DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

Assignment:-
Research Methodology
Submitted to:-
DR. M. Nadeem Anwar
Submitted by:-
Group#04
Members:-
1).Samra Shamshad(11)
2).Ayesha Sajid(23)
Class:-
BS Botany 7th(s.s)
Topic:-
1).Research proposal and its steps
2).hypothesis testing and its types
Topic # 01:-
Research Proposal and its steps
Research Proposal vs Research Report:-
A research Proposal is written before a study
begins.
While a research report is written at the end of a
complete study.
What is Research Proposal?
• A research proposal is a written plan of a study.
It spells out in detail what the researcher
intends to do. It permits others to learn about
the intended research and to offer suggestions
for improving the study. It communicates a
researcher’s intentions, makes clear the
purpose of the intended study and its
justification, and provides a step-by-step plan
for conducting the study.
• It allows interested others to evaluate the
worth of a proposed study and to make
suggestions for improvement.
Steps of Research Proposal:-
1).Problem to solve
2).Purpose of study
3).Justification
4).Research question
5).Literature review
6).Procedure
7).Instrumentation
8).Data analysis
9).Budget
1).Research problem:-
• The section describing the problem to be
investigated usually addresses four topics:
 (1) purpose of the study, including the
researcher’s assumptions;
(2)justification for the study
(3) Research question or hypotheses, including
the variables to be investigated; and
(4) Definition of terms
2).Purpose of Study:-
• Usually the first topic in the proposal or report,
the purpose states succinctly what the
researcher proposes to investigate.
• The purpose should be a concise statement,
providing a framework to which details are
added later.
• Generally speaking, any study should seek to
clarify some aspect of the field of interest that
is considered important, thereby contributing
both to overall knowledge and to current
practice.
 Examples:-
Here are some examples of statements of
purpose in research reports taken from the
literature:
(1).The purpose of the study is to determine
that why leaves change color in the Autumn .
(2).The purpose of the study is to determine
the effects of exercise on mental health.
3).Justification for Study:-
• In the justification , researchers must make
clear why this particular subject is important to
investigate. They must present an argument for
the “worth” of the study, so to speak.
• For example, if a researcher intends to study a
particular method for modifying student
attitudes toward government, he or she must
make the case that such a study is important—
that people are, or should be, concerned about
it. The researcher must also make clear why he
 or she chooses to investigate the particular
method.
4).Research Questions:-
• If a researcher has a hypothesis in mind, it
should be stated as clearly and as concisely as
possible. It is unnecessarily frustrating for a
reader to have to infer what a researcher’s
hypothesis or hypotheses might be.
5).Definitions:-
All key terms should be defined.The researcher’s
task is to make his or her definitions as clear as
possible. If previous definitions found in the
literature are clear to all concerned, well and good.
Often, however, they need to be modified to fit the
present study.
6).Literature Review:-
In a research proposal, it is a partial summary of
previous work related to the hypothesis or focus of
the study. The researcher is trying to show here
that he or she is familiar with the major trends in
previous research and opinion on the topic and
understands their relevance to the study being
planned. This review may include theoretical
conceptions, directly related studies, and studies
that provide additional perspectives on the
research question.
7).Procedure:-
• The procedures section includes discussions of:
1)Research design, (2) sample, (3)
instrumentation, (4) procedural details (5) internal
validity and (6) data analysis
8).Instrumentation:-
Whenever possible, existing instruments should be
used in a study, since construction of even the
most straightforward test or questionnaire is often
a very time-consuming and difficult task. The use of
an existing instrument, however, is not justified
unless sufficiently reliable and valid results can be
obtained for the researcher’s purpose.
• In different types of research, different
instruments are used, for example:
Quantitative Research instruments includes
surveys, scales, tests and physiochemical
measures.
9).Budget:-
Research proposals are often submitted to
government or private funding institutions in
hopes of obtaining financial support. Such
institutions almost always require submission of a
tentative budget along with the proposal.
Needless to say, the amount of money involved
in a research proposal can have a considerable
impact on whether or not it is funded.Thus, great
care should be given to preparing the budget.
Budgets usually include such items as salaries,
materials, equipment costs, administrative and
 other assistance, expenses (such as travel and
postage), overhead.
Reference List:-
1).Book Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H.
(2012). How to design and evaluate research in
education (8th ed.). San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
2). Edited book Jacoby, R., & Glauberman, N. (Eds.).
(1995). The bell curve debate: History, documents,
opinions. New York, NY: Random House.
3). Chapter in a book Gould, S. J. (1995).
Mismeasure by any measure. In R. Jacoby & N.
Glauberman (Eds.), The bell curve debate: History,
documents, opinions (pp. 3–13). New York, NY:
Random House.
4). Journal article Clarke, A. T., & Kurtz-Costes, B.
(1997, May/June). Television viewing, educational
quality of the home environment, and school
readiness. The Journal of Educational Research, 90
(5), 279–285.
5). Dissertation (unpublished) Spitzer, S. L. (2001).
No words necessary: An ethnography of daily
activities with young children who don’t talk.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Southern California.
6). Book review Liss, A. (2004). Whose America?
Culture wars in the public schools [Review of the
book Whose America? Culture wars in the public
schools ]. Social Education, 68, 238.