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Indian Polity
1. The Parliament and Its Structure
The Indian Parliament is composed of three key elements:
• The President

• The Lok Sabha (House of the People)

• The Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
Roles and Responsibilities of the President
• Though not a member of either House, the President plays a crucial role in the legislative
process.
• Holds authority to summon, prorogue, and dissolve both Houses.
• Can issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session.
• Possesses the power to dissolve the Lok Sabha before its five-year term ends, an act that
cannot be legally challenged.
Rajya Sabha vs. Lok Sabha
• Rajya Sabha: Maximum strength of 250 (238 elected, 12 nominated). Permanent body with
one-third of its members retiring every two years.
• Lok Sabha: Maximum strength of 552 (530 from states, 20 from UTs, and 2 Anglo-Indians,
though the latter provision is now abolished). Dissolves after five years but can be extended
during a National Emergency.
Membership Criteria
• Must be an Indian citizen.

• Minimum age requirement: 25 years for Lok Sabha and 30 years for Rajya Sabha.
• Speaker of Lok Sabha: Elected from among its members; responsible for maintaining order,
interpreting rules, and presiding over joint sittings.
• Chairperson of Rajya Sabha: The Vice-President of India serves as its ex-officio
chairperson; removal is possible only if the Vice-President is removed.
Types of Bills
• Public Bills: Introduced by ministers; can be ordinary or financial.

• Private Bills: Introduced by any MP other than ministers.

• Money Bills: Initiated only in Lok Sabha with the President's recommendation.
• Constitutional Amendment Bills: Specifically meant for amending provisions of the
Constitution.
Annual Budget
• Officially termed the 'Annual Financial Statement' (Article 112).

• While Rajya Sabha can discuss the budget, it cannot vote on grants, a function reserved solely
for the Lok Sabha.
2. Prime Minister and Chief Minister
Appointment & Tenure
• Prime Minister: Appointed by the President, usually the leader of the majority party in the
Lok Sabha.
• Chief Minister: Appointed by the Governor, generally the leader of the majority party in the
State Legislature.
• Neither holds a fixed term; they serve at the pleasure of the President or Governor,
respectively.
Powers & Functions
• Head of the Council of Ministers: Advises the President/Governor on governmental
decisions.
• Appointment of Ministers: Ministers are appointed by the President/Governor based on
recommendations from the PM/CM.
• Collective Responsibility: The council of ministers is collectively accountable to their
respective legislatures.

3. State Legislature (Vidhan Sabha & Vidhan Parishad)

Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly)
• Maximum members: 500; Minimum members: 60.

• Representatives are directly elected through universal adult franchise.

• Standard tenure is five years, though it may be dissolved earlier by the Governor.
• Can be extended under special circumstances such as a National Emergency.
Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council)
• Present in select states; members are indirectly elected.

• It is a permanent body, with a portion of its members retiring periodically.

Presiding Officers
• Legislative Assembly: Led by the Speaker, Deputy Speaker, and Panel of Chairpersons.

• Legislative Council: Overseen by the Chairman, Deputy Chairman, and Panel of Vice-
Chairpersons.

4. Judiciary: Supreme Court & High Courts

Supreme Court of India
• Established on January 28, 1950, derived from the Government of India Act, 1935.

• Judges serve until the age of 65.

• Can resign by submitting a written letter to the President.
Removal of Supreme Court Judges
• Grounds: Proven misbehavior or incapacity.

• Removal requires a Presidential order based on a special majority in both Houses of

Parliament.
• No Supreme Court judge has been impeached to date.
High Courts
• The oldest High Court is in Calcutta, established in 1862.
 • The Allahabad High Court was the fourth to be established (1866).
• Currently, 25 High Courts function across various states and union territories.
• Judges retire at the age of 62 (compared to 65 for Supreme Court judges).
Removal Process for High Court Judges
• Removal grounds: Proven misbehavior or incapacity.

• Follows the same impeachment process as Supreme Court judges.

• Requires a special majority in both Houses of Parliament.
• No High Court judge has been impeached so far.
Governor
• The Chief Executive Head of the State.
• Appointed by the President and serves at the pleasure of the President.
• Holds a term of five years but can be removed or extended.
• Has Executive, Legislative, Financial, and Judicial powers at the state level.
• Cannot pardon death sentences (unlike the President).
Advocate General
• The highest legal officer in the state.
• Appointed by the Governor.
• Advises the state government on legal matters.
Attorney General of India
• The highest law officer of the country.
• Appointed by the President.
• Advises the Government of India on legal matters.

5. Important Firsts in Indian Polity

• First President of India: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
• First Vice-President: Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
• First Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru
• First Speaker of Lok Sabha: G.V. Mavlankar
• First Woman Speaker of Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar
• First Chief Justice of Supreme Court: Justice Harilal J. Kania
• First Governor-General of Independent India: Lord Mountbatten
• First Indian Governor-General: C. Rajagopalachari
• First Woman Governor: Sarojini Naidu (Uttar Pradesh)
• First Woman Chief Minister: Sucheta Kripalani (Uttar Pradesh)
 • First Woman Judge of Supreme Court: Justice M. Fathima Beevi
• First Woman Minister in Independent India: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur

6. Constituent Assembly of India

Formation and First Meeting
• The Constituent Assembly of India held its first meeting on December 9, 1946.
• A total of 211 members attended the inaugural session, as the Muslim League boycotted it.
• Dr. Sachidanand Sinha, the oldest member, was elected as the temporary President,
following the French parliamentary practice.
• Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the permanent President of the Constituent
Assembly.
• The Assembly had two Vice-Presidents: H.C. Mukherjee and V.T. Krishnamachari.
Key Events and Figures in the Constituent Assembly
• The elephant was adopted as the symbol of the Constituent Assembly.
• Sir B.N. Rau was appointed as the Constitutional Adviser to the Assembly.
• S.N. Mukherjee served as the chief draftsman of the Indian Constitution.
• The Constitution of India was adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into force on
January 26, 1950.
Sources of the Indian Constitution & Borrowed Features
• Government of India Act, 1935: Federal structure, Office of Governor, Judiciary,
Emergency Provisions, etc.
• British Constitution: Parliamentary government, Rule of Law, Single Citizenship, Cabinet
System, etc.
• U.S. Constitution: Fundamental Rights, Independent Judiciary, Impeachment of the
President, Judicial Review, etc.
• Irish Constitution: Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
National Symbols of India
• National Flag: Adopted on July 22, 1947; designed by Pingali Venkayya in 1916.
• National Emblem: Taken from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka; symbolizes India's
ancient heritage.
• National Anthem: Jana Gana Mana; composed by Rabindranath Tagore, adopted on
January 24, 1950.
• National Song: Vande Mataram; written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in
Anandamath.
• Other National Symbols:

• National Flower: Lotus

 • National Tree: Banyan

• National Animal: Tiger

• National Fruit: Mango

• National River: Ganga

• National Bird: Peacock

• National Aquatic Animal: Dolphin

7. Constitution of India
Preamble: Meaning & Key Terms
• The Preamble is the introductory statement of the Constitution that reflects its philosophy and
objectives.
• It declares India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic.
• Ensures Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.
• Though not enforceable by law, the Preamble is an essential guiding principle.
Fundamental Rights & Duties
• Fundamental Rights (Articles 12-35): Guaranteed rights essential for individual freedom
and democracy:
1. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18)
2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22)
3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24)
4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28)
5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30)
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
• Fundamental Duties (Article 51A): Added by the 42nd Amendment (1976), including
respect for the Constitution, national symbols, and promotion of harmony.
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)
• Enshrined in Articles 36-51, inspired by the Irish Constitution.
• Aim to establish social and economic democracy.
• Not legally enforceable but fundamental for governance.
• Classified into:

• Socialistic Principles (Welfare of the people, equitable distribution of wealth, etc.)

• Gandhian Principles (Promotion of cottage industries, prohibition of intoxicating

drinks, etc.)

• Liberal-Intellectual Principles (Uniform Civil Code, separation of judiciary from

executive, etc.)
Schedules & Amendments
• The Constitution originally had 8 Schedules, now expanded to 12.

• E.g., 7th Schedule (Union, State, Concurrent Lists), 10th Schedule (Anti-defection Law),
11th & 12th Schedules (Panchayati Raj and Municipalities).

• Amendments: The Constitution has been amended more than 100 times, with major
amendments including:

• 1st Amendment (1951): Freedom of speech restrictions, reservation policies.

• 42nd Amendment (1976): Strengthened central authority, added fundamental duties.

• 44th Amendment (1978): Restored democracy post-Emergency.

8. Government Structure
Union & State Governments
• India follows a federal system with a division of powers between the Union and State
Governments.
• Union Government: Led by the President, Prime Minister, and Council of Ministers.
• State Government: Led by the Governor, Chief Minister, and State Ministers.
• Distribution of Powers:

• Union List (97 subjects, e.g., defence, foreign affairs)

• State List (66 subjects, e.g., police, health)

• Concurrent List (47 subjects, e.g., education, forests)

Separation of Powers: Legislature, Executive, Judiciary
• Legislature: Makes laws (Parliament & State Legislatures).
• Executive: Implements laws (President, Prime Minister, Governors, Chief Ministers).
• Judiciary: Interprets laws (Supreme Court, High Courts, District Courts).
• Ensures checks and balances to prevent concentration of power.
Centre-State Relations & Federalism
• Defined under Articles 245-263.
• Legislative Relations: Parliament has power over Union List, states over State List, both over
Concurrent List.
• Administrative Relations: The Union can issue directives to states for policy
implementation.
• Financial Relations: States depend on Union grants; the Finance Commission determines
fund allocation.
• Inter-State Relations: Mechanisms like Inter-State Councils, Zonal Councils ensure
coordination.
9. Important Constitutional Bodies
Election Commission of India (ECI)
• Established under Article 324.
• Conducts free and fair elections at central and state levels.
• Comprises Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners.
• Ensures implementation of the Model Code of Conduct.
Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
• Established under Article 315.
• Conducts exams for civil services, defence services, and other Group A & B positions.
• Members serve for six years or until 65 years of age.
• Ensures merit-based recruitment.
Finance Commission
• Defined under Article 280.
• Determines distribution of tax revenues between Centre and States.
• Appointed every five years by the President.
• Recent commission: 15th Finance Commission (Chairman: N.K. Singh).
Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)
• Established under Article 148.
• Audits government accounts and public expenditure.
• Ensures transparency and accountability in financial administration.
• Reports directly to Parliament.