Absolutely!

Let’s delve into your sociolinguistics midterm topics, referencing key insights from
Janet Holmes’ An Introduction to Sociolinguistics and Guy Cook’s Applied Linguistics. I’ll
provide concise explanations, examples, and practice questions with answers to aid your study.

1. Introduction to Sociolinguistics

Definition:

Sociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society, focusing on how
language varies and changes in different social contexts.

Key Concepts:

• Language reflects social factors like class, gender, and ethnicity.

• Variation occurs in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar based on social contexts.

Example:

A person might say “Hello” in a formal setting but “Hey” among friends.

Practice Question:

What does sociolinguistics study?

Answer: It studies how language varies and functions in social contexts, reflecting social factors
like class, gender, and ethnicity.

2. Social Factors and Variables

Definition:
Social factors (age, gender, ethnicity, social class) influence language use.

Key Concepts:

• Age: Younger and older generations may use different slang or expressions.
• Gender: Men and women might have distinct speech patterns.
• Ethnicity: Language can signify ethnic identity.
• Social Class: Vocabulary and pronunciation can vary across classes.

Example:

In some communities, double negatives like “I don’t know nothing” are common and carry
social meaning.

Practice Question:

How does social class affect language use?

Answer: Social class can influence vocabulary choice, pronunciation, and grammatical
structures, reflecting group identity.

3. Nativity

Definition:

Nativity refers to whether a speaker is a native or non-native speaker of a language.

Key Concepts:

• Native Speakers: Acquired the language from birth.

• Non-Native Speakers: Learned the language later in life.
Example:

A native English speaker might say “I’m going to the store,” while a non-native speaker might
say “I go to store,” reflecting differences in article usage.

Practice Question:

What distinguishes a native speaker from a non-native speaker?

Answer: A native speaker has acquired the language from birth, while a non-native speaker
learned it later.

4. Variation and Varieties

Definition:

Language variation refers to differences in language use among speakers or groups. Varieties are
distinct forms of a language.

Types of Varieties:

• Dialects: Regional language forms.

• Sociolects: Language forms associated with social groups.
• Idiolects: An individual’s unique language use.
• Registers: Language styles based on context (formal vs. informal).

Example:

British English uses “lift” for elevator, while American English uses “elevator.”

Practice Question:

What is a sociolect?
Answer: A sociolect is a language variety associated with a particular social group.

5. Bilingualism and Code-Switching

Bilingualism:

The ability to use two languages proficiently.

Code-Switching:

Alternating between languages or dialects within a conversation or sentence.

Types of Code-Switching:

• Inter-sentential: Switching languages between sentences.

• Intra-sentential: Switching languages within a sentence.
• Tag-switching: Inserting a tag phrase from another language.

Example:

“I’m going to the market. ¿Quieres venir?”

Practice Question:

Why do bilinguals code-switch?

Answer: To express identity, fit into social contexts, or convey concepts more effectively.

6. Diglossia
Definition:

Diglossia is a situation where two language varieties coexist in a community, each serving
different functions.

Key Concepts:

• High (H) Variety: Used in formal settings (e.g., education, media).

• Low (L) Variety: Used in informal, everyday conversation.

Example:

In Arabic-speaking countries, Modern Standard Arabic (H) is used in formal contexts, while
regional dialects (L) are used in daily life.

Practice Question:

What characterizes a diglossic situation?

Answer: The presence of two language varieties in a community, each with distinct social
functions.

References
• Holmes, J. (2008). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Pearson Education.
• Cook, G. (2003). Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press.

Absolutely! Here’s a clear breakdown of each of these important concepts in sociolinguistics:

1. Diglossia (Narrow and Extended)

Charles Ferguson’s Narrow Definition of Diglossia (1959)

Ferguson introduced “diglossia” as the coexistence of two language varieties within the same
language, each used in different social contexts.

Key Features of Ferguson’s Diglossia:

• High (H) variety: Formal, written, prestigious (e.g., Modern Standard Arabic)
• Low (L) variety: Informal, spoken, everyday use (e.g., Egyptian Arabic dialect)

Functions:

Function H Variety Example L Variety Example

Education H X
Family conversations X L
News broadcast H X
Casual storytelling X L
Example: In Switzerland, Standard German (H) vs. Swiss German (L)

Joshua Fishman’s Extended Definition of Diglossia (1967)

Fishman extended Ferguson’s idea to include different languages, not just varieties of one
language.

Key Additions by Fishman:

• Diglossia can occur in bilingual societies where one language is used for formal
situations and another for informal.
• Example: Spanish (L) and English (H) in parts of the U.S. Southwest

Difference:

Feature Ferguson Fishman

Focus Two varieties of one language Two different languages
Type Narrow diglossia Extended diglossia
2. The Bilingualism Circle by Braj Kachru

Braj Kachru introduced a model of bilingualism to show how bilingual speakers function across
different domains.

Kachru’s Circle of Bilingualism:

The model illustrates three types of bilingualism:

1. Linguistic Bilingualism – basic ability in two languages

2. Functional Bilingualism – switching languages based on social context (home vs. school)
3. Attitudinal Bilingualism – emotional and identity-based attitudes toward both languages

Kachru’s Three Circles of World Englishes

(Not to confuse with the bilingualism circle but often related):

• Inner Circle: Native English-speaking countries (e.g., USA, UK)

• Outer Circle: Countries with institutionalized second-language English (e.g., India,
Nigeria)
• Expanding Circle: Countries where English is a foreign language (e.g., Japan,
China)showing bilingualism is not just about competence, but function and
attitude too.

4. AAAP Model by Guy Cook (Appropriateness,

Attestedness, Accessibility, Possibility)
Guy Cook proposed the AAAP criteria for evaluating language use in applied linguistics:

AAAP stands for:

 1. Appropriateness
o Is the language suitable for the context?
o Example: Using formal English in an academic paper is appropriate, slang is not.
2. Attestedness
o Is the language authentic and used by real speakers?
o Example: “Gonna” is attested as commonly used informal speech.
3. Accessibility
o Is the language understandable to the target audience?
o Example: Avoiding academic jargon in a beginner-level language class.
4. Possibility
o Is the utterance grammatically and logically possible?
o Example: “He goed to the store” is not possible in standard English grammar.

The AAAP model is useful in analyzing language teaching materials, ensuring they
are effective and realistic.