, wires and pipes.
• Used to make coins and utensils. • Was used to make voltaic pile battery.
• The Statue of Liberty is made of copper.
• Used as coating for keys of musical • Zinc sulfide glows in the dark.
• Copper mixed with zinc makes brass.
• Used to make AlNiCo magnets. • Zinc and copper make brass.
• Copper mixed with tin makes bronze.
• Guitar strings are made of nickel and steel. • Sunscreens can contain Zn compounds

Ga
Gallium
31 Ge
69.7 Germanium
32 As
72.6
33
Arsenic 74.9
Latin: “Gallia” (France) Latin: “Germania” (Germany) Latin: “arsenicum” (a pigment)

• Gallium arsenide is used in LEDs, • Is a semi-conductor and therefore is • Famous for its use as a poison.
lasers, and in Blu-ray players. used in transitors and diodes. • Gallium arsenide is in solar panels.
• Used in electronic devices. • Used in photographic lenses. • Used in lasers and LED’s.
• Gallium arsenide is in solar panels. • Used in infrared-sensing devices. • In the past, was used for green pigment.

Se
Selenium
34 Br 78.9 Bromine
35 Kr79.9 Krypton
36 83.8
Greek: “selene” (moon) Greek: “bromos” (stench) Greek: “kryptos” (hidden)

photographic
film plate
• Used in photocopiers because it conducts
electricity in the presence of light.
• Bromine is in the purple ink taken out
of murex mollusks ("royal purple"). • Used in fluorescent bulbs, and for bulbs
• Used in solar panels and in light meters.
• Used to make fire-resistant fabrics. that need to be extremely bright.
• Selenium used as an anti-oxidant in our
bodies, protecting us from cellular damage. • Was used in photographic film. • Used in UV lasers and in atomic clocks.
• A key ingredient in anti-dandruff shampoo. • Was key ingredient in Bromo-Seltzer.® • Was used as propellant in satellites.

“Quick Six” pattern page 4 96 Copy onto white card stock

 Rb
Rubidium
37 Sr
85.5
38 Y 39
Strontium 87.6 Yttrium 88.9
Latin: “rubidus” (deep red) after the Scottish village of Strontia after the Swedish town of Ytterby
GITD

• Will burn in water (red flames). • Used in mantles for gas lanterns.
• Used as a “scavenger” in vacuum tubes. • Used in fireworks and flares. • Used in YAG (yttrium garnet) lasers.
• Used in magnetometers and night • Sr in old bones is used by archaeologists. • Made red color in CRT televisions.
vision goggles. • Was used in CRT television screens. • Is the "Y" in YInMn blue p
• Used in small atomic clocks. • Strontium aluminate glows in the dark. • Used in glass for specialty lenses.

Zr
Zirconium
40 Nb 91.2 Niobium
41 Mo
92.9
42
Molybdenum 95.9
Arabic: “zargun” (gold color) named after the Greek goddess Niobe Greek: “molybdos” (lead)

• Used for filaments in heaters.

• Made into gemstones. • Used in welding rods and cutting tools. • Added to steel (“Chromoly” steel)
• Found in antiperspirants (along with Al) • Used in alloys for rocket engines. used for things that must be durable.
• Used for tubes in nuclear power plants • • Niobium jewelry is iridescent. • Used in water quality gauges.
• Used to make abrasives (sand paper) • Nb wired used in particle accelerators. • MoS2 is used as a dry lubricant.

Tc
Technitium
43 Ru
99.0 Ruthenium
44 Rh
101.1 Rhodium
45 102.9
Greek: “teknetos” (artificial) Latin: “Ruthenia” (Russia) Greek: “rhodon” (rose)

• Used in catalytic converters in cars.

• Is radioactive. • Used to make resistor chips for • Used in headlight reflectors.
• Not found in nature. Must be made in electronic devices • Makes jewelry look extra shiny.
a nuclear lab, (usually from Mo or Ru). • Was used to make tips for fountain pens. • Combined with Pt and Pd to make
• Used in medical procedures. • Used for lifting fingerprints. spark plugs and electrodes.

“Quick Six” pattern page 5 97 Copy onto white card stock

 Pd
Palladium
46 Ag
106.4 Silver
47 Cd
107.8 Cadmium
48 112.4
named after the asteroid Pallas Anglo-Saxon: “seolful” (silver) Greek: “kadmeia” (earth)
Symbol from Latin “argentum”

• Used in catalytic converters in cars. • Used to make coins, jewelry, mirrors, • Used in rechargeable batteries.
• Found in airplane spark plugs. silverware, photographic film. • Used in some lasers.
• Used to make high quality flutes. • Used to make anti-bacterial bandages. • Makes yellow and red pigments.
• Used in jewelry and dentistry. • "Bang snaps" use silver fulminate. • Used (with Bi) for sprinkler fuses.
• Used with silver for capacitors. • Used with palladium for capacitors. • Absorbs neutrons in nuclear reactors.

In
Indium
49 Sn
114.8 Tin
50 Sb118.7
51
Antimony 121.7
Latin: “indicum” (indigo blue) Latin: “stannum” (tin) Greek: “anti-monos” (not alone)
Symbol comes from “stibnium”

• Used in transistors and solar cells. • Is an ingredient of pewter. • Used in solder.

• Used in soldering. • Is mixed with copper to make bronze. • Key ingredient in Naples yellow paint.
• Indium-tin-oxide, ITO, is used as a • Indium-tin-oxide, ITO, is used as a con- • Found in safety matches, and is added
conductive surface for touch screens. ductive surface for touch screens. to fabrics to make them fire-resistant.
• Is the “In” in YInMn blue pigment. • Metal toys used to be make of tin. • Ancients used it in eye-liner cosmetics.

Te
Tellurium
52 I
127.6 Iodine
53 Xe
126.9 Xenon
54 131.3
Latin: “tellus” (earth) Greek: “iodes” (violet) Greek: “xenos” (strange)

Lugol’s

• Used as a disinfectant.
• Can replace sulfur in vulcanization process. • Used in halogen lamps, ink pigments
• HgCdTe is used to sense infrared, used and photographic film.
• Used in camera flash bulbs, strobe
in military night-vision equipment • Our thyroid glands need iodine.
lights, and other high intensity bulbs.
• CdTe is used in solar panels. • Silver iodide is used to make clouds rain.
• Was used as propellant for satellites.
• Used to make Blu-ray discs. • Found naturally in seaweed.

“Quick Six” pattern page 6 98 Copy onto white card stock

 ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 2

1) GROUP GAME: Play the element fishing game

Overview of game: This game can be played with multiple skill and age levels. The rules are constructed so that students who
have no previous knowledge of the elements can play with those who do. The rules are similar to the “Symbol Jars” game
from chapter 1, so if you played that game then this one will not require a lot more initial instruction. (The kids won't mind
the repetition. I've never had any student complain about playing both jars and fish.)

You will need: copies of the fish pattern page, printed onto heavy card stock if possible. You may use as few or as many of the
elements in your game as you wish. Just copy enough fish for the number of elements you want to use.

You will also need: scissors, pencils or crayons, string, paper clips, little slips of paper (one per player), at least one pole of
some kind (you can make as many fishing rods as you want to), at least one magnet (one magnet per pole), an area marked off
to be the “pond”
TIP: When I’ve played this with a large group, it turns into total chaos if there are too many fishing poles. If the kids
have a rod in their hands, they WILL fish whether it is their turn or not. I recommend small groups (no more than 4-5 kids per
“pond”) with only one rod to pass around, two at most.
OPTIONAL: Have students trade in their paper fish for edible fish crackers at the end of the game.

Set-up:
1) Cut out the paper fish. Have the students write the name of an element on one side of the fish and its symbol on the
reverse side. (NOTE: Make sure you use a writing implement that does not bleed through the paper.) If you have limited class
time, you may want to have the fish pre-labeled before class. If you want to make your fish durable, you could laminate them.
2) Put a paper clip on the nose of each fish. Make a fishing pole from a rod (even a yardstick will do) and a string, and put a
magnet on the end of the string.
3) Mark off an area that will be the fishing pond. If you want to get fancy, you can use a plastic wading pool. (I’ve used blue
painter’s tape on both hard floors and carpets.)
4) Each player needs a slip of paper with his or her name on it.
5) After the fish are made, put them into the pond so that either all the names or all the symbols are facing up. The game
seems to be easier to play if the symbols are facing up. We’ve found that reading the name and guessing the symbol is a little
more difficult.

How to play:
The rules are very similar to “Symbol Jars.” The swinging strings add a new dimension to the game, in that you don’t
always bring up the fish that you called out. Oh well, it’s part of the game!
Each player must “call” the fish before he puts his rod in, by saying the name or letter on it. He must also choose one
of two options: “guess” or “peek” If he chooses “guess” this means that he will try to say what is on the reverse side before
he pulls the fish out of the pond. After guessing, he reels in the fish and looks on the back. If he is right, he keeps the fish; if
not, the fish goes back in the water. The other option, “peek,” is
for when the player has no idea of the right answer and needs to
learn it. The player still “calls” the fish, but then says “peek.” After
reeling in the fish, the player reads the reverse side out loud. After
the “peek” option, the player may then put his name slip under the
paper clip, before returning the fish to the pond. This reserves the
fish for him until his next turn. No other player may catch his fish in
the interim. On his next turn, that player will probably want to use
the “guess” option, remembering what he read on the back of the
fish last time. If he remembers correctly, he keeps the fish. If not,
the fish goes back in the pond (with no name slip).
The game is over when all the fish are gone. You could
play for a winner by counting up who has the most fish, or you can
make the game non-competitive and simply give the players an
edible reward for each fish they caught.

Even my middle school students enjoy fishing.

99
100
2) ACTIVE GROUP GAME: The Periodic Table Jump Rope Rhyme
You will need: jump ropes and the audio track (www.ellenjmchenry.com/audio-tracks-for-the-elements)
Note: You can have the students use individual ropes, or you can do it as a group activity with one long rope and a
“turner” at each end. This second method is nice to start with because the turners and the players who are not jumping can
be the ones to recite the elements while the jumper concentrates on jumping. I have found that it is not hard at all to elicit
very loud group chanting as players jump. It’s kind of natural to join in with a group chant. So the students spend a lot of time
chanting the rhyme over and over again. They can't help but remember at least some of it eventually.
You might want to start by just listening to the audio track to catch on to how the chant goes. After a few times you
can dispense with the audio track and have the students do their own chanting. The game will be to see who can jump all
the way to krypton without missing the rope. A player who misses the rope has to start back at hydrogen again (which is
GREAT because that makes everyone review!). You might want to allow kids who miss before beryllium to get another try.
NOTE: If you have kids who are shy about doing "overhead" jumping, you can do what we called "swayzees" (way back in the
1970s and 80s). Just swing the rope back and forth, never letting it go higher than waist high.

3) MATCHING CARD GAME: A way to review the info from the Chemical Compounds Song
You will need: picture cards showing the items named in the song (water, salt, bleach, rust, etc.) and cards with the chemical
recipes written on them. Cards should all be the same size and made out of card stock, if possible, so that the writing does
not show through on the back.
NOTE: Apologies that the pictures can’t be provided, but there could be copyright issues involved. However, they are
easily found in seconds with an Internet image search. Just take a few minutes to download and print them however your computer
is set up to do such a task. I put 6 pictures on a page, but you can do more or less.
ALSO NOTE: If you want to make the card game a little harder for older students, add these chemical formulas: H2O2
(hydrogen peroxide), N2O (nitrous oxide or laughing gas), H2S (hydrogen sulfide, the smell of rotten eggs), and NH3 (ammonia,
the smell of glass cleaning products or wet diapers).

How to play: Use standard “Memory match” game rules.

ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 3

1) ACTIVE GROUP GAME: Human model of atom (a good outdoor activity)
You will need: as many players as possible, and a large outdoor (or indoor) space.

How to play:
1) All players will represent electrons. The adult (or a stationary object) will represent the nucleus. Assign each player
either a number (starting from one and going up as high as you have players). This number corresponds to an element.
1=hydrogen, 2-helium, etc.
2) Explain that this model will be a “solar system” model, with the electrons going in circles around the nucleus.
3) As the number/name of each element is called out, the player who has been assigned that element comes to join the
atom. The first two players must run, without bumping into each other, in a fairly tight circle, not too far from the
nucleus. The third player, when called, must start a new circle, farther out than the first one. Then players are added,
one at a time, until the second ring has eight in it. If you have more players, start a third ring.
4) While players are being added, the ones already in the atom must keep going.
5) For an added learning bonus, tell your players that you’ll count to ten and in that time they must circle the nucleus one
time. Just one time. They will find, of course, that the players in the outer ring will have to run very fast in comparison
with the ones close to the nucleus. This analogy can be helpful when trying to explain how electrons can be “high
energy” (a concept you meet in photosynthesis, cellular respiration). The outer shell electrons have more energy
than the inner ones. If an electron gets zapped by a photon of energy it can jump to a higher shell. It can’t stay there,
though and when it comes back down it must release that energy again, and sometimes that energy is light we can see.
(This is how glow-in-the-dark pigments work.)
NOTE: While adding more players, keep an eye on the ones already running and make sure they stay at opposite ends
of the circle and don’t run into each other. Electrons never, ever, ever run into each other! They like to be in pairs, but
at the same time, they like to be on opposite sides.

101
2) ACTIVITY: The Quick and Easy Atomizer
This can be used as a group activity. The directions are in the student booklet.

3) ACTIVE GROUP GAME: Jump Rope Rhyme Challenge, Round 2

Do the jump rope challenge again, only this time let the students go as far as they can on the Periodic Table. The
jumper will not be the one reciting. The players who are not jumping are responsible for reciting. Use the rhyme up to
krypton, then start saying the elements in order after that.
You may want to go over pronunciation ahead of time. You can use a dictionary, but there is also a helpful
pronunciation guide at the beginning of this book. Also if you type "how to pronouce [your word]" into YouTube, you will be
offered several pronunciation guides.

ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 4

1) TABLE GAME: The Periodic Table Game ("Race to Rutherfordium")

You will need: copies of the four pattern pages,
assembled to make the Periodic Table, coins (about 5
pennies, 5 nickels, 5 dimes, and 1 quarter per player), a
tuna can or small plastic container of similar size, a pair
of standard dice, some tokens (one per player, and they
don’t have to be real game tokens, you can use anything),
and some black paper squares the size of one space on the
game board (two rectangles per player)
You may also want to make copies of the list of
names and places for the students to study BEFORE the
game starts. Once the game starts, no peeking at the list.
Of course, the list may have to be consulted during the
game to check answers.

NOTE: Again, if you need a digital file to print from, you

can find one at www.ellenjmchenry.com in the chemistry
section of the free downloads.

About the game board:

The number in the upper right hand corner of each square is the valence number. It is the number of electrons the
element would like to receive or give away. Many elements (especially in the middle of the table) have more than one valence
number. I've chosen just to list the highest valence for each element. It simplifies the game considerably and makes the
mathematical pattern of the table more obvious. However, you may want to make your players aware that in reality many of
the elements can have more than one valence number. In this game, the elements in each column end up displaying the same
valence, which is a basic concept in learning to understand the Periodic Table. The word “periodic” means it has repeating
patterns, and the valencies are one of these patterns. Notice that the last five elements do not have a valence number listed.
These elements only exist for a fraction of a second and therefore their valence cannot be determined.
The large letters in each box are the symbols for each element. Underneath the symbol is the name of the element.
Most elements are solids at room temperature. Notice that the elements that are liquids at room temperature are
marked with a liquid drop, and those that are gases at room temperature are marked with a gas cloud.
There is a strange break at two places in the Periodic Table. One is after Lanthanum and one is after Actinium. These
extra sections are listed at the bottom of the table simply because inserting them in the middle of the table would make the table
too wide to fit comfortably on a page. There’s no scientific reason for putting them at the bottom--it’s simply a graphics decision.
The black and white version of the game is identical to the colorized version (except for the color, of course). The
black and white version is for students who love to color, or who will learn more by coloring their own table. The black and
white version is also cheaper and easier to reproduce.

102
How to play:
Before starting the game, players get a chance to study the information page that lists elements named after people
and places. You might want to make additional photocopies of it. Once the game starts, no peeking except to check answers.

1) Put all the coins in the can and place it on the circle marked BANK. Put the players’ tokens on START. Give each
player 5 pennies to begin with.
2) Players take turns moving the number of spaces they roll on the dice. (Use two dice so the game doesn’t go too
slowly.) Unless your tokens are pretty small, you will probably want to allow only one token per square. Players will
have to jump over each other. It’s up to you whether to count that hop over another player as one of your actually
“hops” or or not. Either way is fine as long as everyone agrees to the rules ahead of time and abides by them while
playing.
3) When a player lands on a space, he looks at the valence number, which is in the upper right corner. If it is a positive
number, he takes that many pennies from the bank. If the number is negative, he loses that many pennies and must
put them into the bank.
4) Certain elements have special features:
GASEOUS ELEMENTS (indicated by a cloud shape): extra roll
LIQUID ELEMENTS (indicated by a droplet shape): extra roll
PRECIOUS METAL: bonus of three pennies (Precious metals include silver, gold, platinum. You may add others to
your list if you want to, as long as everyone agrees.)
RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS: The radioactive elements have little “shine” lines around their letter symbols. The
player must place a square black shield on the spaces before and after that space, to keep other players “safe.”
No one can land on a black shield. If other players come past while the shields are in place, they simply hop
over all three spaces (the two with the black shields and the one in the middle that has a token sitting on it) and
keep going with their turn. Those three spaces do not count at all (they do not use up three hops). Just ignore
those three spaces as if they were not there. When it is the radioactive player’s turn again, he removes the black
shields and simply proceeds with his turn.
ELEMENT NAMED AFTER A PERSON OR PLACE: If a player lands on an element that he thinks was named after a
person or a place, he may take a 3 penny bonus if he can name that person or place. If he is wrong, he does not
get the bonus, but there is no penalty for guessing.
LANTHANIDES and ACTINIDES: Don’t forget about these rows! After a player lands on lanthanum, he goes down
to the lanthanide series. At the end of the row, he hops back up to hafnium. Similarly, after actinium comes
thorium. After that row, hop back up to the main table and continue on with rutherfordium. (Often players
forget the lanthanides the first time they play the game. If this happens and it’s discovered too late to go back,
you may want to just have the other players skip the lanthanides also, to make it fair play for everyone.) We don't
know much about these rows yet, and they may seem like an annoyance in the game, but we'll find out in chapter
8 how incredibly important some of these are to our modern lifestyle (computers, cell phones, ipads, etc.).
5) At any time during the game a player may “make change,” trading in pennies for nickels or dimes. The bank needs to
have a good supply of pennies all the time, so when that supply gets low, players must make change to restock the
bank.
6) After all players reach Rf, rutherfordium, the game is over. The player with the most money wins. (But everyone
wins if you all learn and have fun!) The game does not go all the way to Oganesson because it is already pushing the
patience of many players just to get to Rf (or even to Rn).
6) To make the game shorter, end at Radon instead of Rutherfordium.

103
NOTE: These lists do not include the elements you can't land on in this game.

ELEMENTS NAMED AFTER PLACES:

Americium: America
Berkelium: Berkeley, CA
Californium: California
Cerium: the asteroid Ceres
Erbium: Swedish town of Ytterby
Europium: Europe
Francium: France
Gallium: France (Gall was the ancient name for France)
Germanium: Germany
Hafnium: Hafnia is Latin for Copenhagen, Denmark
Holmium: Stockholm, Sweden
Neptunium: the planet Neptune
Palladium: the asteroid Pallas
Plutonium: the until-recently-a-planet Pluto
Polonium: Poland
Rhenium: the Rhine River area of Germany
Ruthenium: the province of Ruthenia in the Czech Republic
Scandium: Scandinavia
Strontium: Scottish town of Strontian
Tellurium: the planet Earth (the Greek word is Tellus)
Terbium: the Swedish town of Ytterby
Thulium: Scandinavia (the ancient name for Scandinavia was Thule)
Uranium: the planet Uranus
Ytterbium: the Swedish town of Ytterby
Yttrium: again, the Swedish town of Ytterby

ELEMENTS NAMED AFTER PEOPLE, REAL or MYTHOLOGICAL:

Cobalt: kobalds (gremlins)
Curium: Marie Curie, discoverer of radium and polonium
Einsteinium: Albert Einstein
Fermium: Enrico Fermi, a physicist during the World War II era
Gadolinium: Johan Gadolin, a Finnish chemist
Gallium: Lecoq de Boisbaudran, a 19th century chemist (Gallus is Latin for “cock”)
Iridium: Iris, goddess of the rainbow
Lawrencium: Ernest O. Lawrence, a 20th century physicist
Mendelevium: Dmitri Mendeleyev, inventor of the Periodic Table
Mercury: Mercury, mythological Roman god
Nickel: the devil
Niobium: Niobe, the daughter of mythological Greek god Tantalus
Nobelium: Alfred Nobel, inventor of dynamite, and namesake of the Nobel Prize
Promethium: Prometheus, mythological Greek god who gave fire to mankind
Samarium: Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets, a Russian general
Tantalum: Tantalus, mythological Greek god
Tin: Tinia, mythological Etruscan god (“Sn” comes from its Latin name, stannum)
Thorium: Thor, mythological Norse god of thunder

104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
2) CRAFT: Make a Periodic Table pillowcase
You will need: copies of the following pattern pages, clear tape, a blank pillowcase (white or a very light pastel color is best),
fabric markers, glow-in-the-dark paint (if possible), and some pins to hold the pattern in place (and an iron if the instructions
on your fabric markers say to use one)

What to do:
1) Copy the pattern pages onto regular paper (no need for card stock). Tape the four pages together so that they form a blank
Periodic Table. Put this inside the pillowcase. You should be able to see the black lines right through the fabric. Adjust the
pattern so that it is placed in the middle of the pillowcase, and pin it in place.

NOTE: A few key numbers are given as a guide, to prevent major mistakes such as forgetting to jump down to the lanthanide and
actinide series down below, or going top to bottom instead of left to right.

2) Use the fabric markers to trace over the squares. Color code the families. You don’t have to use the color code shown here.
You can decide what color to make each family. (If you want to add more elements, after 109, you are welcome to add them.
These are what I call the “extremely silly elements” because they really don’t exist. A few atoms blink in and out of existence for
a millionth of a second. But you are welcome to add them to that bottom row if you want to.)

3) Write in the symbol for each element and its atomic number.

4) FUN EXTRA FEATURE: You could put glow-in-the-dark paint on the radioactive elements. GITD paint is easily obtained from
any craft store and is not expensive. Look at your Periodic Table game (or find a Periodic Table on the Internet) to see which
elements are radioactive. (Don’t forget Technetium!)

5) Follow any ironing or washing instructions that come with your fabric markers.

117
 3

118
11

19

37
 13
5

119
55 57 72
87 89 104
58

120
90
3) GROUP GAME: “Quick Six” -- Round 2
121
3) GROUP GAME: “Quick Six” -- Round 2

You will need to make more cards using these additional pattern pages. Rules are the same as before, only the list of clues
has expanded. Make sure the students have a Periodic Table to look at while playing, since some of the clues are about the
location of the element on the Table. (Unfortunately, the last card, 118, was going to be on a page all by itself. It seemed
a waste to make you print an entire page just for one card. You are welcome to omit 118. In fact, you might even want to
stop at 99, Einsteinium. 99 cards is a lot! If you want card 118, just print this page onto card stock.)

Note: Some of these clues require the students to look at the atomic mass (weight) of the element. The atomic
mass is listed in smaller print right under the atomic number. It is basically the number of protons and neutrons added
together. Electrons are so small they add almost nothing to the total mass. The students may notice that some of the
atomic masses are decimal numbers, instead of whole numbers, and they may wonder if this means that there can be
fractional pieces of protons and neutrons. The reason for these decimal numbers is that scientists measured many atoms,
then took a mathematical average. Since a small percentage of atoms more or less than the average number of neutrons,
the average comes out to a decimal number. For example, if you weigh ten atoms of neon and get these results: 20, 20,
20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, then take the average, you will get 20.2. This is the atomic mass listed for neon. Most neon
atoms have 10 protons and 10 neutrons, but once in a while you will meet a neon atom with 10 protons and 11 neutrons.
(Remember, as long as it has 10 protons, it’s still neon!)
When you get to the end of the clues, just start at the beginning of the list again. Add some of your own clues, too!

Atomic number has a 3 in it

Name has two syllables
Used in lasers
Has something to do with the color green
Named after someplace in Scandinavia
(Y, Sc, Ho, Tb, Er, Yb, Hf, Th)
Has something to do with teeth OPTIONAL:
Named after a Greek god or goddess You can print this card, or not.
Is a transition metal
Starts with the letter C
Is in the same row as gold on the Periodic Table
Used in some kind of engine (car, airplane, rocket, etc)
Atomic number has a 5 in it
Used to make tools of some kind
Is named after a city (not a country)
Is an alkali earth metal
Is radioactive
Name has three syllables
Is used to make jewelry or gemstones
Used for something that burns or explodes
Is a non-metal
Atomic mass is less than 30
Named after something in the solar system
(U, Np, Pu, Ce, Pd, Te, Se, He)
Atomic number has a 7 in it
Is on the edge of the Periodic Table

122
Atomic mass is between 50 and 70
Named after Ytterby, Sweden (Y, Yb, Er, Tb)
Is a true metal or semi-metal
Must be manufactured in a lab
Is named after a country (not a city)
Is extracted from monazite sands (found in Florida, California, Brazil, India)
Used in fireworks
Has a valence of -1 (the halogens)
Atomic number has three digits
Is in the actinide series
Has something to do with bones
Name starts with a vowel
Is in the same row as molybdenum on the Periodic Table
Gemstones are made from it
Named after a famous scientist
Has an atomic number greater than that of tungsten
Used to color glass
Name has four syllables
Atomic number has a 0 in it
Used in steel production
Used to repair the human body in some way
Is in the same column as helium on the Periodic Table
Used in light bulbs
Has a valence of +1
Atomic mass is greater than 100
Is found as a gas in the air around us
Has something to do with eyes
Atomic number has a 9 in it
Is in the lanthanide series
Conducts electricity
Last three letters of the name are I U M
Is in the same row as iron on the Periodic Table
Has no commercial or scientific use
Name is from a Latin word
First letter of name does not match first letter of the symbol
The symbol consists of only one letter
Atomic mass is over 200
Has a valence of 0 (the noble gases)
Has an atomic number smaller than argon’s number
Is completely surrounded by other elements on the table (not on an edge)

123
Cs
Cesium
55 Ba
132.9
56 La Lanthanum
57 138.9
Barium 137.3
Latin: “caesius” (sky blue) Greek: “barys” (heavy) Greek: “lanthanein” (to lie hidden)

• Used for X-rays of digestive systems. • Used in telescope and camera lenses.
• Used in atomic clocks.
• Used in fireworks (green color). • Used for electrodes in high intensity
• Used as a “scavenger” (collector)
• Found in mineral barite (desert rose). lights and in mantles for gas lanterns
inside vacuum tubes.
• BaO is in electrodes in fluorescent lights. • Used in spark-making devices
• Found in some magnetometers.
• Barium carbonate was used to kill rats. • Found in some algae-killing solutions.

Ce
Cerium
58 Pr
140.1 Praseodymium
59 Nd
140.9
60
Neodymium 144.2
named after the asteroid Ceres Greek: “prasios-didymos” (green twin) Greek: “neos-didymos” (new twin)

• Used in mantles for gas lanterns. • Used in dymium glasses for welders. • Used in dymium glasses for welders.
• Used in self-cleaning ovens. • Used in bulbs for movie projectors. • Used to make strong magnets found in
• Used in sparking devices. • Used in magnets in electric tools. headphones and other electronic devices.
• Cerium oxide is used to polish glass. • Sometimes found in sparking devices. • Used to color glass (blue, green, purple).
• Extracted from monazite sand. • Extracted from monazite sand. • Extracted from monazite sand.

Pm
Promethium
61 Sm
147.0 Samarium
62 Eu
150.3 Europium
63 151.9
named after Greek god Prometheus named after the mineral “samarskite” named after Europe
which was named for Col. Samarski,
a Russian army engineer

• Is a synthetic element made in • Used to make red color in old CRT

nuclear reactors or cyclotrons. • Used in magnets for MRI machines, televsions.
• Was used to make glow-in-the-dark computers and cell phones. • Used in fluorescent bulbs.
paint for the Apollo lunar rover. • Samarium-cobalt magnets found in • Used to make fluorescent marks on
• Replaced radium to make glowing heavy-duty generators. Euros to prevent counterfeiting.
paint for watches and clocks. • Extracted from monazite sand. • Extracted from monazite sand.

“Quick Six” pattern page 7 124 Copy onto white card stock
 Gd
Gadolinium
64 Tb157.2 Terbium
65 Dy
158.9 Dysprosium
66 162.5
named for chemist Johann Gadolin named after Swedish village of Ytterby Greek: “dysprositos” (difficult to obtain)

• Used to make Terfenol-D, which can • Used to make Terfenol-D, which can
• Used in fluorescent bulbs (green light). turn any surface into a speaker. turn any surface into a speaker.
• Radioactive isotopes used in bone scans. • Used in fluorescent bulbs (glows green). • Used in wind generator magnets.
• Used as tracer in MRI scans. • Used in some green lasers. • Found in high intensity light bulbs.
• Extracted from monazite sand. • Extracted from monazite sand. • Extracted from monazite sand.

Ho
Holmium
67 Er
164.9 Erbium
68 Tm 69
167.3 Thulium 168.9
named for Stockholm, Sweden named after Sweidish village of Ytterby Thule is the ancient name for Scandinavia
red or yellow

• Erbium glasses protect a patient’s eyes • Used in medical lasers.

• Used in eye-safe medical lasers. during laser surgery. • Makes fluorescent blue strip in Euro notes.
• Used to color glass red or yellow. • Used for coloring glass pink. • Used in some radiation dosimeters.
• Absorbs neutrons in nuclear reactors. • Used to make medical lasers. • Used in some arc light bulbs.
• Extracted from monazite sand. • Used to make relays in fiberoptic cables. • Extracted from monazite sand.

Yb
Ytterbium
70 Lu173.0 Lutetium
71 Hf
174.9 Hafnium
72 178.5
named after Swedish village of Ytterby Lutetia is the ancient name for Paris Hafnia is the ancient name for Copenhagen

LuAG

• Used in precision lasers that can clean • Usually found with zirconium.
ancient artifacts and famous paintings. • LaTaO4 is used in x-ray machines. • Hf alloys were used to make nozzles
• Is added to steel to improve strength. • Alloys of Lu are used to refine petroleum. of Apollo lunar module.
• Yb fluoride can be used in dental fillings. • Is the “Lu” in LuAG crystal lasers. • Used for metal tips on plasma cutters.
• Yb atomic clocks use suspended atoms. • Used in infrared sensing night-vision. • Enabled a critical step in learning to
• Extracted from monazite sand. • Extracted from monazite sand. make smaller computer chips.

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Ta
Tantalum
73 W
180.9 Tungsten
74 Re
183.8 Rhenium
75186.2
named after the Greek god Tantalus Swedish: “Tung stem” (heavy stone) Latin: “Rhenus” (Rhine River)
Used to be called Wolframite

WS2

• Used for filaments in incandescent bulbs. • Used in electrical switches.

• Used in some artificial joints. • Used to make drill bits and saw blades. • Used for thermocouples, high-temp
• Used to make pipes for heat exchangers • Highest melting point of all the metals. thermometers, and oven filaments.
(such as the large one shown here). • Tungsten sulfide used as dry lubricant. • Used in petroleum refining process.
• Used for capacitors in electronics. • Used as lead (Pb) substitute. • Re-W alloys used for jet engines.

Os
Osmium
76 Ir
190.2 Iridium
77 Pt
192.2
78
Platinum 195.1
Greek: “osme” (smell) Latin: “iris” (rainbow) Spanish: “platina” (silver)

• Was used to make the mirrors for the

• Was used to make fountain pen points. Chandra X-ray observatory. • Used in jewelry and dentistry.
• Was used for the first phonograph needles. • Used in airplane/helicopter spark plugs. • Used in computers and other devices.
• Used for staining microscopic samples. • Used to make hypodermic needles. • Used in catalytic converters for cars.
• Is the most dense element. • Satellites can be powered by plutonium • Pt alloys are used to make corrosion-
• Was used in early light bulbs. that is housed in iridium containers. resistant tools.

Au
Gold
79 Hg
196.9 Mercury
80 Tl200.6 Thallium
81
204.4
Old English: “gold” named after the Roman god Mercury Greek: “thallos” (green twig)
“Au” comes from Latin: “aurum”

• Used for coins and jewelry. • The symbol Hg comes from the Latin • Looks like lead and is poisonous.
• Used to make electrical circuits. “hydragyrum” meaning “liquid silver.” • Was once used to kill pests.
• Ancient artifacts often contain gold. • Used in thermometers, barometers, • Used to diagnose heart disease.
• Used as a reflective coating on the street lights, and fluorescent bulbs. • Used in some automatic outdoor lights.
outside of large glass windows. • Was used by hat-makers in the 1800s. • Used in specialty lenses.

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Pb
Lead
82 Bi
207.2 Bismuth
83 Po
208.9 Polonium
84 210
Ancient Anglo-Saxon: “lead” German” “weisse masse” (white mass) named after Poland
“Pb” comes from Latin: “Plumbum”

• Used in pink, liquid stomach medicines. • Discovered by Marie Curie.

• Was used for fishing/diving weights. • Used in indoor sprinkler systems. • Used in anti-static brushes.
• Was used to make “shot” (bullets). • Used as lead replacement for sinkers. • Radon from ground sticks to tobacco
• Still used in batteries for cars and boats. • Used in shields protecting from x-rays. leaves, then decays into polonium,
• Has been used in soldering. • Found in iridescent nail polish. helping to make tobacco a carcinogen.

At
Astatine
85 Rn210 Radon
86 Fr 222
87
Francium 223
Greek: “astatos” (instable) named after the element radium named after France

uranite

• Created in 1940 in the cyclotron at • Discovered in France by Marguerite

what is now Berkeley National Lab. • Is the heaviest gaseous element. Perey, a student of Marie Curie.
They threw alpha particles (two protons • Comes up out of the ground, • Comes from the decay of U and Th
and two neutrons) at bimuth atoms. • Decays into polonium. (in minerals pitchblende and uranite).
• No commerical applications. • Probably the result of uranium decay. • Is too unstable to be used for anything.

Ra
Radium
88 Ac
226.0 Actinium
89 Th227 Thorium
90 232
Latin: “radius” (ray) Greek: “actinos” (ray or beam) after the ancient Scandinavian god Thor,
god of lightning and thunder

• Discovered by Marie Curie.

• Comes from the decay of
• Was once used to make glowing clocks.
uranium and thorium. • Was used for mantles for gas lanterns
• Was used widely before it was
• One particular isotope is very useful until found to be mildly radioactive.
discovered to be terribly dangerous.
in treating certain types of cancer. • Was also used in welding electrodes
• Now used to treat bone cancer because
• Shipped in V-shaped vials. Actinium and specialty lenses.
it will go to bones like calcium does.
atoms collect at point of V. • One isotope is relatively stable.

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Pa 91 U Uranium
92 Np 238 Neptunium
93 237
Protactinium 231
Greek: “protos” (first), plus “actinium” named after the planet Uranus named after the planet Neptune

Pa Ac
• Was given this name because it
always decays into actinium.
(Protactinium “comes first.”) • Used as fuel in nuclear reactors. • Was manufactured in 1940 at what is
• Found in nuclear waste. • Depleted uranium (which is much less now Berkeley National Lab.
• Levels of Pa and Th are studied in radioactive) is used to color glass yellow • Is found in nuclear waste.
ocean sediments in order to learn and to make metals for military vehicles. • Formation of Np from U is a step in the
about the history of the sediments. • Primary ores: pitchblende, uranite. process of making weapons-grade Pu.

Pu
Plutonium
94 Am 95 Cm 96
242 Americium 243 Curium 247
named after Pluto named after America named after Marie Curie

the “Philae”

• Is made from uranium inside “breeder” Mars rover

nuclear reactors. • Used in smoke detectors. • Is used in devices that detect x-rays,
• Used in nuclear weapons. • Used in crystal research. and therefore can be found in the x-ray
• Was used to power the lunar modules. • Used as a source of neutrons in density spectrometers on satellites and rovers.
Now powers satellites and Mars rovers. gauges that search for underground water. These devices can determine what
• Was used to power heart pacemakers. • Manufactured at Berkeley Lab in 1944. elements are present in rocks and dirt.

Bk
Berkelium
97 Cf 247 Californium
98 Es 251 Einsteinium
99 252
named after Berkeley, California named after California named after Albert Einstein

• Was made at Berkeley Lab in 1949. • Can be used as a portable source of • Discovered during the investigation
• Only practical use is as a starting point neutrons in gauges that look for flaws of debris from the first atomic bomb.
for making even heavier elements. in metal structures. • Einstein is famous for his equation
• Like many super-heavy elements, it • Also used in devices that sense that shows the relationship of matter
was discovered using a spectrometer. to energy (E=mc2).
sources of underground water.

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Fm 100 Md 101 No 102
Fermium 257 Mendelevium 256 Nobelium 259
named after Enrico Fermi named after Dmitri Mendeleyev named after Alfred Nobel

dynamite
is
TNT

• Discovered during investigation of • Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in

the debris from the first atomic bomb. Dubna, Russia, given credit for discovery.
• Made in nuclear reactors.
• No commerical use. • No commerical use.
• No commerical use.
• Fermi was a physicist who studied • Alfred Nobel established the Nobel Prizes
atomic structure and radioactivity. • Mendeleyev invented the Periodic Table.
using money from his invention of TNT

Lr
Lawrencium
103 Rf 104 Db 105
262 Rutherfordium 261 Dubnium 262
named after Ernest O. Lawrence named after Ernest Rutherford named after Dubna, Russia

Joint Institute
of Nuclear
Research

• Was made in 1968 at the Joint Institute

• Lawrence was the inventor of the • Rutherford figured out the structure of the for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia.
cyclotron machine that was used to atom. His “gold foil” experiment showed • Also made in 1978 at the Berkeley Lab.
discover elements heavier than uranium. that atoms are mostly empty space. • Russia and US share credit for discovery.
• No commercial use. • No commerical use. • No commercial use.

Sg
Seaborgium
106 Bh 107 Hs 108
263 Bohrium 262 Hassium 265
named after Glenn T. Seaborg named after Niels Bohr named after German state of Hesse

• Seaborg and his team at Berkeley

Lab discovered Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, • Niels Bohr discovered electron energy • Named after the German state where
Es, Fm, Md and No. levels (orbital and shells). the GIS Helmholtz Institute is located.
• Is one of the few super-heavy • The longest half-life is 40 seconds. • Longest-lived isotope is 110 seconds.
elements that has been observed to • No commercial use.
form a molecule with other elements. • No commercial use.

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Mt 109 Ds
Meitnerium 268 Darmstadtium
110 Rg 269 Roentgenium
111 272
named after Lise Meitner named after Darmstadtium, Germany named after Wilhelm Roentgen

• Meitner worked with Otto Hahn • Discovered in 1994 at the GSI Helmholtz • Roentgen discovered x-rays.
(1930-40) to discover the process of Institute in Darmstadt. • Is the heaviest member of the group
fission in uranium atoms. (column) that contains copper, silver, gold.
• No commerical use.
• No commercial use.

Cn
Copernicium
112 Nh 277 Nihonium
113 Fl 284
114
Flerovium 289
named after Ernest O. Lawrence named after Japan (Nihon) named after Georgy Flyorov

Joint Institute
of Nuclear
Research

• Is the only element named after a scientist

who was not a chemist or physicist. • Geory Flyorov was director of JINR
• Several labs made this element but
• Copernicus discovered that the earth Lab in Dubna for a number of years.
RIKEN lab in Japan was given official
goes around the sun. • Only 58 atoms have ever been made.
credit for discovery.
• No commercial use. • No commercial use.
• No commerical use.

Mc
Moscovium
115 Lv 288 Livermorium
116 Ts 292 Tennessine
117 294
named after Moscow, Russia named after Livermore, CA named after state of Tennessee

Bk
Livermore
Joint Institute
of Nuclear
Research Lawrence
• Manufacturing of Ts was a collaboration
• Livermore, CA, got its name from its between JINR (Russia) and Lawrence
• Was first manufactured in 2004 at the Livermore National Lab (US).
founder, Robert Livermore, a rancher.
JINR, which is in the state of Moscow. • Made from Bk atoms that were made at
• Lv was a collaborative effort of JINR
• Longest-lived isotope is 1/2 second. Oak Ridge National Lab in Tennessee.
and Lawrence Livermore National Lab.
• No commercial use. • No commercial use. • No commercial use.

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 ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 5

1) SKITS: “By the Seaside” (about the discovery of iodine and bromine)
“The Cow Who Wouldn’t Drink” (about the discovery of magnesium)

Note: If you don’t want to actually perform these skits, they can be done as “Reader’s Theater” with no props or
rehearsals. The participants simply sit in a circle and read their lines dramatically. A sound-effect person can be added at
the director’s discretion.

You will need: copies of the scripts (following), one for each actor.

“By the Seaside”

If you want a few props for “By the Seaside,” here are some suggestions: a table and chair, artificial seaweed (green
paper is fine), beach hat and sun glasses, some pots, a bottle marked “sulfuric acid,” a small clear container with red liquid
in it, a newspaper, a Periodic Table. (You can also do the whole skit as pantomime, without props. If the actors pantomime
well, the audience’s imagination will fill in the details.)

If you want to use signs to show the audience:

“Western coast of France, 1811”
“Several hours later...”
“Several months later...”
“Heidelberg, Germany, 1825”
“ACT I”
“ACT II”
“The end”

“The Cow Who Wouldn't Drink”

If you would like to use props for “The Cow Who Wouldn’t Drink,” you might want to gather:
a mug or cup, a bell for the cow, hat and shovel for John, an opaque container, a flame made of construction paper, and a
pretend electrolysis machine made like this:

If you would like to use signs to show the audience:

“Epsom, England, 1618”
“Several months later...”
“A year later...”
“Humphry Davy’s lab, England, 1855”
“ACT I”
“ACT II” The container can be any clear container, the electrodes can
“The end” be made of anything (even pencils will do), the wires can be
made of wire or string or yarn, and the battery can be a large
lantern-type battery, a box labeled “battery,” or (if you want to
be historically accurate) a facsimile of a Voltaic pile or Leyden
jar (search Internet for images). Don’t be overly worried about
accuracy. Kids’ imaginations will fill in the gaps.

NOTE: Humphry Davy was not only a researcher, but also a famous science lecturer of the 1800s. People would go to his
lectures like we go to movies. (He was sort of the “Bill Nye the Science Guy” of his day, but for adults. He was interesting
and funny, not just scientific.) In this skit he has a long monologue because he is giving one of his famous public lectures.

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 “By the Seaside”
A skit about the discovery of iodine and bromine

NOTE: This skit does not quote what these individuals actually said, as we have no record of
their exact words. The conversations are fictional, but the general facts presented are true.

Characters:
- Bernard Courtois (“Cur-TWAH”), a French chemist
- Professor Gmelim, chemistry professor at the University of Heidelberg
- Carl Lowig, a freshman chemistry student
- Narrator (or sign-holder, if you are performing the skit using signs)

**************
SCENE 1

Narrator: Bernard Courtois, a French chemist, is beachcombing on the Western coast of France
in 1811.

Courtois: What a lovely day at the beach! I’m so glad my work brings me out here occasionally.
(As he walks along he collects seaweed.) Being a chemist, you’d think I do nothing but work in
my laboratory. But I do a lot of work with two of the most recently discovered elements: sodium
and potassium. To get pure sodium and potassium, I burn seaweed, then treat it with acid to get
rid of the stuff that I don’t want in it, leaving me with the sodium and potassium I need. Well, I
think I have about enough seaweed for now. I think I’ll go back to the lab and get to work.

Narrator: Several hours later...

Courtois: This is the point at which I must pour in some acid to get rid of all the impurities. I’ll
just open the bottle and carefully pour in a tiny amount. Aahh. What’s that on my shoulder? Mr.
Spider, don’t scare me like that. Get off! Get off! (If you are performing, jerk around trying to
get the spider off. While you are doing so, make sure you accidentally pour too much acid in
the pot.) Oh no! Look what I did! That was almost the whole bottle! Who knows what could
happen?! Eeww! Eeww! My concoction is turning purple! It smells awful, like chlorine, only
worse! Oh, no! Purple smoke! Ack! Gasp! I’m getting out of here!

Narrator: Several hours later Courtois came back in the room and discovered something
curious all over the table.

Courtois: What is this stuff? It’s all over. It must have condensed from that purple smoke. I’ve
never seen anything like this before. I must try to find out what it is.

Narrator: Several months later, Courtois makes the announcement of his new discovery.

Courtois: (loudly, like you are announcing!) And so, I would like to announce to the world the
discovery of a new element: Iodine! I’ve chosen this name because the Greek word for purple
is “iodes.” (“i-o-deez”) I have started a small factory to produce iodine. I am sure it will turn out
to be good for something someday, and we’ll need a lot of it. So, if you need a job and don’t
mind wearing a purple uniform, come to my factory! Thank you.

132
SCENE 2

Narrator: We are in a classroom at a university in Heidelberg, Germany, in 1825.

Professor Gmelim: And that concludes today’s chemistry lecture. I hope you have enjoyed
your first day here at Heidelberg University. I’ll see you here tomorrow at 9:00 AM. Class
dismissed.

Carl Lowig: Professor! Professor! Can I show you something really neat? It will only take a
second. Look at this vial of red liquid. Take a look at it and tell me what you think it is.

Professor: (after examining it) Hmm... I don’t know. Maybe a sniff of it will give me a clue.
(Sniff) Agh! This stuff is strong! It reminds me chlorine. Yuck!

Carl: Do you think it might be chemically related to chlorine?

Prof: I can’t rightly say what it is. Where did you get this stuff?

Carl: I cooked it up in my laboratory at home. I put in a whole bunch of stuff. We had just
come back from our vacation at the seaside so I threw in all kinds of rocks and seaweed, and
even some sea water. Then I added acids from my chemistry set.

Prof: Whatever it is, it sure smells strong! Could you make some more of this stuff during the
semester? Maybe over Christmas vacation we could find time to analyze it and find out what
it is. I don’t think I’ve seen anything like this before. I wonder, though, since it smells so much
like chlorine, if it might be the missing element on the Periodic Table, right under chlorine and
above iodine. The French guy who discovered iodine reported that it smelled like chlorine, too.
It’s worth checking out, anyway.

Narrator: Several months later..

Carl: Professor, I’ve managed to make a bunch more of that smelly red stuff, but I’m afraid it
doesn’t matter now.

Prof: Why not?

Carl: I just read in the newspaper that a new element has been discovered. The description of
it fits my red stuff exactly. (hands paper to Prof.)

Prof: Hmm... I’m afraid you might be right, Carl. This sounds exactly like your mysterious red
liquid. Here’s the clincher: “The new element has been named “bromine” from the Greek word
“bromos” meaning “stench.” I guess they thought it smelled bad, too, eh? Well, you win some
and you lose some. Good luck with the rest of your semester, Carl.

Carl: Thanks, Professor.

Narrator: Don’t feel too sorry for Carl. He’s going to have a brilliant career as a chemist. Any
guy who can cook up a new element over summer vacation is bound to be a success!

133
 “The Cow Who Wouldn’t Drink”
A skit about the discovery of magnesium

Characters:
- narrator
- John Epsom
- a cow
- a business man
- Humphry Davy, a famous scientist (of the 1800s) who gave public lectures

SCENE 1

Narrator: We are in Epsom, England, in the year 1618.

John Epsom: My name is John Epsom. My father’s name was John Epsom. My grandfather’s
name was John Epsom. My great-grandfather’s name was... James Epsom. Our little town
is called Epsom because my great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandfather, Thomas
Epsom, founded this town. Today is an exciting day on the Epsom family farm. I’ve just
finished digging the new well. It’s much closer to the barn than the old well, so I won’t have to
walk so far to water the cows every day. It took me 30 days to dig this well, but it will be worth
it. Well, ol’ Bessie, ready to take the first drink? Step right up... there you go...

Narrator: The cow walked to the edge of the well, put her head down, sipped the water and..

Cow: Mooo! Moooo! Mooo! (violent moos, as if the cow is saying “Yuck!”)

John: What?!! You won’t drink? It took me 30 days to dig this well. Drink! Drink!

Cow: Mooo! (violent mooing again, cow shakes its head “No”)

John: What a crazy cow! Doesn’t know good water even when you lead her right to it! I think
I’ll take a sip myself, then. This water is the... (takes a sip).. MOST HORRIBLE STUFF I’VE
EVER TASTED! AGH!

Narrator: Several months later...

John: Hello, again. Since you were last here, I’ve made a most amazing discovery.
Remember that well I dug for my cows? How could you forget, right? It was filled with the
most horrible-tasting water in the world. Well, I decided to do some more excavating to see if I
could find out why it was so bad. I spent a couple of weeks mucking about, digging around in
it. Since I am right-handed, my right arm was the one I had down the well most of the time. I
noticed that the skin on my right hand started looking a lot better than the skin on my left hand.
Any scratch or rash I had on my right hand healed twice as fast as the ones on my left hand.
So I started taking a bottle of well water home for my wife to try out. She said she found the
same thing. I think there might be money in this discovery someday...

134
Narrator: A year later...

Businessman: You’ve gotta have a catchy motto, John. How about this one: “Epsom Salts,
your key to good health.” Or how about, “Epsom’s famous healing water. If you don’t drink it,
don’t blame us for your ills.”

John: You make a better businessman than advertiser. How are sales going?

Businessman: The good news is that sales are better than ever. The bad news is that we’ll
never be able to keep up with the amount of water we have to transport. I suggest that we
bottle those little crystals we find around the well, instead of bottling the water. We could save
ourselves huge shipping costs.

John: Great idea! I think those little crystals are the key to what makes the water so healthful.
We could easily ship those crystals all over the world. Well, what are we waiting for?

SCENE 2

Narrator: We now go to the laboratory of Humphry Davy, in England in the year 1855.

Davy: Hello, everyone. I am Professor Davy. Today’s chemistry demonstration is about

electrolysis. I have here a solution of magnesium oxide and mercuric oxide. I will now put the
two electrodes into the solution. One electrode is positive and the other is negative. What
should happen is that the negative electrode will attract the magnesium and mercury atoms.
There! A clump of solid magnesium and mercury atoms! Now I just heat this clump and the
mercury atoms will turn into vapor and fly off into the air... leaving... pure magnesium!

Ladies and gentlemen, if you are a student of English history, you will remember a story
about a farmer who discovered the water in his well to be bitter. He never knew what was in the
water, even though he made a fortune on it. I have solved his mystery. I believe his water had
magnesium in it. The magnesium gave his water its excellent healing properties as well as its
bitter taste. Magnesium seems to be an element that our body needs, it just doesn’t taste very
good. Today we call his little crystals “Epsom salts.”

When I first did this experiment, I had no idea what these atoms were. I was the first
person in history to produce the this pure element, magnesium. While I was trying to think of
a good name for this new element, my lab assistants started calling it “magnesium.” I said the
name “magnesium” would be far too confusing for people, since we already have an element
called “manganese.” Chemistry students in the future will find it difficult to keep "magnesium"
and "manganese" straight. But no! No one listened to me! They went right on calling it
magnesium. So, now that everyone calls it that, we are stuck with it. Well, at least I got to
name sodium, chlorine, and potassium.

Thank you for coming to my lecture today, ladies and gentlemen.

135
2) LAB DEMO: Make a (harmless) smoke bomb out of potassium nitrate (KNO3)
Potassium nitrate, KNO3, is one of the ingredients in gun powder. Here, you can use it to make a harmless smoke bomb.

You will need: sugar, potassium nitrate (sold as tree stump remover in garden supply centers), pan and spoon, cotton string,
candle, aluminum foil and/or thin cardboard tubes (for larger bombs)

What to do:
1) Before you start, make some wicks (fuses). Cut short pieces of cotton string and let candle wax drip on them. When the
wax cools slightly, rub wax into string. (If you can't make wicks, that's okay, they will still light without them, you just have
to be more careful when lighting them.)
2) The recipe for the ingredients is 3 parts KNO3 to 2 parts sugar. Stir them together, then put into metal pan.
3) Heat these ingredients on LOW heat, slowly, just warm enough so that they melt together. DO NOT USE a heat source with
OPEN FLAME. Use an electric heat source. (Some people also add a bit of paraffin. You can compare recipes online by
typing key words into an Internet search engine.)
4) Stir until it looks like lump of soft caramel candy.
5) You can put small lumps of it onto aluminum foil to cool (as if they were cookies) or you can put a lot of it into a thin
cardboard tube such as a toilet paper tube.
6) Put wicks (fuses) in. (However, most instructions say you can also light them directly. Fuses just give you more time to back
away before the burning starts. And they do burn energetically!)
7) Use smoke bombs outside, never inside. Follow common sense safety precautions when lighting. Avoid breathing too
much of the smoke.

HINT: Watch the demo video on the YouTube playlist, showing what they do when they ignite.

3) LAB DEMO: An edible chemical reaction

This lab uses a compound that contains sodium (Na), an alkali metal.

You will need: sugar, baking soda, and citric acid (available in the canning supplies section)

Here is the recipe:

2 teaspoons citric acid
1 teaspoon baking soda (NaHCO3)
6 teaspoons sugar

What to do: Grind these ingredients together and mix thoroughly. Put some of this mixture on your tongue. What do you feel?

What is happening: The chemical reaction in this experiment produces bubbles of carbon dioxide. That is the fizzing feeling
in your mouth—carbon dioxide bubbles being formed. Carbon dioxide bubbles are the “fizz” in soda pop. The citric acid is an
acid (obviously). The baking soda is the opposite of an acid: a base. (Another word for a base in an “alkali.” That should sound
familiar.) Two things are being produced in this reaction: water and carbon dioxide.
How is water produced? Acids, by definition, are proton donors. In other words, they easily lose hydrogen ions,
H+. A hydrogen ion is a proton with no electron. A base is a substance that either donates OH- ions itself or causes OH- ions
to become available. When you put an H+ together with an OH-, you get a water molecule, H2O. Therefore, acids and bases
neutralize each other and form harmless water molecules.
How is carbon dioxide produced? If you look at the formula showing how the atoms are rearranging, you will see that
after the Na and H are broken off, an oxygen leaves the CO3 to make CO2.

C6H8O7 + NaHCO3 → Na3C6H5O7 + H2O + CO2

Citric acid, C6H8O7 combines with NaHCO3 to form sodium citrate, Na3C6H5O7 plus H2O and CO2.

136
4) LAB EXPERIMENT using magnesium: Make some Mg(OH)2
"The nurse brought Mg(OH)2 and MgSO4" (from the Chemical Compounds Song in chapter 1)
In this activity you can make Mg(OH)2 [milk of magnesia] by using MgSO4 [epsom salts].

NOTE: This is not a super exciting experiment. The final result is just that the liquid gets cloudy. If you have students who
need big “wow” experiments to maintain their interest, you might want to skip this one.

You will need: epsom salt (MgSO4), liquid cleaning ammonia (which is actually ammonium solution, NH4(OH), water (H2O), a
small clear container and a spoon
NOTE: Bottles that are labeled “ammonia” are actually ammonium solution, NH4(OH). Ammonia, NH3, is a gas. When you
smell the ammonium solution, molecules of ammonia, NH3, come out of the solution and go up your nose (and sting!).

What to do:
1) Fill the container half full with water. Stir in 2 spoons of epsom salt and stir the epsom salt until dissolved.
(HINT: Using hot water will help the epsom salt crystals to dissolve faster.)
2) Add 2 spoons of ammonium solution, but don’t stir.
3) Observe the solution for 5 minutes. Does the liquid change?
4) Let it sit for several hours or overnight and observe again. Has anything changed?

What is happening:
The atoms are rearranging themselves. They are deciding to leave the molecules they used to be a part of and form
new ones. This rearranging of molecules causes changes that you can see. You should see a cloudy mat appearing near the
surface (which is actually the “milk” of magnesia) and possibly white dots falling to the bottom. The white dots are called
precipitates.
Here is the formula for the chemical reaction, but it is not important that the students understand it completely. It’s
enough to know that Mg would rather be attached to the OH’s, so it drops the SO4 to do so. The SO4 is fine with attaching to 2
NH4’s. (Remember Mg(OH)2 from the Chemical Compounds Song?)
MgSO4 + 2 NH4(OH) → Mg(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4

5) CRAFT: Make a model of an ionic compound

You will need: some table salt, a magnifier, some marshmallows (or a substitute such as grapes or clay balls, depending upon
what you want to do with the molecule when it is finished) and some toothpicks.

What to do: Ionic compounds often form a shape called a lattice. A lattice is a regular arrangement of atoms into a certain
shape. In NaCl, the shape is cubic. Use the magnifier to look at some salt crystals. Are they basically cubic? They may not be
perfect cubes, but they should look cubic rather than round or triangular or hexagonal. The salt crystal is cubic because the
atoms of sodium and chlorine are lined up in squares. Use this picture as a guide to create your own salt crystal lattice model.

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6) ART PROJECT: Element Trading Cards
Your students might collect baseball or football cards, but now they can collect chemical element cards, too!
I recommend making this at least a three-session project, doing a few cards each week. During this first work session,
choose members of the alkali metals, the alkali earth metals, and the halogens. You can use the “Quick Six” cards to help
you find atomic weights and facts about the elements, or you might want to use Internet resources, or books from the
library—it’s up to you. (If you want an all-in-one site for information, try the key words “interactive Periodic Table.”)

You will need: copies of the trading card pattern sheet printed onto white card stock. If you want to have the blanks on the
back for adding information (instead of asking students to do reports) make the copies double-sided. Make enough copies
so that students will be able to make at least a dozen cards if they want to. Each student will need one copy of the card
holder, also printed onto card stock, although you can use colored stock if you want to.

Your students will need: scissors, white glue and colored pencils, plus anything extra you want to provide such as glitter,
metaillic markers, gel pens, etc.

The "team" the element is on is the family group to which it belongs (alkali metals, non-metals, etc.) The number is
the atomic number. Color in the correct space for its position on the field. The artwork can be totally creative. The students
can draw something that has the element in it, or they can make up a cartoon player. Below are some cards that students
have made in the past.

The card holder (pattern on next page) pro-

vides a great place to store your finished
Chem Cards.

Sample cards showing how to use bright colors.

(TIP: Berol Prismacolor colored pencils are really good for this. You can get them on Amazon or at your favorite art store.
Don't buy Prismacolor's "student pencils" because they are not as good as the regular ones.)

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Holder for trading cards. Copy one per student onto heavy card stock (any color).

139
Pattern for trading cards Copy onto white card stock.
140
 _______________________ _______________________ _______________________
name of element name of element name of element

_______ ________ ________ _______ ________ ________ _______ ________ ________

symbol atomic # weight symbol atomic # weight symbol atomic # weight

Interesting facts: Interesting facts: Interesting facts:

Copy this onto the reverse side of cards.

Card designed by: _________________________ Card designed by: _________________________ Card designed by: _________________________
your name your name your name

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_______________________ _______________________ _______________________
name of element name of element name of element

_______ ________ ________ _______ ________ ________ _______ ________ ________

symbol atomic # weight symbol atomic # weight symbol atomic # weight

Interesting facts: Interesting facts: Interesting facts:

Card designed by: _________________________ Card designed by: _________________________ Card designed by: _________________________
your name your name your name
7) REPORT on an element

If you have students who are not interested in making trading cards, yet need an incentive to do research
on specific elements, you may want to copy the following pattern page and assign the student(s) to read an article
or a book on an element and then answer the questions in the boxes on the report sheet.
NOTE: This is the same form that appears in the student text at the end of chapter 7. You can wait until
then, or go ahead and do one now. Or skip it both times—it's up to you.

8) VIDEOS about the elements (streamable and free)

If your student(s) are really intrigued with the elements at this point and want more information, I suggest
using the “Periodic Table of Videos.” Some geeky professors in Nottingham, England, made a whole series of
videos about each element on the Periodic Table. The videos range from 2 minutes to 8 minutes long. You’ll
get more than you want to know about some of the elements, but you’ll also see difficult and/or dangerous
experiments that you could never do at home. (You may have watched their videos on the noble gases, posted
on The Elements playlist.) They’ve just put up a new web site: www.periodicvideos.com. The home page is a
Periodic Table with clickable element squares. Just click on any element to see a video about it. If you’d rather
access these videos through YouTube, they are posted there, too, both as individual videos and as a channel.

Sir Martyn Poliakoff is the host of

these videos, but several other “lab
guys” are regulars, too.

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 name of element

number of number of number of

atomic mass protons neutrons electrons
symbol atomic number

At standard temperature Where did this element get its name? What group does this
and pressure (STP), this element belong to?
element is a: □ alkali metals
□ alkali earth metals
□ solid □ transition metals
□ liquid At what temperature At what temperature □ true metals
will this element will this element
□ gas boil? melt or freeze? □ semi-metals (metalloids)
□ non-metals

Is this element found in the When was this element first discovered? Is this element ever found all by itself (not
Earth’s crust? � yes � no part of a compound)? � yes � no
If so, where?
Who discovered it? What color is this element? (Or, if it is
� rocks � dirt � lava never found by itself, what color is its most
� water � gemstones common compound?)
� sand � _______
Other colors?

Is this element used in industry? � yes � no Is this element found in the human body? � yes � no
If so, what is it used for? Is it part of the structure of the body? � yes � no
Can this element be harmful to the body? � yes � no
If it is harmful, how might you ingest it or come into contact with it?

Is this element used in any art or craft? � yes � no

What type of art uses it? Is this element used in medicine or dentistry? � yes � no
� painting � sculpture � pottery If so, how is it used?
� printing � coins � jewelry
� _____________

Give one historical fact about this element other than the date of its discovery: Draw a picture of a molecule containing
this element:

What do you think is the most interesting fact about this element?

Name of molecule:
 ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 6

1) LAB DEMO: Something oxygen can do

You will need: food colorings and colored paper, bleach (NaClO), paper towels and napkins, water, eye dropper if possible

What to do:
1) Put a drop or two of bleach onto each sample of colored paper. See what happens.
2) Put a drop of red food coloring onto a wet napkin, wait half a minute until it spreads out, then put just TWO drops of
bleach in the center of the food coloring area. Watch for one minute. You should see a clear area forming in the middle of
the food coloring spot. It will take a few minutes for the bleach to make it totally white.

What is happening?
The oxygen atom is coming off the NaClO and going into the dye molecule. The dye molecules have an arrangment
of atoms that just happen to reflect red light. When the oxygen joins the molecule, it alters the structure of the molecule just
enough that it no longer reflects red light. The red dye molecules did not “go away.” They are still there! They are just not
reflecting red light any more.

2) CRAFT: Make some delicious covalent molecules

You will need: some colored marshmallow and toothpicks
NOTE: You can use something other than marshmallows if you need to, such as grapes, cheese cubes or bits of dried fruit.
You will need six different items to represent six types of atoms: H, O, C, S, N and Cl.

Here are the covalent molecules to make:

H H
H2O water H
H H
H
C3H8 propane
O H
C
C
C H
H
H
O C O CO2 carbon dioxide
O O O22 oxygen
C O CO carbon monoxide *
H Cl HCl hydrochloric acid

O O SO2 sulfur dioxide O

S O O
H
S H H2SO4 sulfuric acid
O

H
N
H NH3 ammonia
O O
H H H H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
H
O
CH4 methane gas
H
C H
(natural gas) C H2CO formaldehyde
H H
H

Here’s a group game to try after you’ve practiced making the molecules. Write the names of the
molecules on slips of paper and put them into a cup. Have all the raw materials in the middle of the table. One
player draws out a molecule and lays it down for all players to see. Ready, set, go! The first player to assemble the
molecule correctly wins. (The prize for winning could be eating your molecule if you are working with edibles.)

* NOTE: Sometimes carbon monoxide is shown with a triple bond (three lines).

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3) LAB DEMO: Testing for oxygen (the way Priestly and Lavoisier did)

In this lab, you will perform the classic test for oxygen, the very same test that scientists like Priestly and Lavoisier
used to determine if oxygen (or "de-phlogisticated air," as they called it) is present.

You will need: hydrogen peroxide (a first aid product used to clean wounds), yeast, a tall glass jar (the narrower the better)
or test tube, a wooden coffee stir stick (or other long, thin piece of wood), some matches

What to do:
1) Pour some hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into a tall glass jar or a glass test tube. The narrower the glass container is, the less
peroxide you will need. You want to have some liquid at the bottom, but still have a long air space in which O2 can collect.
2) Add about half a teaspoon of yeast. Stir and then let it sit for a few minutes. Watch for bubbles to start.
3) After bubbles have started to form, light the end of a wooden coffee stir stick, then blow it out.
4) Right after blowing it out, put the smoldering wood down into the jar or test tube, near the liquid but not touching it.
5) The wooden stick should start burning again.

What is happening:
The yeast is making an enzyme molecule that has the ability to tear that extra oxygen off the hydrogen peroxide,
producing H2O, water, and O2, oxygen. Oxygen is necessary for combustion and encourages burning. In the presence
of oxygen, a recently extinguished flame will light again. Scientists in Lavoisier's day used wooden splints much like our
wooden coffee sticks. Both Priestly and Lavoisier would have done this test many times.

4) LAB DEMO: Make "Elephant's Toothpaste" with hydrogen peroxide and yeast

This lab is often called "elephant's toothpaste" because it vaguely resembles a stream of toothpaste coming
out of a tube, but on a giant scale. If you do an Internet search, you can find many web pages and videos devoted to it.
Feel free to check with other sources and use those instructions instead of what is printed here. (NOTE: In professional
demonstrations, they sometimes use a "catalyst" like potassium iodide to speed up the reaction and make it more
spectacular. Don't expect your home version to shoot up as high as the ones in the videos you might watch.)

You will need: 1/2 cup hydrogen peroxide (6%), packet of yeast, water, 2-liter plastic soda bottle, dish detergent
OPTIONAL: food coloring

NOTE: If you think it's worth spending a little money to get a spectacular result with this experiment, you can buy potassium
iodide (or even better, a full kit for this experiment) at www.homesciencetools.com

What to do:
1) Pour the hydrogen peroxide into the bottle.
2) Add a few drops of food coloring if you want your toothpaste to be colored.
3) Add a spoon of dish detergent. Swirl it around so the detergent is dissolved into the water.
4) In a separate dish, mix the packet of yeast with a few spoons of water.
5) Make sure your bottle is sitting somewhere that can get VERY messy, like a sink or the grass outside.
6) Pour the yeast water into the bottle and watch what happens.

What is happening:
The solution in the bottle will begin to foam, and then it will foam so fast that the foam will come shooting up out
of the bottle, making a tall column until gravity collapses it. As in demo (3), the yeast is making an enzyme that pulls the
extra oxygen off the peroxide molecule. The bubbles in the foam are mostly made of the oxygen gas that is being released.

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5) LAB DEMO: Observing the products of combustion

In this lab, you will observe something else that those famous scientists saw, but did not understand. The
appearance of water droplets during combustion was a profound mystery. They could not understand where the water was
coming from. You have the advantage of living in an era where the chemistry of air and combustion is very well understood,
so you can know exactly where those water droplets are coming from.

You will need: a small candle, a candle holder or lump of clay, a very clear glass jar Optional: ice cube

What to do:
1) Light the candle.
2) Hold the bottom of the jar over the flame, but not so close that you get soot forming. We can look at soot in a minute.
Right now you want to observe condensation of water droplets. The condensation will remind you of the "fog" that forms
on a cold window when you breathe on it.
NOTE: If you have trouble seeing condensation, you can try cooling the glass by putting an ice cube inside the jar.
3) Once you have seen the condensation, go ahead and hold the jar closer and observe soot forming.

What is happening:
The condensation is made of tiny water droplets, H2O. If you look at the picture of the wax molecule you can see
where the hydrogens are coming from. The oxygens are coming from the air, of course. Carbon dioxide, CO2, is also a by-
product of combustion, and that's where the carbon atoms from the wax end up. The oxygens atoms in CO2 are also coming
from the air. When combustion works perfectly, all the wax atoms are converted into either water or carbon dioxide.
When you lowered the jar, you began restricting the amount of oxygen available for combustion. Not all the
carbons could be made into H2O or CO2. Soot is made of carbon atoms that didn't join water or carbon dioxide molecules.
INTERESTING SIDE NOTE: If you could look at the soot with a very high power electron microscope you would probably see
some buckyballs. Soot is a very good source of buckyballs.

A WAX MOLECULE

6) LAB DEMO: Observing one way that carbon can be helpful

You will need: two small containers with lids, onion or garlic or something else smelly, water, charcoal (Horticultural charcoal
from a garden shop works well. Or you might want to try foot odor pads or closet fresheners that contain charcoal.)

What to do:
1) Put a quarter cup or so of water in each container.
2) Put a quarter teaspoon of the smelly stuff into the water in each container.
3) Put as much charcoal as you can into just one of the containers.
4) Put the lids on and let them sit a while (15-20 minutes is probably enough).
5) Now take the lids off and sniff each container. Is there a difference? Does the container with the charcoal smell as
strong as the one without?

What is happening:
Carbon compounds have the ability to absorb small molecules. That means that they grab onto the molecules and
don’t let go. The charcoal in your solution grabbed most of the molecules that would have otherwise gone off and floated
into the air. It is these tiny molecules in the air that go into your nose and cause a smell. Carbon is used in many kinds of
filters because of this ability to grab molecules.

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7) AN ON-LINE REVIEW GAME
Here’s an interactive website where you can play basic quiz games about the elements and the Periodic Table:
http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/Elementsgames.htm

8) SKIT: “The Amazing Ramsay’s Cryo-Show” (the discovery of noble gases)

If you don’t want to bother with actually performing this skit, you can do it as “Reader’s Theatre,” with readers
taking turns being Ramsay (or simply have the students read the skit to themselves).
Ramsay is the only actor in this skit, but if you want to perform it, Ramsay will need an assistant who will be behind
the scenes (under the table) to make sure the props function at the right times.

The main character in this skit is Sir William Ramsay, the co-discoverer of krypton, neon, and xenon. He discovered
all three in just three months—a chemistry world record. The year was 1898 and the months were June, July, and August.
The discoveries were made possible by the invention of high-power refrigeration that could produce temperatures as low as
-250 degrees below zero Celsius.
This skit is a humorous presentation of Sir Ramsay, and is not intended to be an accurate portrayal of his personality.
The point of the skit is to learn about distillation of air, and how this technique can be used to separate the components of
air. Distillation works because each element or substance has its own unique boiling/condensation point. Every substance
can exist as solid, liquid, or gas, depending on the temperature and pressure around it. If the air around us is chilled
sufficiently, its gases condense down into liquids. As the temperature is brought back up again, each substance will return to
its gaseous state at a different time, allowing just that gas to be captured.

If you would like to perform this skit, I recommend the following props:

1) A fictional refrigeration unit (Use your imagination. It just needs to have a compartment that you can open and
shut, and a thermometer that can be operated from the inside. Design the unit after you have read through the
script.)
2) At least two large, identical containers that will fit inside the compartment in the refrigeration unit. One container
will have a small amount of water in the bottom.
3) Protective gloves or hot pads (for imaginary use)
4) A visual aid about the three phases of water: solid, liquid, gas
5) A sign with the names krypton, neon, and xenon written on it
6) Optional: a magician’s top hat for Ramsay

9) SKIT: “The Elusive Phlogiston” (the discovery of oxygen)

The cast list and instructions are on the first page of the script.

The phlogiston theory was an attempt to explain combustion. Before the discovery of oxygen, fire and combustion
were a profound mystery. Phlogiston was a fictional "element" that was found in everything that burned. When the
phlogiston was gone, the material stopped burning. The theory was accepted by all scientists for about 150 years. Cavendish
missed discovering hydrogen because of his belief in phlogiston, and Priestly missed getting credit for the discovery of oxygen
he thought it was phlogiston. It is important to remember that even theories that are accepted by most scientists can still
be wrong. Lavoisier was able to disprove phlogiston because of his ability to weigh and measure elements so accurately. His
scales revealed that phlogiston did not exist.

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 “The Amazing Ramsay’s Cryo Show”
A skit about the distillation of air

Hello, ladies and gentlemen! Welcome to the Amazing Ramsay’s Cryo- Show. No! No!,
Don’t cry! I didn’t say “cry,” I said “cryo.” Cryo means very cold. Really, really, really cold.
My refrigeration unit here makes the coldest day in January look like a tropical vacation!

Tonight, with the help of my refrigeration unit, I am going to make liquid appear out of thin
air! I have here a container of ordinary air. I need a volunteer from the audience.

Volunteer, will you please inspect my container of air to make sure that it is really just air?
Does it smell like air? Does it feel like air? Does it breathe like air? Thank you, (sir/
madam/miss). Our volunteer has confirmed that this container does, indeed, contain just
normal air.

Now it is time for my magic! (He puts the container into the refrigeration unit.)

Here we go! (Press a button or something.) It will take just a minute or two for the
temperature to get cold enough. While the temperature is dropping, let me remind you that
all substances can exist in three forms: solid, liquid and gas. (Show the visual aid, if you
are performing. Also, if you are performing, the hidden accomplice should now be slowly
dropping the temperature on the thermometer. Also, the assistant will need to switch the
jars, replacing the empty one with the one that has a little water in the bottom.) We usually
think of water as a liquid, right? But if you heat it on the stove, it can turn into steam and go
into the air. If you cool water in the freezer, it will turn into a solid. Well, the same holds true
for any substance in the universe. Take oxygen, for example. We think of it as a gas that
we breathe in. But if you cool it enough, oxygen will turn into a liquid!

Ah-- I see my machine is ready! It has reached minus 273 degrees below zero on the
Centigrade scale. That’s as cold as cold ever gets. That’s absolute zero. It’s impossible to
go any colder!

Let’s look at our container of air. (Take container out of machine using protective gloves,
for effect.) Voila! All the gases that were in that air have turned into liquid! This, ladies and
gentlemen, is liquid air!

Now, for the second part of my trick. I will now let the temperature rise very slowly. (Puts
the container back in.) One at a time, the liquid gases will return to their gaseous state.
(The assistant should be sliding the thermometer up to -269.) We will stop the temperature
at minus 269 and see what has happened in the jar. (Gets the container back out.)

In the top part of this container there is now pure helium gas. I will now allow the helium to
escape. There. Now back into the freezer. (Assistant raises the thermometer to -253.)

The temperature is now minus 253. Let’s take a look again. (Gets out container again.)
Now there is pure hydrogen in the container! We will let it escape and return the container

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Minus 229. Now what do we have? (Gets container back out.) Presto! Pure neon!

(This pattern continues, with the resulting dialog.)

Up to minus 150. Pure nitrogen!

Up to minus 122. Pure argon!

Up to minus 118. Pure oxygen!

Up to minus 64. Pure krypton!

Up past zero. Pure xenon!

And finally back up to room temperature again.

(Assistant has switched jars again, so that Ramsay takes out the jar with no liquid.)

Whew! All that stuff was in the regular air all around us!

I can proudly say that I was the one who discovered three of these gases: krypton, neon,
and xenon. I used the name “krypton” because “kryptos” means “hidden” and I thought this
gas seemed hidden in with all the others we already knew about. “Neon” means “new” and
“xenon” means “strange.” I guess I like mysterious-sounding names.

I think these newly discovered gases will be good for something someday, but right now I
don’t have a clue what. They don’t react with anything. They just sit and do nothing. They
are totally inert. What good is an inert gas?

Well, next time you take a breath of air, just think of the Amazing Ramsay’s Cryo- Show. My
discoveries will always be with you, floating around in the air nearby!

Thank you for coming, ladies and gentlemen.

149
 “The Elusive Phlogiston”
A skit about the discovery of oxygen
NOTE: You can pronounce phlogiston as “FLODGE-i-stohn” or “flah-GIST-on.” People who speak
American English tend to use the first one, and people who speak British English tend to use the second
one. You can use whichever you prefer.

Props you will need: candle, matches, clear jar, piece of wood, small notebook and pencil (for
Lavoisier), optional test tube or small jar or red powder for Priestly, scales for Lavoisier if you have some,
plus anything you want to add to give a hint of the historical period in which each scent is set. (Small
table and chairs for Priestly and Lavoisier to sit at, with perhaps a fancy teapot and cups, etc.)
NOTE: You might want to use large “cue cards” with the dates and places written on them so you can
show the audience. Or, you can have the narrator come on and say the place and time.

Cast:
-Narrator (can also hold up the cue cards between scenes if you are using them)
-Johann Becher, (Yo-han Beck-er), an alchemist
-Georg Stahl (Gay-org Stall), a student of Becher
- J. H. Pott, a student of Stahl (It was not possible to find out what J. H. stands for.)
-Johann Juncker (Yo-han Yung-ker), a student of Pott
-Joseph Priestly
-Antoine Lavoisier (An-twon La-vwah-zee-ay)
-Audience member 1
-Audience member 2

SCENE 1: Germany, 1669 (Hold up a cue card with this printed on it, if you are using cue cards)

Becher: Stahl, I think I have finally solved the mystery of fire!

Stahl: That’s wonderful, Master Becher. I am so fortunate to be your student!

Becher: Yes, you are. You and I will go down in history as the people who discovered fire.

Stahl: I think fire has already been discovered.

Becher: You know what I mean. We are the ones who will unravel the deep mysteries about
fire! You see, Stahl, the ancients thought that everything was made of four elements: water,
earth, air and fire. But they had it all wrong. Everything is made of earth, but there are
three kinds of earth. One of them, which I call “terra pinguis” is oily and catches fire easily.
Substances that burn have a lot of terra pinguis in them.

Stahl: Yes, that makes sense. Things that burn contain a lot of the element that burns. So plants
contain a lot of this element. But what about metals? I’ve seen you melt metals in your crucible.

Becher: Metals contain a very small amount of terra pinguis. Just enough to let them melt.

Stahl: So what does terra pinguis look like? Can we collect a bottle of it?

Becher: No, I don’t think so. Terra pinguis is an element you never actually see.

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Stahl: So how do you know it is there?

Becher: Well, it must be there. It must! How else could things burn?

Stahl: Yes, I see your point. I’ll have to begin studying these three new elements.

Becher: I expect great things from you, Stahl. Some day, you’ll be teaching your own students
about terra pinguis and how it creates fire.

SCENE 2: Germany, 1703 (Stahl is now a teacher. Mr. Pott is his student.)

Stahl: So you see, students, every substance that burns contains an element than burns. My
teacher called it “terra pinguis” but I prefer to call it... “phlogiston.”

Pott: Floggee what?

Stahl: Phlogiston. It’s from a Greek word meaning “flames,” because phlogiston is very
combustible. Fire is the visible evidence that phlogiston is leaving a substance. When all the
phlogiston is gone, the fire stops and you are left with nothing but ashes. So, young Mr. Pott, if
phlogiston left the wood and you ended up ashes, then what is wood made of?

Pott: Um...ashes and phlogiston?

Stahl: Correct! What a brilliant pupil you are! Yes, as long as the phlogiston remains in the
wood you can’t see the ash. When the phlogiston leaves, then you can see the ash that was
there all along. Wood is made of phlogiston and ash.

Pott: Where does the phlogiston go?

Stahl: Into the air all around us.

Pott: But we breathe air.

Stahl: Yes, we do, but we breathe it back out again.

Pott: Yes, of course. So we shouldn’t hold our breath or we’ll catch on fire, right?

Stahl: Fortunately, you can’t hold your breath long enough to let the phlogiston settle in.

Pott: Then...is that how dragons breathed fire? By holding their breath?

Stahl: Mr. Pott, you’re brilliant! You shall follow in my footsteps as the next great alchemist. It
won’t be long until you are a teacher with your own students.

SCENE 3: Germany, 1740 (J. H. Pott is now a professor and is an expert on phlogiston.)

Pott: Today, students, I shall demonstrate to you the element phlogiston.

(Pott has a candle in a candle holder, set on a plate, and a clear glass jar taller than the candle.)

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 This candle contains both phlogiston and wax. By lighting the candle, I can drive the
phlogiston out of the candle. (He lights the candle.) By putting the candle under a jar I can
contain the phlogiston. (He puts the jar over the candle.) The air can only hold a certain amount
of phlogiston. When the air becomes saturated with phlogiston, the candle will stop burning
because the phlogiston can no longer leave the candle. (He watches and waits until the candle
goes out.) There—the air is now is what I call “phlogisticated,” meaning it is full of phlogiston
and cannot hold any more. However, if I lift the jar and let the phlogiston out, then the candle
can burn again in the fresh, “de-phlogisticated” air.

Juncker: Does phlogiston itself ever burn?

Pott: No, it cannot be consumed by fire.

Juncker: What does phlogiston look like?

Pott: We don’t know exactly, but I can tell you that it definitely consists of a circular movement
about its axis.

Juncker: (perhaps looking a bit confused) Hmm. Do we know anything else about phlogiston?

Pott: It is responsible for producing colors. And also, it starts fermentation, the process by which
sauerkraut and wine are made.

Juncker: I’ve heard some scientists say that when they burn metals they get heavier, not lighter.
If phlogiston is leaving, like you say it is, things should always weigh less after they are burned.
Why would these metals weigh more after burning?

Pott: Well, in these special cases, the phlogiston can weigh less than nothing. When negative-
weight phlogiston is in a substance it will actually weigh less than it should. Once the phlogiston
is gone, the substance will return to its normal weight, making it appear that has increased in
weight, when in reality it has merely returned to its normal weight.

Juncker: So phlogiston can have either postive or negative weight? How does that work?

Pott: Much research remains to be done! Perhaps you will take up the challenge and become
the next phlogiston expert.

Juncker: And so I shall!

Narrator: Johann Juncker did indeed become a teacher of phlogiston. And he totally believed
that phlogiston could have negative weight. He called it “levity.”
By this time, the theory of phlogiston was spreading all over Europe. In England, a
scientist named Henry Cavendish managed to isolate what we now call the element hydrogen.
But, alas— he thought it was the elusive phlogiston, so he never received credit for discovering
hydrogen.
In Germany, an apothecary named Carl Scheele found a way to make pure oxygen gas.
But, believing in the phlogiston theory, he thought he had isolated “de-phlogisticated air” and
never received credit for discovering oxygen.
Then, in England, a minister and amateur chemist named Joseph Priestly figured out a

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way to collect pure oxygen. And, believing in phlogiston, he also thought he had isolated de-
phlogisticated air. Now, Priestly happened to work as a tutor for a wealthy English family who
often traveled to Europe. On once occasion, they took Priestly along with them. One evening,
they went to a social gathering of French intellectuals, and Priestly just happened to be seated
next to one of France’s most brilliant chemists, Antoine Lavoisier.

SCENE 4: Paris, France, 1774

Priestly and Lavoisier are sitting together at a table.

Lavoisier: Now, tell me again how you were able to gather this de-phlogisticated air.

Priestly: I started with a red powder called mercuric calx. (Lavoisier pulls out a notebook and
pencil and begins taking notes.) (Optional: Have Priestly pull out a test tube of red powder
(turmeric or paprika?) and say, “Here, I’ve brought some along with me.”) After pouring liquid
mercury into the top of the tube, I then turned it upside down and submerged it into a bath of
liquid mercury. This would allow me to catch any gases that resulted from heating the red powder.

Lavoisier: (scribbling notes) Yes, go on. Then what happened?

Priestly: So there I am, holding an upside down tube filled with my red calx. (If you are using a
test tube, he can show this with the tube.)

Lavoisier: With liquid mercury at the bottom.

Priestly: Yes. Then I heat the red powder to a very high temperature. After several minutes, I
begin noticing that the mercury level in the tube is going down. A gas is appearing in the tube.
After about an hour I carefully remove the tube so that the gas does not escape.

Lavoisier: What is the gas like?

Priestly: If I blow out a candle, then put it into the tube, the candle suddenly relights again!
Just like that, the flame comes back! It must have been de-phlogisticated and the candle
introduced new phlogiston into the test tube.

Lavoisier: Anything else? (still taking notes)

Priestly: Yes, if I put a mouse into a jar with this gas, the mouse can survive for a very long time.

Lavoisier: Did you ever breathe it yourself?

Priestly: Yes, I did sneak a few breaths myself. It made me feel all light and airy, very full of life.
Lavoisier: Thank you, Mr. Priestly, for sharing this outstanding discovery with me. I am working
with gases right now, myself, and I shall try this experiment in my own lab. Only, I think I’ll try
your experiment in reverse.

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SCENE 5: Paris, France, 1777, at a gathering of scientists

(All other actors can be other members of Lavoisier’s audience.)

Lavoisier: I am here to announce the discovery of a new element! It is a gaseous element,

and I have named it “oxygen” using the Greek word “oxy” meaning “acid.” This new element, I
believe, is required to form acids, so I’ve called it the “acid-maker.”

Audience member 1: Where did you find this element?

Lavoisier: It’s everywhere, all around us! It’s part of the air. Mind you, it’s only part of the air. I
believe that air is not one element but a mixture of elements.

Audience member 2: How much of the air is this new element, oxygen?

Lavoisier: I estimate that one fifth of the air is oxygen. I know this because my experiments
use very precise measurements. I’ve seen one exactly one fifth of the air disappear and then
reappear in the metal I am burning.

Audience member 1: How can air go into metal?

Lavoisier: It sounds strange, but it’s true. Particles leave the air and are joined to metal. This
is why metal can weigh more after burning than before.

Audience member 2: But I thought that was due to the negative weight of phlogiston.

Lavoisier: Phlogiston? My scales know nothing of phlogiston! My scales tell me that the air
got lighter by precisely the same amount that the metal got heavier. There is no such thing as
phlogiston!

Audience member 1: But phlogiston is a well-established theory. It’s been around for hundreds
of years! It must be true!

Lavoisier: For thousands of years, people believed in the four elements: fire, water, air and
earth. And that turned out not to be true. I think scientists in the future should base their
theories not on what people in the past have believed, but on what their measurements tell them.

Narrator: And that was the end of phlogiston. What became of Lavoisier? He went on to make
many more contributions to the science of chemistry. Then... the French Revolution began
and he became a victim in that horrific reign of terror. The revolutionaries executed Lavoisier
because he had too many rich friends. Today, France holds dear the memory of Lavoisier.
They establised the Lavoisier Medal in his honor. They are proud of all his many inventions
and discoveries, including his discovery of the element oxygen.

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 ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 7

1) LAB EXPERIMENT: What happens when oxygen combines with iron?

We can’t actually see with our eyes atoms rearranging and combining with different atoms. We can only see the
results: changes in color, odor, temperature, texture, etc. In this experiment, the change we will observe will be a change in
temperature, first, and then in color and texture.
Iron has the unfortunate property of combining easily with oxygen and water. The result is iron oxide, FeO(OH), rust.
The oxygen atoms are looking to gain two extra electrons to fill their outer shells and the iron has two it wouldn’t mind giving
up, so they bond together. (Remember that we mentioned the fact that transition metals usually have several “oxidation
states.” Here is an example: sometimes iron and oxygen combine in a different way and form Fe2O3, which is a mineral called
hematite.)

PART 1: Observing the exothermic nature of oxidation (allow 15-20 minutes)

You will need: a piece of steel wool (not the kitchen kind—the workshop kind), vinegar, a jar, a thermometer, a rubber band
and a paper towel

What to do:
1) Put the thermometer in the jar, screw on the lid, and let it sit for a few minutes. Record the temperature.
2) Soak the steel wool in vinegar for a few minutes, then drain off excess vinegar and rinse with water. Pat with paper
towel, but don’t dry it completely. (The vinegar acts as a cleaning agent and gets rid of any coating on the steel wool that
might prevent the oxygen from coming into contact with the iron.)
3) Put the steel wool around the bulb at the bottom of the thermometer and secure with rubber band if necessary.
4) Observe the thermometer for 10 minutes and record the temperature at 2 minute intervals.

What you will see: This reaction (oxygen combining with iron) is “exothermic” and releases heat. You will see the
thermometer rise several degrees.

PART 2: Observing the “recipe” for rust (allow several hours, or overnight)

Rust is the informal name for iron oxide. As the name suggests, iron oxide is made of iron and oxygen. Oxygen from
the air combines with the iron in the metal. However, the oxygen floating around in the air is O2, two atoms of oxygen joined
with a covalent bond. This bond is strong enough to keep the oxygens together under normal circumstances. If the bond was
weaker, we’d have dangerous single oxygens floating around in the air, which would not be good. The bond is strong, but not
so strong that it can’t be broken when it needs to be, like when our bodies need to use the oxygen atoms in our cells. So the
bond is the perfect strength: not too strong, not too weak.
O2 in the air won’t react with the iron unless water is present. As we know, a metal object can sit in a dry room for
years and not rust. Water molecules are needed to facilitate the breaking of the covalent bond between the oxygens and the
transfer of electrons between the iron atoms and the oxygen atoms.
The “recipe” for making rust is: IRON + O2 (in air) + H2O → RUST. You need all three things to make rust. So if we
remove one of the “ingredients” the recipe should not work. In this experiment, you will remove some ingredients and see
what happens.

You will need: steel wool, four small clear containers with lids, water, paper towels, and soap.
Optional: salt and/or baking soda

NOTE: I find this experiment a little tricky to get right (though I know it can be done). On one occasion, the jar of water
turned rusty brown, which is not supposed to happen. I did not have time to track down what the issue was, but thought I
should add this note in case you want to pour a little vegetable oil on top to prevent any gas exchange at the surface. (I’ve
seen the vegetable oil trick mentioned on some web sites.)

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What to do:
1) Put a piece of dry steel wool (golf ball size is fine) in one jar and put the lid on. This takes water out of the equation.
2) In another jar, put a piece of dry steel wool and a puddle of water in the bottom. Put the lid on. This represents the full
“recipe” with both water and oxygen. (It’s up to you whether to rinse the steel wool beforehand in order to get any coating
off. I’ve had it work either way.)
3) Put a piece of steel wool in another jar, fill to the brim with water, then screw the lid on. This will be our way to try
to keep oxygen out of the equation, though water does contain some dissolved oxygen. (Fish can breathe water so it must
contain some oxygen.) However, it will be getting less oxygen than if was being exposed to air. (If we had a special vacuum
apparatus designed to suck all the air out of an unbreakable jar, that would be better. But since we don’t have one, we’ll just
have to make do the best we can.)
4) Rub soap into a piece of steel wool and then put it into a jar with a puddle of water. In this one you have all the ingredi-
ents present, but you are not letting the air (oxygen) come into contact with the iron. The soap is “hydrophobic” (hates water)
and will not let any water molecules stick. (One option would be to skip this jar and do the baking soda water one instead.)
6) Optional: You might want to add two other jars: one with salt water all the way to the brim, and one with baking soda
water, also to the brim.
7) Make some predictions about what will happen. Then let the jars
sit for several hours or overnight.

What you should see:

Hopefully, there will not be any rust in the jars that have
something missing from the recipe. If this is not the case, you might
want to guess what may have happened. (Scientists in the real world
often deal with surprising results. They might have to tweak their experiment several times before they get results they are
satisfied with. Running experiments repeatedly and always getting the same result is part of good scientific method.) Salt
should speed up the rusting process. Baking soda will prevent rusting because alkali solutions slow down the rusting process.

2) LAB DEMO: Magnetic breakfast cereal

Some breakfast cereals have iron added to them. Iron is magnetic, so would the cereals then be magnetic? Try it
and see. The best cereal to try is Total® bran flakes, but you could try anything that has 100% RDA iron. (If the cereal has not
had iron added to it, these experiments will not work.)

You will need: a box of high-iron breakfast cereal, a blender (if possible), a strong magnet, a zip-lock plastic bag

PART 1: Floating a flake

If you float a flake on top of a bowl of water and hold a strong magnet next to it, should move slightly. Make sure
your magnet is strong enough. Neodymium is best, if you have one, but you can also get very strong iron alloy magnets.

PART 2: Mush in a bag

1) Put the cereal into a blender with some hot water. Puree until
you have a smooth, watery mixture, then pour into a “zip lock” bag.
(Small freezer bags work well.) Make sure the mixture is watery
enough that it will slosh around in the bag.
2) Put a magnet on the outside of the bag and hold the magnet
in place while you squeeze the bag. You want to allow every part of
the mixture to flow past the magnet so that the magnet can attract
as many iron particles as possible. TOP: Keep the magnet in one
place on the bag—don’t move it around.
3) Move the magnet away and look to see if there are black spots
or lines in the cereal. These are the iron particles. You might even
be able to get a black patch under the whole magnet if conditions
are right (good cereal, good magnet, good technique).

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3) LAB EXPERIMENT: Dissolving aluminum foil
This activity is only to be done with adult supervision. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is very caustic. In fact, everyone
who is within range of the experiment should probably be wearing safety goggles and gloves.

NOTE: This activity generates hydrogen as a by-product. If you would like to try igniting small flammable hydrogen bubbles,
here is a teacher’s guide that suggests a way to do this with a few pieces of lab equipment (test tube, plug, hose, beaker):
http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/sites/default/files/outreach/experiments/hydrogen-teach.pdf

You will need: aluminum foil, glass dish, water, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) which is an ingredient in cleaning products designed
to unclog drains (Buy the dry kind that comes as little crystals, and read the label to make sure it contains sodium hydroxide.)

What to do:
1) Put on your goggles and gloves.
2) Put some drain cleaner crystals into the glass dish. Add a little water and stir.
3) Put a piece of aluminum foil into this solution and watch what happens. (It might have a slow start. Aluminum always
reacts with oxygen on its surface, creating a protective layer on the outside. Once the outer layer is gone the inner atoms
will react more quickly.)

What is happening:
Once the reaction gets going, the foil should dissolve very quickly (and provide a few "Oooo!" moments).
The NaOH is being split up into Na+ ions and OH- ions. The water molecules are being split into H+ and OH- ions. The
aluminum atoms are combining with OH- ions to make Al(OH)3, called aluminates. (If you remove an OH- you'll get aluminum
hydroxide, a substance that is used in antacid medicines.)
Here is a summary of what is happening (unbalanced equation):
Aluminum + NaOH + H2O → Na+ ions + H2O + Al(OH)4 + H2 (The H2 is hydrogen gas.)

4) ART PROJECT: Make a “loopy” 3D Periodic Table!

Print the following pages onto card stock. Cut and assemble according to instructions printed on the pages.

The idea for a table with loops for the d and f shells goes back almost a century. Then a man named Roy Alexander
picked up the idea in the 1960s and made a preliminary design. In the 1990s he made a version to sell commercially and you
can find his products at: allperiodictables.com.

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Can you use these shapes to make a Periodic Table?

GLUE
1) Write the atomic symbols and atomic numbers of the elements on
the squares. The word “GLUE” should be right-side up as you work.
In other words, you can use the word GLUE as your guide to make
sure you don’t have the rectangles upside down.

2) Cut out all three rectangles.

3) Fold the thinnest one into a loop

and fold the end flaps back.

4) Cut the red line on the purple rectangle. (3)

You might want to trim out the whole red
line (a strip about a millimeter wide) so
that the fit won’t be too tight when you
insert the looped piece. (In other words,
you want the red color to be completely
gone.)

5) Insert the loop and glue in place.

(5)
6) Now make the purple rectangle into
a loop, glue the end and fold back the rear view
flaps (the same thing you did to the
first piece).

7) Cut the red line on the large rectangle. (5)

Trim out the whole red line (about a
millimeter wide strip) to give enough space
to insert the purple piece.

8) Insert the purple loop and glue in place.

9) Bend the large rectangle into a cylinder

and secure with glue on glue tab.
(8)

(9)
GLUE

These patterns were developed completely from scratch by Ellen McHenry and have no connection to the official Alexander Arrangement.
To see (or to purchase) the official model of Alexander’s arrangement, visit allperiodictables.com.

COPY THIS PAGE ONTO CARD STOCK

158
 GLUE

GLUE
GLUE
GLUE
GLUE

These patterns were developed completely from scratch by Ellen McHenry and have no connection to the official Alexander Arrangement.
To see (or to purchase) the official model of Alexander’s arrangement, visit allperiodictables.com.

COPY THIS PAGE ONTO CARD STOCK

159
5) REVIEW GAME: "Element Connections"

ELEMENT CONNECTIONS
Make a copy of the game board for each player and tell them to fill in the circles with symbols of elements on the
main part of the table (no actinides or lanthanides). The symbols should be randomly placed so that each board is unique.
Provide pennies, or other tokens, for the players to put on the circles as clues are called. When a player's tokens make a con-
tinuous pathway from top to bottom, he calls out “Connection!” The player must then read off the elements they have along
the pathway and the answers are checked. If the answers are wrong, the game continues until someone wins.
If you want to make this game shorter and/or easier, exclude the bottom row that goes from cesium to radon.
When you come to a clue for an element in that row, just skip it.)

You may use these clues in any order. Just make sure you write down the answers on a slip of paper as you go long so
you can check student answers easily and quickly. (NOTE: You can also write your own clues instead of using these.)

Clues:

• This element has no neutrons. (hydrogen)

• This element has 48 protons. (cadmium)
• The name of this element means “stench.” (bromine)
• This element is named after the town of Ytterby (it-er-bee), Sweden. (yttrium)
• This alkali earth metal burns red in fireworks. (strontium)
• This element has 18 electrons. (argon)
• This is the smallest element that is not a gas. (lithium)
• This element was first discovered in the sun. (helium)
• This alkali earth metal is used to take x-rays of the digestive system. (barium)
• You may mark a radioactive element of your choice. (technetium, polonium, astatine, radon)
• This alkali metal is very abundant in bananas. (potassium)
• This semi-metal is famous for its use as a poison. (arsenic)
• This element has 15 electrons. (phosphorus)
• This element has electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. (magnesium)
• This transition metal is used to repair bones. (titanium)
• This element has 9 protons. (fluorine)
• This element can be found occurring naturally as a light yellow mineral. (sulfur)
• This is highest element (highest atomic number) that is NOT radioactive. (bismuth)
• This element bonds with itself to form the hardest substance on earth. (carbon)
• This element is a gas with a valence of -3. (nitrogen)
• This element has a valence of -1 and used to be used for first aid. (iodine)
• The other name for this element is wolfram. (tungsten)
• Chemical compounds containing this element are often called “ferrous.” (iron)
• This heavy, gray metal was once used to make water pipes. (lead)
• Don’t confuse this element with magnesium! (manganese)
• This element has 30 electrons and is used to galvanize metals to prevent rust. (zinc)
• This is the only “happy” atom in the row that iron is in. (krypton)
• This element is in the same row as silver and the same column as nitrogen. (antimony)
• This element has a valence of 4 and was named after the Earth. (tellurium)
• This element has 49 protons. (indium)
• You may choose one element that has a valence of +1. (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium)
• This element combines with oxygen to make sand. (silicon)
• This element has an atomic weight of 16. (oxygen)
• This element was named after the Greek god Tantalus. (tantalum)
• This element has 5 neutrons. (beryllium) (You must subtract atomic # from atomic weight.)

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• This element has electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6. (neon)
• This element is the only radioactive element in its row. (technetium)
• This alkali earth metal is found in bones and in concrete. (calcium)
• This is the most reactive, (but non-radioactive), member of the alkali metals. (cesium)
• This element has 44 protons. (ruthenium)
• The Latin name for this element is natrium. (sodium)
• The average weight of an atom of this element is about 190. (osmium)
• This is the lightest member of the true metals. (aluminum)
• This heavy transition metal is a liquid at room temperature. (mercury)
• This precious metal is often worth more per ounce than gold. Its name means "little silver." (platinum)
• This element was named after Germany and is used in electronics. (germanium)
• You may choose one element that is a metal used in coins. (gold, silver, tin, zinc, copper, nickel)
• This element has a whole series named after it. (lanthanum)
• This shiny transition metal is used on vehicles because it is so resistant to corrosion. (chromium)
• This true metal is named after France. (gallium)
• This is the heaviest noble gas that is not radioactive. (xenon)
• Pewter is made mostly of this metal. (tin)
• This element was named after Marie Curie’s homeland, Poland. (polonium)
• This element was named after Scandinavia. (scandium)
• This element has 23 electrons. (vanadium)
• This element was named after the asteroid Pallas. (palladium)
• This element has 72 protons. (hafnium)
• This element has a valence of -2 and is in the same row as potassium. (selenium)
• The average weight of an atom of this element is about 204. (thallium)
• The name of this element comes from the Latin word for rainbow: “iris.” (iridium)
• This is the heaviest member of the halogen family. (astatine)
• This element has 42 protons. (molybdenum)
• This transition metal combines with O and Si to make a clear, diamond-like gemstone. (zirconium)
• The average weight of an atom of this element is about 93. (niobium)

Samples of possible winning pathways. The path can be straight, or it can take many turns.

161
Fill in each circle with the symbol of an element. Use only the elments in the rows that begin with H, Li, Na, K, Rb,
and Cs. Don’t use any lanthanides or actinides.)
162
163
6) LAB EXPERIMENT: Build your own voltaic pile
This activity is only for those of you who love to do projects. It will take some time to round up the supplies, and
you will have to do some online research (less than an hour, though) to be able to make decisions about what supplies to
use. There are many variations of this projects, so search the Internet with key words “how to make your own voltaic pile.”
Some people recommend pennies and zinc-coated washers, others use nickels or aluminum foil. For the electrolyte, some
instructions say to use salt water, and others will recommend vinegar or some other acidic solution. You will need to decide
what you want to try. (Example site: http://www.arborsci.com/cool/recreate-physics-history-build-a-voltaic-pile)
NOTE: If you live in the USA, be aware that pennies made after 1982 contain very little copper. In 1982, the mints
began making pennies out of 98% zinc with just a thin exterior coating of copper.

7) LAB EXPERIMENT: Cleaning pennies

How can you improve on something from a website called "copper.org?" I recommend visiting their site, learning
more about copper, then trying their activity suggestion.
https://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_cuexperiment.html

8) SKIT: “The Fame Game” A skit about the discovery of ruthenium

Once again, these skits do not represent an exact account of how these events happened. The overall story is
accurate, but we don't have any historical transcripts telling us exactly what was said. I’ve taken the liberty of making up the
dialogue.

Ruthenium was first discovered by Jedrzey Sniadecki (pronounced something like “Yed-jay Schnee-uh-det-ski”) in
1807, but the Paris Commission wasn’t impressed because he wasn’t a famous scientist. Eventually he withdrew his claim and
was forgotten. Then along came some scientists who were associated with big-name, well-known researchers and they had
no trouble getting credit for their discoveries, even though two of those discoveries were later proven to be false. Sniadecki
had been absolutely right, but he never got credit for his discovery. Life isn’t fair sometimes, even in the world of science!
Scientists are not immune from social politics.

If you would like to perform the skit, I recommend these props: a table and two chairs, books and papers to pile on
the table, three sets of papers (first is a single sheet, second is a medium-sized stack, third is a thick stack), costume pieces for
the commissioners, so you can age them between scenes: hat, glasses, white beard, mustache, etc.

You might want to use signs on the desk:

Paris, 1807
Several months later
Paris, 1828 (21 years later)
Paris, 1844 (another 16 years later)

9) SKIT: “Curie Finds a Cure” A skit about the discovery of polonium and radium
Yet another skit. Remember, you can use these simply as supplemental reading material—you don’t have to perform
them. There is also a cartoon video presentation about Marie Curie on YouTube. This cartoon documentary is suggested as
an activity in the student booklet. Simply go to YouTube and type in “Marie Curie part 1.” The other parts will automatically
pop up in the sidebar.

164
 “The Fame Game”
A skit about the discovery of ruthenium

Characters:
- Jedrzej Sniadecki (Yed-jay Schee-uh-det-ski”)
- Two members of the Paris Commission (which was an elite group of scientists)
- Wilhelm Osann
- Karl Klaus

SCENE 1: The office of the Paris Commission, 1807

The two members of the Paris Commission are sitting at a table, sorting through papers. A
prominent sign on their desk says: “Paris, 1807”

First commissioner: What a busy day! So many people to interview! Seems like everyone is
claiming to have discovered something nowadays. Who’s next on the list?

Second commissioner: Mr. Jed-ra-zej Snee-a-deckee?

First: What? I mean, who? What kind of name is that?

Second: It says here he’s from Poland, so I guess that would make his name Polish. I assumed
YOU knew who he was.

First: Me? No. I’ve never heard of him.

Second: Just try to be polite anyway, okay? (Calls out loudly:) Mr. Sniadecki? Please come in.

First: You’ve come a long way, Mr. Snee-ad... Snee-ad jet-ski.

Sniadecki: Yed-jay Snchee-uh-det-ski, Sir. And, yes, sir, I’ve come all the way from Poland.

First: Hmmm... I don’t know many scientists from your country. Well, tell us what you’ve got.

Sniadecki: Sirs, I have discovered a new chemical element. I have named it vestium. Here is
my research that tells you how I found it. (He puts a stack of papers on their desk.)

The two commissioners slowly take the papers and flip through them, but look unimpressed.

First: Who do you work with?

Sniadecki: I work alone. But read my research. I’m sure the numbers are all correct. I know
you will agree with me that I have discovered a new element.

Second: Have you ever worked with Mr. Wollaston or Mr. Tennant?

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Sniadecki: No. As I said, I work alone. I’ve named the new element vestium, after the
asteroid, Vestia, that was just discovered.

First: Okay, we’ll check it out. Don’t call us, we’ll call you. Good day.

Sniadecki: Thank you for your time gentlemen. Please read...

Second: Next, please!

SCENE 2: Several months later

First: Mr. Sniadecki, come in.

Sniadecki: Thank you for seeing me again, gentlemen.

Second: Mr. Snee-ud...Shnee-u... Mr. “S,” our scientists have tried to follow your procedure
for extracting your new element but I am sorry to say that they cannot produce the same
results you did. Are you sure you wrote down everything correctly?

Sniadecki: Yes, I am sure. I know it is an unusual method, but it has worked for me many
times. I’m sure it is right.

First: Our scientists are the best in the world, you know. If they say there’s no new element,
then there’s no new element. We’re sorry.

Sniadecki: I’ll take back my papers, then. I know my research is correct. But thank you for
your time, gentlemen.

SCENE 3: Same office, 21 years later, in 1828

First: There’s no end to interviewing people, is there?! Who’s next?

Second: Mr. Wilhelm Osann. He claims he’s discovered a new chemical element. Mr.
Osann, come in, please.

Mr. Osann: Good morning, gentlemen. I have brought you my research demonstrating the
existence of three new elements. I call them pluranium, ruthenium and polinium. (He hands
over a single sheet of paper.)

The commissioners examine the paper.

First: Well, I see here that you’ve worked with Mr. Wollaston and Mr. Tennant. Very good!

Second: Anyone who works with Wollaston and Tennant must know what they are doing.
We’ll put you down as the discoverer of those elements. Congratulations!

Mr. Osann: Thank you gentlemen. Good day.

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SCENE 4: Same office, 16 years later. (Paris, 1844)

First: Seems like we’ve been working here at this desk for almost forty years!

Second: We have. But someone’s got to do this job. Who’s next?

First: Mr. Karl Klaus.

Second: Mr. Klaus, come in, please!

Klaus: Good afternoon, gentlemen. I have come here today with evidence that two of the three
elements supposedly discovered by Mr. Osann are not really elements at all. The elements
pluranium and polinium don’t exist! Only ruthenium is really an element. (He hands a medium-
sized stack of papers to them.)

First: Hmm... I see you’ve worked with Mr. Wollaston and Mr. Tennant. Very good. Your
research looks convincing. We’ll remove those two other elements from our list but keep
ruthenium.

Second: You’ve managed to improve the quality of the samples. Yours are much better than Mr.
Osann’s were.

First: Yes, in fact... your work reminds me of someone else’s, a long time ago. Let me see if I
can find that file.... Here it is. Look! Your work is almost exactly the same as the work done by
this fellow over 35 years ago!

Second: Who was it?

First: It was a Mr. Schnee-ud... Schnee-uh-jet-ski?

Second: Sounds familiar, but I don’t remember him. Too bad. Whoever he was, he was right
after all!

First: Well, congratulations, Mr. Klaus. And give our regards to Mr. Wollaston and Mr. Tennant
when you see them.

Klaus: I will, sir. Thank you, sirs. Good day.

167
 “Curie Finds a Cure”
A skit about the discovery of polonium and radium

Cast:
-Narrator
-Marie Sklodowska Curie (sklo-DOW-ska)
-Broniswava Sklowdowska, Marie’s older sister (the Polish spelling of her name is Bronisława)
-Mr. Sklodowska, Marie’s father
-Kazimierz Zorawski, son of a wealthy Polish family (KAZ-i-meerz)
-Pierre Curie
-Nobel Prize committee member
-Irène Curie, their older daughter (ee-REN)

SCENE 1: Marie’s childhood home in Warsaw, Poland, around 1880. Marie is about 10.

Broniswava: I don’t think I’ll ever be able to read these Russian textbooks. Father, why can’t the
Russians just leave our country? Why can’t school be in Polish? There’s nothing wrong with our
language. It’s just as good as Russian.

Mr. Sklodowska: My dear daughter, I am so sorry your life is so hard. Some day the Russians
will leave and Poland will be free again. But right now our family has to do the best we can
under the circumstances. And that means learning to read Russian so you can get a good
education. You still want to be a doctor, don’t you?

Broniswava: Yes, I do want to be a doctor, and that’s the only reason I’m studying this stupid
Russian grammar.

Marie: I’ll help you with Russian, Broniswava, I started learning it at an earlier age than you did,
so it was easier for me. I think I’ve got the grammar figured out.

Mr. Sklodowska: That’s the way, girls-- help each other whenever you can. With your mother
gone now and our family’s land and money having been taken from us by the Russians, the only
way any of us will succeed is if we help each other every way we can.

Broniswava: It’s probably pointless studying this grammar anyway, because we’ll never be able
to afford to send me to the university.

Marie: I know another way I can help you, Broniswava.

Broniswava: Yes?

Marie: I can find a job and work for a few years, and pay your university tuition. Then, when you
are finished with school, you can work as a doctor and pay for my education. But I don’t think I
want to be a doctor. I want to study math and physics, like father did.

Broniswava: Marie, I’m not sure I want you giving me all the money you earn.

168
Marie: But it’s like father said. We must find a way to help each other. Otherwise, neither of us
will be able to study at the university.

SCENE 2: At the home of a rich Polish family, several years later

Narrator: When Broniswava was old enough to go off to college, it was arranged that Marie
would work while Broniswava studied to be a doctor, then it would be Marie’s turn to go to
school. Broniswava went off to the Sorbonne, in Paris (and had to learn yet another language!)
while Marie worked as a governess, teaching and taking care of the children of a rich family.
Marie fell in love with the oldest son in the family, who was about her age.

Kazimierz: Marie, you know I love you, too, but my mother and father are against us getting
married. They want me to marry a girl from a wealthy family, and your family is... well...

Marie: Poor. I know we don’t have money, but we used to. It isn’t fair. Just because my
grandparents stood up against the Russians, they lost all their fortunes. It’s not fair.

Kazimierz: I know it’s not fair, Marie, but there’s nothing I can do about it. I can’t marry without
my parents permission. They won’t give me my inheritance if I marry you.

Marie: I must find another job, then. I can’t stand staying here any longer, knowing we won’t be
able to marry. Good bye, Kazimierz.

SCENE 3: Paris

Narrator: So Marie left. Not long after this, she got a letter from Broniswava asking her to
come to Paris. Broniswava had just gotten married and wanted Marie to come live with them.
Broniswava was anxious for Marie to finally start her college education. When Marie arrived
in Paris, she didn’t know any French. But this didn’t stop her from starting to attend math and
physics classes right away.

Marie: Broniswava, do you remember when you used to complain about having to learn
Russian?

Broniswava: Yes, of course I remember.

Marie: And here we are having to learn French, too!

Broniswava: But it was different this time, Marie. I chose to learn French. It wasn’t forced on
me like Russian was. I wanted to learn French so that I could attend the Sorbonne, one of the
most prestigious universities in the world. I’m here because I want to be here.

Marie: At first I didn’t want to come, Broniswava. I only came because you insisted. But now
that I am here and I am learning everything I wanted to know about math and physics, I’m glad I
came. I think I want to earn two degrees-- one in math AND one in physics.

Broniswava: That’s a bit ambitious, Marie! One degree is enough for me!

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SCENE 4: A laboratory in Paris

Narrator: Marie did indeed earn two degrees. After her degree in physics, she earned a degree
in math only one year later. Immediately following graduation she began working in a laboratory
studying something that fascinated her: magnetism. But she wasn’t the only one fascinated with
magnetism. Pierre Curie was equally fascinated, and he was also working at that lab.

Pierre: I am fascinated with the magnetic properties of this steel!

Marie: So am I. Could you pass the electrodes? Let’s hook this up and see what results we get.

Pierre: Marie, you know what else fascinates me? You. I’ve never met anyone like you before.
Maybe it’s just the magnetism gone to my head, but will you marry me?

Marie: I didn’t think I could ever love again after Kazimierz broke my heart, but yes, Pierre, I
accept your offer of marriage. I think I love you, too.

Narrator: And so Marie and Pierre became not only lab partners, but life partners. They were
hardly ever apart. Then Marie decided to start researching something that had just been
discovered. A man named Henri Becquerel (Beck-er-ell) had demonstrated that uranium gives
off invisible high-energy rays. Marie wanted to find out what these rays were, and where,
exactly, they were coming from. In order to get the uranium she needed, she had to boil down a
dirty, black mineral ore called pitchblende.

Pierre: Marie, that’s a huge mound of pitchblende you’ve brought into the lab courtyard. You
must have a plan. And what are you doing with my electrometer?

Marie: Pierre, this is very strange. The electrometer shows that the pitchblende is four times
as electrically active as a sample of pure uranium. Logically, I must conclude that there is
something else in this pitchblende, besides the uranium. A mystery element that is four times as
active as uranium. 

Pierre: That makes sense, Marie. I think you must be right.

Marie: I intend to boil down this big pile of pitchblende and try to extract that element from it.

Pierre: That’s a pretty big pile. It could take months to boil down that much pitchblende!

Marie: Well, I’d better not waste time then! Do we have a very large kettle I can use for a couple
of months?

Narrator: Marie stirred and boiled for weeks until she had produced a very small amount of what
she was sure was a new element. She decided to name it “polonium,” honoring her homeland of
Poland. Marie and Pierre were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 for their discovery of
polonium and their research on radioactivity. Marie was first woman to ever win this prize.

Nobel Prize committee member: Congratulations, Pierre and Marie. This award is for your
outstanding research on radioactivity. We hope you will keep researching.

170
Narrator: They did keep researching.

Marie: Pierre, I’m convinced there is still another element hiding in the pitchblende.

Pierre: I think you are right, Marie. In fact, I am so sure of it that I am going to temporarily give
up my study of crystals to help you find that second new element.

Narrator: So Marie and Pierre worked together day after day. Finally, after months of work,
they managed to isolate enough of the new element to be able to announce to the world its
discovery. They decided to call it “radium” after the Greek word “radius,” meaning “ray.” They
also made up a new word to describe these elements that produced so much energy. They
called them “radioactive.” Unfortunately, Marie and Pierre did not know that radioactivity was
dangerous.

Marie: Pierre, now that we have found this second new element, we must produce enough of it
so we can test it to find out its properties.

Pierre: Yes, of course, Marie. I will continue to help you work on these new elements.

SCENE 5: Paris and Warsaw

Narrator: Then, one day, tragedy struck. Pierre was killed in a traffic accident. Marie was
left as a widow with two young daughters to raise on her own. But she continued working on
isolating radium. Her daughters grew up watching their mother’s devotion to science and they
became scientists themselves. They also saw her receive a second Nobel Prize in 1911.

Irène: I want to grow up to be a scientist, just like my mother. And I want to marry a scientist
just like my dad. And maybe I’ll win a prize, too.

Narrator: Irène did just that. The family tradition carried on. And speaking of family,
Broniswava comes back into our story. Marie found out that radium could be of great use to
doctors since it could produce X-rays. She helped World War I doctors by designing portable
X-ray units that could be taken onto the battlefields. Radium also appeared to be very useful
in the treatment of some cancers. Marie raised enough money to open the Radium Institute in
Warsaw, Poland, and Broniswava was made the director.

Broniswava: Marie, look what we have done together, you and I! Look what sisters can do if
they help each other.

Marie: Yes, Broniswava. We will be able to help so many people in Poland as well as around
the world. My hope is that radium will help to cure many diseases.

Narrator: Though radium would cure many people in the future, it made Marie sick. After many
years of handling highly radioactive substances with no protection, Marie died at age 60 of an
illness caused by the radioactivity. She continued to receive honors, however, even after her
death. A large statue of Marie was built in front of the Radium Institute. It is said that when
Kazimierz was an old man, he would come and sit in front of the statue and stare at it.

Kazimierz: Marie, Marie, why didn’t I marry you?!

171
 ACTIVITY IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 8

1) GROUP GAME: “One of my elements is missing!”

You will need: the entire deck of Quick Six cards.

What to do:
Lay out the cards on a table or on the floor so that they form the Periodic Table. Take turns being the
“hider” and the “guesser.” The guesser closes his eyes while the hider chooses one of the cards and removes
it from the Periodic Table, hiding it behind his back. When the guesser opens his eyes, he tries to guess which
element is missing. This game can also be played in a competitive fashion, with teams who try to be the first to
correctly guess the missing element. (In my class, I had a Periodic Table shower curtain on the wall, and I used a
black paper square the same size as the element squares, and used tape to make it stick.)

2) GROUP DISCUSSION: Naming a new element

Ask the students to answer this question: If you were the discoverer of a new element, what would you
call it? Would you name it after yourself? a famous scientist? a recent discovery? Someone from mythology?

3) SNACK: Eat a radioactive snack (yes, really!)

We eat and drink small amounts of radiation every day. Our bodies are able to deal with this tiny amount
of naturally-occurring radiation, so we don’t need to be overly concerned about it. For example, potassium is one
of the essential elements that our bodies need, so it’s good for us to eat foods such as bananas, which are high in
potassium. Most potassium atoms (93.3% of them) have 39 neutrons in their nucleus. The rest have either 40
or 41 neutrons. In the case of potassium 40, the extra neutron eventually turns into a proton, creating a ray of
radioactivity (a beta particle). In an average-sized human body, about 4,000 potassium atoms decay every second.
You also consume small amounts of radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium and radium. Remember,
though, this is a naturally-occurring phenomenon, and should not discourage us from eating fruits and veggies!
You might like to provide a snack featuring foods that are high in potassium, and thus are higher in natural
radiation than other foods. High-potassium foods include dried fruit (apricots, peaches, figs, dates, raisins), fresh
bananas and cantaloupe, orange juice and grapefruit juice, potatoes, winter squash, all types of beans (including
lentils), Brussels sprouts, tomatoes, carrots, zucchini, broccoli, and fish.
If you would like to eat something containing radium, snack on Brazil nuts. Brazil nuts are 1,000 times
more radioactive than any other food. The radium does not stay inside your body, though; it moves right on
through and exits. If you want an exact figure for how many pCi/g’s they contain, go to:
http://www.orau.org/PTP/collection/consumer%20products/brazilnuts.htm

4) GAME: "Periodic Mysteries" Use logic to solve these puzzles

Students will be detectives who would like to join Sheerluck Holmium's

Chemical Detective Agency. Detective Holmium begins with tests of knowledge and
logical thinking about the elements. You have to pass these tests to be considered for
induction into his agency. Good luck!

This game can be played by individual students, or in small gruops. Playing in

groups is fun because it will encourage interesting conversations among players.

172
You will need:
- the Quick Six cards (a deck for each small group)
- a copy of the page of expert consultants (with the portraits cut apart) for each small group
- a copy of each clue page so that you have a full set for each small group (see TIP below)
- optional: a copy of the lists of elements for each small group (you could print it on the back of Sheerluck)
- optional: copy of Sheerluck page (or you can show book page and not copy it)

TIP: If you are making multiple sets of this game, copy the clue cards onto different colors so that you have a white
set, a yellow set, a green set, etc. That way if the cards get mixed up it will be very easy to get them back into their
sets without having to read the tops of all the cards. Makes clean up much easier.

What to do:
1) Have each student or small group put the consultant portraits out in front of them. Have them make sure their
clue cards are in piles according to game number.
2) Start with game #1. Have them put each consultant's clue face down in front of the portrait.
3) Either write the list of elements for this game on a white board so all can see, or copy the list and hand out a copy
to each group.
3) Have them turn over one clue card. If working in a group, encourage thinking out loud and discussing. When a
consensus is reached, they can announce their answer and then you can reveal the actual answer.

Something to keep in mind: The main goal of this game is to get the students to think and discuss. If a few students
misunderstand clues or come up with "creative" answers, it won't alter the success of the game. Just engage them
in dialogue and have them explain their answers. (And allow a few laughs.)

Extension: If your students are older, you might want to have them try to make their own mystery puzzle. It does
take some thought and some trial and error, but you sure learn a lot while you are working!

173
Welcome! I am detective "Sheerluck" Holmium. Both of Holmium
these names are actually nicknames. My friends call me
Holmium because they say my moustache reminds them of
a sample of pure holmium metal, and they call me "Sheer-
luck" just to tease me. It's not sheer luck when I solve a
case! I use facts and logical reasoning-- I don't need luck!
Sometimes silly nicknames stick whether you like it or not.

I hear that you'd like to be part of my detective agency. The first thing you have to do solve
my Periodic Mystery puzzles. You will be given clues by my consultants. Use these clues to
eliminate wrong choices. Eventually there will be only one element left. Let's hope that's
the answer I am looking for!

174
GAME 1: He, Be, O, Tc, Hg

GAME 2: C, Si, K, Ge, Sn

GAME 3: S, Ca, V, Fe, Br, Kr

GAME 4: Na, Cl, Ar, Ga, As, Au

GAME 5: Li, F, Ne, Xe, Bi, Po

GAME 6: P, Zr, I, Ba, Ir, Tl, Pb

GAME 7: Mg, Zn, Se, Ag, Sb, Cs, Rn, Pu

GAME 8: He, N, F, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Ni

GAME 9: O, Na, S, Cl, Ar, Cu, Rb, Y, Sn, Pb

GAME 10: B, Mg, V, Ga, Ge, Br, Nb, I, Xe, Ta

GAME 11: Ne, P, Cr, As, Kr, Ru, Rh, Ag, In, Pm

GAME 12: H, Al, Si, Co, Sr, Mo, Sb, Te, Tl, U

176
176
FIRST SET OF GAMES (slightly easier)

GAME 1: He, Be, O, Tc, Hg

Doctor: It is not an element needed by the human body. (Eliminate O because it is useful.)
Chemist: It is not a liquid at room temperature. (Eliminate Hg.)
Physicist: The most common forms of this element are not radioactive. (Eliminate Tc.)
Historian: It was not discovered with a spectrometer. (Eliminate He, discovered in the sun with a spectrometer.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Be

GAME 2: C, Si, K, Ge, Sn

Doctor: This element is generally not found in mammal bodies. (Eliminate C, and possibly K if they know enough
about physiology.)
Chemist: It would be hard for me to melt this element in my crucible. (Eliminate Sn, tin, which is easy to melt.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element have a valency of 4. (Eliminate K.)
Historian: The element was not named after a place. (eliminate Ge)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Si

GAME 3: S, Ca, V, Fe, Br, Kr

Doctor: It is not found in human or animal cells. (Eliminate Fe, Ca. If they know some biochemistry and know
about sulfur being part of some amino acids or other biomolecules, they can eliminate S.)
Chemist: This element is not inert. It will bond to other elements, usually metals. (Eliminate Kr, which is inert.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element have more neutrons than protons. (Eliminate S, Ca.)
Historian: The discovery of this element had no connection with the element iodine. (Eliminate Br, whose discovery
was linked to the discovery of iodine, both halogens.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: V

GAME 4: Na, Cl, Ar, Ga, As, Au

Doctor: It is not known to be harmful to humans or animals. (Eliminate As, which is a poison.)
Chemist: It can't float in the air. (Eliminate Ar, which is a gas. Cl might be eliminated because it can be a gas, though
in nature it is never found in this state. This would make a great discussion!)
Physicist: It won't bond to any of the other elements in this mystery. (Eliminate Na, Cl.)
Historian: It was not predicted by Mendeleyev. (Eliminate Ga, which he predicted.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Au

GAME 5: Li, F, Ne, Xe, Bi, Po

Doctor: It is not used as a main ingredient in any medicines. (Eliminate Bi, Li.)
Chemist: It won't bond to any of the other elements in this mystery. (Eliminate Li, F, which bond to each other.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element have an unequal number of neutrons and protons. (Eliminate Ne.)
Historian: This element was discovered by a man. (Eliminate Po, which was discovered by Marie Curie.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Xe

GAME 6: P, Zr, I, Ba, Ir, Tl, Pb

Doctor: It is never used in hospitals, not even in the laundry room. (Eliminate Zr.) (P is used in detergents!)
Chemist: I've never seen anything green about this element when testing it my lab. (Eliminate Ba, Tl.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element want to add more than one electron to their outer shells. (Eliminate I.)
Historian: Eliminate any elements that have a connection to alchemy. (Eliminate Pb and P. Alchemists were always
trying to turn lead into gold, and phosphorus was discovered by an alchemist.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Ir

177
SECOND SET OF GAMES (slightly harder)
Remember, there can be overlap in responses. The order in which you follow the clues will affect the order in which
you eliminate the elements. This provides a bit of "back up" and improves your chances of eliminating correctly.

GAME 7: Mg, Zn, Se, Ag, Cs, Rn, Pu

Doctor: I don't think you'll find this element in any mineral supplements. (Eliminate Mg, Se, Zn)
Chemist: It doesn't melt easily. (Eliminate Cs, which will melt in your hand.)
Physicist: The element is "naturally occuring," meaning it can be found somewhere in nature. (Eliminate Pu, which
is man-made in nuclear reactors)
Historian: It was not one of the elements that ancient peoples recognized. (Eliminate Ag.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Rn

GAME 8: He, N, F, K, Ca, Fe, Mn

Doctor: It is necessary for proper functioning of human body. (Eliminate He.)
Chemist: It is not a metal. (Eliminate Fe and Mn, which are transition metals.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element do not have the same number of neutrons as protons. (Eliminate N, Ca, He.)
Historian: It was not discovered by Sir Humphry Davy. (Eliminate K, Ca.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: F

GAME 9: O, Na, S, Cl, Ar, Cu, Rb, Y, Sn, Pb

Doctor: Your cells don't use this element. (Eliminate O, Na, S, Cl.)
Chemist: It can bond with other elements. (Eliminate Ar, a noble gas.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element have more than one electron in their outer shells. (Eliminate Na, Rb.)
Historian: Eliminate any elements that Aristotle and Plato would have known about. (Eliminate Pb, Cu, Sn)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH:

GAME 10: B, Mg, V, Ga, Ge, Br, Nb, I, Xe

Doctor: I have never used this element in my medical practice. (Eliminate elements a doctor might use: Mg, B, I,
and possibly Ga if you count its use in devices that might conceivably end up in an electronic device in a hospital--
makes for good discussion! Xe might possibly be used in anesthesia machines in operating rooms, but not in
doctors' offices.)
Chemist: I am sure I have never used it in my lab. I think I would know if I had! (Eliminate Br-- it stinks!)
Physicist: The element is not in group 5. (Eliminate V, Nb.)
Historian: Mendeleyev never predicted the discovery of this element. (Eliminate Ga, Ge.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Xe

GAME 11: Ne, P, As, Cr, Ru, Ag, In, Sm, Pm

Doctor: It's not magnetic enough to be used in diagnostic imaging machines. (Eliminate Sm.)
Chemist: It never looks shiny. (eliminate Ag, Cr)
Physicist: Its atoms have a "d" orbital. (Eliminate P and Ne.)
Historian: It shows the legacy of Alexander the Great and his Greek empire. (Eliminate non-Greek names, In, As, Ru)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Pm

GAME 12: H, Al, Si, Co, Sr, Mo, Sb, Te, Tl, U
Doctor: It is not used by cardiologists. (Eliminate Tl.)
Chemist: It is not used in alloys. (Eliminate Mo, Sb, Te, Co.)
Physicist: Atoms of this element have "d" orbitals. (Eliminate H, Al, Si.)
Historian: This element was never directly involved in any famous disasters. (Eliminate H, which blew up the
Hindenburg blimp, and U, which is one of the radioactive elements that leaks out of nuclear reactors. You could
name several nuclear disasters.)
YOU ARE LEFT WITH: Sr

178
Game 1 Doctor Game 2 Doctor

It is not an element that is This element is generally not

needed by tby human body. found in mammals.

Game 1 Chemist Game 2 Chemist

It is not a liquid at room It would be hard for me to

temperature. melt this element in my
crucible.

Game 1 Physicist Game 2 Physicist

The most common forms of Atoms of this element have

this element are not a valency of 4.
radioactive.

Game 1 Historian Game 2 Historian

It was not discovered with The element was not named

a spectrometer. after a place.

Game 3 Doctor Game 3 Chemist

Under normal circumstances, This element is not inert.

it is not found in human or It will bond to other
animal cells. elements, usually metals.

179
Game 3 Physicist Game 3 Historian

Atoms of this element have The discovery of this element

more neutrons than protons. had no connection with the
element iodine.

Game 4 Doctor Game 5 Doctor

It is not known to be It is not used as a main

harmful to humans or ingredient in any medicines.
animals.

Game 4 Physicist Game 5 Physicist

It won't bond to any of the Atoms of this element have

other elements in this an unequal number of
mystery. neutrons and protons.

Game 4 Chemist Game 5 Chemist

It can't float in the air. It won't bond to any of the

other elements in this
mystery.

Game 4 Historian Game 5 Historian

It was not predicted by This element was

Mendeleyev. discovered by a man.

180
Game 6 Doctor Game 7 Doctor

It is never used in hospitals, I don't think you'll find this

not even in the laundry room. element in any mineral
supplements.

Game 6 Chemist Game 7 Chemist

I've never seen anything It doesn't melt easily.

"green" about this element
when testing it in my lab.

Game 6 Physicist Game 7 Physicist

Atoms of this element want The element is "naturally

to add more than one occurring" meaning you can
electron to their outer shells. find it somewhere in nature.

Game 6 Historian Game 7 Historian

Eliminate any elements that It was not one of the

have a connection to elements that ancient
alchemy. peoples recognized.

Game 8 Doctor Game 8 Physicicst

It is necessary for the proper Atoms of this element do not

functioning of the human have the same number of
body. neutrons and protons.

181
Game 8 Chemist Game 8 Historian

It is not a metal. It was not discovered by Sir

Humphry Davy.

Game 9 Doctor Game 10 Doctor

Your cells don't use this I have never used this

element. element in my medical
practice.

Game 9 Physicist Game 10 Physicist

Atoms of this element have The element is not in

more than one electron in group 5.
their outer shell.

Game 9 Chemist Game 10 Chemist

It can bond with other I am sure I have never used

elements. it in my lab. I think I would
know if I had!

Game 9 Historian Game 10 Historian

Eliminate any elements that Mendeleyev never predicted

Aristotle and Plato would the discovery of this element.
have known about.

182
Game 11 Doctor Game 12 Doctor

It is not magnetic enough to It is not used by

be useful in diagnostic cardiologists.
imaging machines.

Game 11 Chemist Game 12 Chemist

It never looks shiny. It does not normally form

alloys.

Game 11 Physicist Game 12 Physicist

Its atoms have a "d" orbital. Atoms of this element have

"d" orbitals.

Game 11 Historian Game 12 Historian

It shows the legacy of This element was never

Alexander the Great and his directly involved in any
Greek empire. famous disasters.

183
5) OBSERVATION: Fluorescence in household substances

You will need: a black light (or black light bulb you can temporarily install in a lamp) and various household
substances that fluorescence, such as laundry soap, highlighter markers, petroleum jelly (Vaseline), white
peppermint candies, white paper or envelopes, wicks of candles, some white craft supplies such as chenille
stems and yarn (For a complete list, just do an Internet search for "household items that fluoresce.")
NOTE: You might also want to supply some things that do not fluoresce and predict which ones will and
which ones won't.

Fluorescence is when electrons have been excited up to a higher energy level, then fall back down to
their original level, giving off the extra energy as (in this case) visible light. The energy going in is UV light (the
kind that is just above violet in the rainbow, not the high-energy kind that damages skin). The energy coming
out is visible light but at the blue/purple end of the rainbow. Your eyes interpret this as a whiter-than-white
glow, which is why so many soaps and fabrics contain fluorescent dye.

6) MEMORIZATION CHALLENGE

You will need: a copy of the certificate for each student (you’ll find the pattern page at the very end of this
section), a blank Periodic Table (the pattern for the pillowcase is fine), and a supply of candy or treats of various
sizes, ranging from small single pieces to full-size or jumbo-size bars (optional: plastic baggies for collecting
treats) You can provide non-edible prizes, too, such as pencils, coins, stickers, etc.

How to set it up:

Place the blank Periodic Table on the table. Just to the right of each noble gas, put a small pile of candy.
The smallest treats (such as a single Hershey’s Kiss, a piece of bubble gum, or a (wrapped) Lifesaver) go next to
helium. Slightly larger treats (such as a stick of gum or a miniature chocolate bar) go to the right of neon. An
even larger treat goes to the right of argon (a “snack size” bar?). Continue this pattern, until you end up with a
very large candy bar (the kind that is about six inches long!) next to radon. Not everyone will make it to radon,
so you won’t have to buy “radon bars” for everyone. If you are working with a class, you might want to take a
survey ahead of time to see how many students plan on memorizing to radon.

How the challenge works:

Students take the challenge one at a time. If the student can successfully say the elements in the first
row, he may pick up a treat at the end of the first row. (The first row is a guaranteed success, since all they
have to say is: “hydrogen, helium.” No one goes away empty-handed in this activity.) If the student can say the
elements in the second row, he gets to pick up the slightly larger treat next to argon. This continues, until the
student wants to stop.
Optional: For the elements in the last two rows, you may want to provide rewards for getting halfway
across. Perhaps if they get halfway they can have the treat from the previous row? It’s up to you.

How to use the certificate:

Circle (or color the square of) the highest element that the student reached in their recitation. Sign and
date the certificate, and give the student a hearty “Congratulations!” for their effort.

7) A FINAL REVIEW/TEST

You can use the following pages either as a final exam or simply as a final review. Or you can skip them.

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FINAL REVIEW Name _______________________
(NOTE: You are allowed to look at a Periodic Table while doing this activity.)

ATOMIC SYMBOLS
Can you remember the symbols for these elements?
1) nitrogen ____ 3) fluorine ____ 5) chlorine ____ 7) helium ____ 9) carbon ____
2) gold ____ 4) iron ____ 6) magnesium ____ 8) lithium ____ 10) zinc ____

Can you remember the elements for these symbols?

11) Pb _________ 13) Ag ___________ 15) Hg _____________ 17) K _____________
12) Xe _________ 15) Ar ___________ 16) Na _____________ 18) Al _____________

QUESTIONS
19) The elements are listed in numerical order. Hydrogen is 1, helium is 2, lithium is 3, etc. What do the numbers mean?
a) the mass (weight) of the atom b) the number of protons it has c) the number of neutrons it has
d) the order in which it was discovered e) the size of the atom

20) The word "valence" means:

a) the number of protons an atom wants to eject from the nucleus
b) the mass (weight) of an atom
c) the number of electrons an atom wants to gain or get rid of
d) whether an ion is positively or negatively charged

21) If you were doing an experiment in which you wanted electricity to flow through an element, which of these
elements would you choose? a) iodine b) gold c) sulfur d) magnesium e) mercury

22) What is the best and easiest way to separate the sodium and chlorine atoms in NaCl?
a) smash NaCl with a hammer c) put the NaCl into water
b) put electricity through the NaCl d) pull the atoms apart with tweezers

23) Which of these statements is NOT true about carbon?

a) Carbon atoms can bond with any element on the Periodic Table.
b) Carbon has a valence of +4 or -4.
c) Carbon has the ability to grab small molecules and hold on to them.
d) Carbon is one of the key elements in the chemistry of living things.
e) Carbon is the element that diamonds are made of.

24) In which type of bonding are electrons given away?

a) covalent b) ionic c) metallic d) all of these

25) In which type of bonding are the electrons able to move about freely?
a) covalent b) ionic c) metallic d) all of these

TRUE or FALSE? (Write T or F on the line.)

26) ___ Hydrogen atoms do not have any neutrons.

27) ___ The noble gases are toxic to breathe, just like chlorine gas is.
28) ___ The elements in the actinide series are the only radioactive elements on the Periodic Table.
29) ___ Ionic compounds (that join an alkali metal to a halogen) are called salts.
30) ___ If an atom were as large as a sports stadium, the nucleus would be about the size of a marble.
"ODD ONE OUT" Figure out which one in each set does not belong and circle it.
Consider the chemical properties of the elements, as well as what family groups they belong to. (Don't consider
letters or numbers or where names came from, just chemical and physical properties.)

31) xenon argon krypton oxygen

32) lithium sodium magnesium potassium
33) technetium rhodium ruthenium molybdenum
34) iridium platinum gold mercury
35) carbon iron phosphorus sulfur
36) europium thorium gadolinium terbium
37) chlorine neon bromine nitrogen
38) uranium polonium francium californium
39) iron tin lead bismuth
40) iron aluminum neodymium samarium

MATCH THE ELEMENT WITH ITS DISCOVERER (a few of these are from the skits)
Use these as possible answers: oxygen, magnesium, ruthenium, iodine, radium

41) Marie Curie _______________

42) Humphry Davy _________________
43) Antoine Lavoisier _________________
44) Bernard Curtois __________________
45) Karl Klaus __________________
Dmitri Mendeleyev didn't
discover any elements.

VALENCIES (Possible answers: -2 -1 0 +1 +2)

46) All the alkali metals have a valence of ____.

47) All the noble gases have a valence of ____.
48) All the alkali earth metals have a valence of ____.
49) All the halogens have a valence of ____.
50) Oxygen has a valency of ____.

FIND THE FAKES

Consider each molecule carefully. Would the atoms really bond in this way? Consider the valencies.
Write YES if the molecule is possible, and NO if it is very unlikely. (We have to say "unlikely" because scientists
have been able to force atoms to do some pretty unlikely things if they put them under heat or pressure.)

51) KNa _____ 53) KCl _____ 55) AlGa _____ 57) MgO _____ 59) MgS_____
52) NaI _____ 54) HeCl _____ 56) HCl _____ 58) CaF _____ 60) LiF _____

A FEW MORE TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS

61) ____ Elements that are in the same column (up and down) on the Periodic Table are likely to have similar
chemical properties.
62) ____ Radioactivity is when outer shell electrons jump to a higher energy level then fall back down.
63) ____ Magnetism is caused by electrons all spinning in the same direction.
64) ____ Radon is the last (highest number) naturally occurring element on the table.
65) ____ Most elements on the table look like gray or silver metals when in their pure form and not combined
with anything else.
ANSWER KEY for FINAL REVIEW

1) N 2) Au 3) F 4) Fe 5) Cl 6) Mg 7) He 8) Li 9) C 10) Zn

11) lead 12) xenon 13) silver 14) argon

15) mercury 16) sodium 17) potassium 18) aluminum

19) b 20) c 21) b 22) c 23) a 24) b08 25) c

26) T 27) F 28) F 29) T 30) T

31) oxygen, because it is not a noble gas

32) magnesium, because it is not an alkali metal
33) technetium, because it is radioactive and the others are not (but they are all transition metals)
34) mercury, because it is a liquid at room temperature
35) iron, because it is not a non-metal like the others
36) thorium, because it is an actinide, not a lanthanide
37) bromine, because it is a liquid at room temperature and the others are gases
38) californium, because it is not naturally occurring and must be made in a lab
39) iron, because it is not a true metal
40) aluminum, because it is not magnetic

41) radium 42) magnesium 43) oxygen 44) iodine 45) ruthenium

46) +1 47) 0 48) +2 49) -1 50) -2

51) No 52) Yes 53) Yes 54) No 55) No 56) Yes 57) Yes 58) No 59) Yes 60) Yes

61) T 62) F 63) T 64) F 65) T

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8) MAKE A SHADOW BOX FOR AN ELEMENT
Atomic number
must go up here in
Choose an element and make a diorama box for it, adding
this corner. It can
your own creativity and artistic talent to the basic information.
be any color or font,
just make it large
You will need:
enough to see!
-a piece of heavy card stock paper
-scissors
-glue/staples/tape
-ruler
-something to score with (such as compass point, dead ball point pen, nail)

Additional supplies you can use if you'd like to:

-paint
-colored pencil
-markers
-cut paper (construction paper is okay, but more expensive colored paper works even better)
-card stock or thin cardboard to make pop-ups or tab
-pictures you find in a magazine or from an Internet image search, Your project does not have to look
printed onto paper or card stock then cut out like this one. You may design your box
-small objects that can be glued in (nothing too heavy!) however you'd like to, but do include
-fabric as many "3D" features as you can.
-clear plastic
-a sample of the element or something that contains the element (nothing heavy or messy)

Note: If working with fabric or plastic parts, make sure to use a type of glue that will hold them securely.

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Required information:
-name
-atomic symbol
-atomic number
-atomic mass
-examples of how it is (or has been) used

You may want to add more information such as:

-date of discovery, place of discovery
-name of discoverer(s)
-meaning of its name
-interesting fact unrelated to its uses
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To assemble the box:

1) Look at the pattern on the back of this page.
Measure where the lines are and draw them onto your piece of card stock.
(You could also print the pattern page onto your card stock if you are working from a digital copy
of this book. Most home printed can handle up to 110 lb card stock.)
2) Use a ruler and a pointed utensil to score the dotted lines. This will make them fold
easily and sharply.
3) Cut on the solid lines.
4) Fold the dotted lines (which will be easily since you scored them). The tabs should go on the top and
bottom. Secure with glue or staples or tape. Press and hold till dry if you are using glue.

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190
 name

recited the Periodic Table from memory (up to the element indicated)

on
date

signature of supervisor

191
192
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

These are the books I used when I first wrote this, back in 2001. Since then the world has gone digital, and during
the years since then, I’ve read many websites and watched a number of documentaries. Unfortunately, at first I didn't
think about keeping track (like I do now) of all the virtual resources I consulted. At the bottom I've listed some of the web
addresses I've used to update the later chapters.

General Chemistry; Principles and Structure (Third Edition) by James E. Brady and Gerard E. Humiston.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, ©1982.

The Chemical Elements by I. Nechaev & Gerald Jenkins.

Published by Tarquin Publications, UK. © 1997. ISBN 1-899618-11-2

Exploring Chemical Elements and Their Compounds by David L. Heiserman.

Published by TAB Books, a division of McGraw-Hill, © 1992

Chemistry for Changing Times (8th edition) by John Hill and Doris Kolb
Published by Prentice Hall in 1998. ISBN 0-13-741786-1

The Visual Dictionary of Chemistry published by Dorling-Kindersley, ©1996

Chemistry For Every Kid by Janice Van Cleave. John Wiley & Sons, © 1989.

Descriptive Chemistry by Donald McQuarrie and Peter Rock.

Published by W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, © 1985. ISBN 0-7167-1706-9

Usborne Dictionary of Science published by Usborne, UK.

Eyewitness Handbook of Rocks and Minerals published by Dorling-Kindersley, © 1992

150 Captivating Chemistry Experiments Using Household Substances by Brian Rohrig.

Published by FizzBang Science, Plain City, Ohio, © 1997. ISBN 0-9718480-2-5

During the past two updates, I've read quite a few Wikipedia articles, plus articles on “howstuffworks.com.”
Also not listed here are the many documentaries and video clips from YouTube. (A few of these appear in the playlist.)

Samples of the types of webpages I've consulted more recently:

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/3d4sproblem.html
http://www.chem4kids.com/files/elements/029_shells.html
http://www.rsc.org/eic/2013/11/aufbau-electron-configuration
http://scienceposse.blogspot.com/2011/01/rare-earth-question-what-do-f-orbitals.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atomic/auger.html
http://www.namibiarareearths.com/rare-earths-industry.asp
http://geology.com/articles/rare-earth-elements/
http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2001-01/980638580.Ch.r.html
http://www2.uni-siegen.de/~pci/versuche/english/v44-10.html
http://www.rsc.org/images/essay1_tcm18-17763.pdf
https://cosmosmagazine.com/physics/how-make-superheavy-element
http://highschoolenergy.acs.org/content/hsef/en/how-do-we-use-energy/combustion-and-burning.html

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