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Teaching inTeracTive procedure

The teaching interaction procedure (TIP) is a systematic teaching package which consists of six
steps (Phillips et al. 1974).
1. labelling and identifying the skill to be learned within the session
2. providing meaningful rationales for why the learner should display the behavior, which is drawn
from the learner’s daily experience.
3. The targeted behavior is broken down into smaller steps and the learner verbally states each
of the steps.
4. the teacher provides both an appropriate demonstration and inappropriate demonstration (Leaf
et al. 2012a, b) of the targeted behavior; the learner must then discriminate whether a
demonstration is appropriate and identify why the demonstration was appropriate or
inappropriate.
5. the learner role-plays the targeted behavior until he or she displays 100 % of the steps
correctly.
6. feedback, occurs throughout the entire TIP, which is the use of positive reinforcement for
correct responding and role-playing, and corrective feedback for incorrect responding or role-
playing. In clinical settings, there may be subtle variations in the number of steps; however, the
major elements of the procedure are still implemented

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 dTT
inTroducTion

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 Introduction
• Discrete Trial Teaching is an imperative tool as it is used to deliver sessions to individuals on
the autism spectrum and as well as other developmental issues.
• Discrete- trial teaching is a highly structured teaching technique that often involves
a teacher working one-to-one with an individual with autism in a distraction-free
setting
Consequence
Discriminative Interval
Response (Reinforcer or
Stimulus- SD between trials
prompt)

A Discriminative stimulus is the antecedent stimulus that has stimulus control over behavior because
the behavior was reliably reinforced in the presence of that stimulus in the past. Discriminative stimuli
set the occasion for behaviors that have been reinforced in their presence in the past.
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 What is Naturalistic Technique
Teaching?
• For all naturalistic techniques, the instructor must contrive
opportunities within the natural environment to provide for
introduction of skills and for practice. They must look for
motivating situations and contrive opportunities to learn within
these situations.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzgC9ZPzot8

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 Similarities between Naturalistic
Techniques and DTT
• Breaking skills into small steps

• Teaching steps until mastery

• Providing Repetition

• Using prompting procedures

• Using positive reinforcement

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 Roots of DTT

• Discrete Trial Instruction is deeply grounded in Operant

Conditioning.
• Operant conditioning occurs when a consequence controls
whether or not the subject engages in behaviour.
• Consequence is something that happens as results to a
behaviour.
• The consequence part of discrete trial serves to either
strengthen or weaken the particular response given by the
learner.

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 Current Practices in DTT
• Expansion of the content addressed through DTI-
1. Language Development
2. Social Skills development
3. Self help skills
4. Leisure and play skills
• Presentation and Prompting techniques-
1. Prompting and errorless learning
2. Task Interapersonal
3. Conditioned motivating operations
4. Use of DTI group instructions

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 Parts of DTT
1. Descriptive stimulus- This is the first step where you tell the learner
what to do. EG- Touch head.
2. Response- This is what the learner does as a result of being given a
SD. EG- learner touches head.
3. Consequence- This is what happens as a result of the response. In DTI,
consequence can either be a reinforcement, EG- Good job! OR a prompt
if the response was incorrect.
4. Intertrial Trial- This is the time gap between two discrete trials. This
time is short and used to prepare for the next trial, record data and for
the learner to engage with the reinforcer.

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 Moving around DTI
• https://cequick.training.reliaslearning.com/courses/529189/REL-ABA-0-DTI1-
V2_SCORM_R22/index_lms_html5.html

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 Solid Discriminative Stimuli
• The component that greatly determines the flow and quality of the response and the level
of reinforcement/prompting is the SD. SDs start the trial, they tell what the learner to do.
• Verbal SDs- This a very common method of delivering trials, children receive verbal
instructions all day long.
• Though we have to be careful when it comes to delivering them as sometimes words can
confuse the learner.
• The receptive skills of the learner has to be considered when planning trials for them.
Some new learners aren’t abled enough to respond to simple SDs too like “come here” or
“pick it up”.
• The following slide is a guideline to help-

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1. Low response to simple commands
• Little to no verbal directions in the SD. Use 2 word phrases max.
Accompany with modelling prompts, hand over hand prompts, or gestures.
2. Some response to simple commands
• Keep the verbal directions to minimum. May need to use modelling
prompts.
3. Moderate to high verbal
• Deliver verbal directions closely to what they might hear in the natural
environment adjusting for familiarity level with the task or environment.

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 Prompt Dependency
• When delivering SDs to the learner, it becomes crucial to keep track of the
types of prompts and the amount of prompts delivered to the learner since
we don’t want them to become dependent on the prompts.
• Hence we have to constantly evaluate the learner’s progress and if we get
a hint of the learner being prompt dependent then we have to stop with
verbal prompts and try to fade it with non-verbal cues.
• https://www.marybarbera.com/prompt-dependency/

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Improving attention skills and behaviour-
• When starting with a new learner who has trouble with compliance, we
have to start very slow. The trick is to start with something simple to which
they will respond correctly hence they gain a reinforcement.
• The gradual ways to increase complexity-
1. Move the item further away from the learner, requiring them to attend to
the SD longer in order to access the item.
2. Reduce the size of the item or the time with it.
3. Increase the complexity requirement of the response.(eg- come here and
sit down.)
4. Introduce simple gross motor imitation tasks using verbal accompanied
with modeling or hand over hand SDs( Eg- “roll car”, “put in”)

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Zero or Unexpected Response to SD?
• It is inevitable that sometimes the learner won’t give an
expected response or shall not comply with the instruction. As
interventionists we have to stop the urge to repeat the SD, say
their name or to say “Pay attention” etc. It just makes it harder
for them to comply and to understand what they’re supposed to
respond to.
• Hence we have to wait until they respond or we make a non
verbal prompt(physical, gestures) for them to respond.

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 Some Do’s or Don’ts.
1. Do use clear and concise language, keep it brief initially.
2. Do use non verbal forms of SD delivery, such as modeling.
3. Do use more natural language as the learner is able to respond more
fluently.
4. Do prompt for compliance with the SD you delivered.
5. Do use non-verbal prompts to gain or re-gain compliance.

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Ensuring quality of responses from learners
• It is crucial the quality of the responses that the learner gives to the SD. Even though they
can be correct they can still display some sort of behaviours which isn’t exactly
encouraged. Eg- Like falling out of the chair or barely gives an auditory response.
• High quality responses are reinforced highly positively.
• In order for the responses to be high quality, the criteria is-
1. Giving some degree of eye contact.
2. Putting forth effort
3. Providing attention to what they’re doing
4. Responding shortly after the SD( usually within 3 seconds)

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 Prompt Fading
• Prompt fading is very crucial as we want the learners to
respond independently and not because of the help provided
with prompts.
• It becomes important to evaluate the intrusiveness of prompts.
• What maybe highly intrusive for one might not be for the other
learner. Intrusiveness of prompts depends on the ability and
knowledge of the learner.

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 DISC- Reinforcement
• In order to make ensure the reinforcement is effective and motivating for
the learner, we follow the DISC guideline-
• Deprivation- If a person has not had access to a particular item and really
likes it then a deprivation state can be very effective.
• Immediacy- The time between the response and how quickly the learner
has access to the reinforcer impacts effectiveness.
• Size- If the person gets too much of a reinforcer, they will loose interest ie
become satiated. And if they don’t get enough, it may not make an impact
on the response.
• Contigency- If the reinforcer is only reserved for a target response, it will
be much more effective in getting the person to make that particular
response.

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Reinforcer Delivery- most effective delivery
strategies
• It must be delivered immediately after the response
• Reinforcers must be available and within arm’s reach
• The type and amount of social reinforcement accompanying tangible or
activity reinforcement such as “that’s great” and “way to go” is individual
to the learner.
• Social reinforcement should vary and not be monotonous.
• If a learner’s response is prompted, they should receive some
reinforcement. If the learner’s response is independent , they should
receive more reinforcement.

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• A learner’s program may specify varying schedules of
reinforcement, such as provide a reinforcer after every 3
responses. Follow that schedule precisely to aid in building
momentum for responding.
• If the reinforcer involves time with the activity or an item,
signaling the end of time with a timer may benefit the
learner in being able to begin the next trial without any
behaviour issue.
• If edibles are used as reinforcers, make them small bits at a
time to avoid possible unhealthy side effects and minimize
time for consumption.

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 Therapist pairing with
Reinforcer
• This simply means posing yourself as a reinforcer with the client
you’re working with. Being welcoming and fun will make the child feel
that they’re in a safe and fun place.

• Pairing yourself as a reinforcer makes the child comfortable and

hence it’s easy to get compliance from them eventually as you build
rapport.

• Surrounding the learning area with multiple types of reinforcers like

toys, therapy tools, food makes the place more inviting for the child.

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 Session Preparation
• Preparing for each session with the child is very important as it
sets the tone of the session.
• Ensure that the learning environment is minimally distracting so
the learner concentrates on the SDs that you deliver.
• Be prepared with what you’ll be implementing for the session
and how you will be delivering the particular trial ie, know and
practice the trials in advance.

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 During the session, ensure you have
the following materials within
1. Written skill plan (A skill acquisition plan is the written plan
which is developed by the Behavior Analyst that contains
information about behavior programming for the purposes of
teaching certain skills)
2. Data collection sheets, a pen or the electronic device for data
collection.
3. Materials needed to execute the trials organized according to
the approximate order in which you need them.
4. Various levels of reinforcers.

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 Delivering the session
1. It begins with a positive social exchange between the learner
and interventionist which may or may not be included in the
pairing time.
2. A direction to go to the learning area which follows with a
compliance, after which the interventionist reinforces the
learner.( social/ tangible.)
3. Trials are quickly delivered.
4. Prompting and reinforcement occur seamlessly and according
to what is indicated on the written plan.

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• Crucial rule of thumb that is the response to SDs given in DTI is that it
should occur within 3 seconds after delivery. This is important to build
momentum in the session.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pN6ydLE4EQ

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To continue building a good momentum-
• SDs should be delivered quickly and clearly; should be short as possible
as long and diverse words will confuse the learner.
• Responding is encouraged to occur immediately after the SD delivery.
• And reinforcement or prompting should follow through right after the
response of the learner. Reinforcements should be genuine and
enthusiastic.
• When following through errorless learning, the prompting is delivered
simultaneously with the SD or quickly before the child responds to
encourage right answers to motivate the learner.

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 Session Conclusion
• As the session concludes, you can slow down the momentum
and let the learner play with the reinforcers a little longer than
usual.
• As a family member/guardian comes to pick up the learner,
inform them details about the session.
• Re-arrange the room and refill the consumables.
• Complete the session’s data into the data sheet.
• Re-evaluate the session mentally, think about areas of
improvement.

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 Written skill acquisition plans
• Written skill acquisition plans are individualized plans for
learners that provide goals and procedures necessary to
teaching the skills associated with each goal.

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 Components of WSAP
1. Goal- Specifies the long-term outcome for a learner’s
performance within a set of skills.
2. Teaching procedures- The type of teaching techniques that
will be delivered. Eg- DTI, Naturalistic techniques.
3. Materials- Items used in the trial.
4. Instructions (SD)- directions for the interventionist to give to
the learner
5. Target Response- What the learner is expected to do as a
result of the instructions.

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 Components of WSAP
1. Goal- Specifies the long-term outcome for a learner’s
performance within a set of skills.
2. Teaching procedures- The type of teaching techniques that
will be delivered. Eg- DTI, Naturalistic techniques.
3. Materials- Items used in the trial.
4. Instructions (SD)- directions for the interventionist to give to
the learner
5. Target Response- What the learner is expected to do as a
result of the instructions.

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 Shaping and Chaining
• Shaping involves teaching a larger behaviour by reinforcing smaller
related behaviours until the larger one is displayed.
• The smaller behaviours are called successive approximations which are
reinforced until the targeted larger behaviour is performed.
• Shaping can be used to teach many tasks such as hand gestures, foreign
languages, etc.
• Chaining involves teaching a task that usually has a routine or a procedure
to it. Like- solving a long division problem, baking cookies.
• The end product could be somewhat reinforcing since it results in a
finished task.

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 Data Collection
• It is crucial to collect data as it indicates the learner’s progress
in the sessions.

• There are two types of data collection- 1) Trial By trial and 2)

Probe data

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• TRIAL DATA- Trial data is where the interventionist records the results of
each trial one by one as the session proceeds.

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• Probe Data- This method includes recording data for a set of discrete trials
for a designated number of trials, Eg- 1 to 3 trials. The recording of data is
stopped when the learner has mastered the skill.

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 Interpretation
• Interpretation of data is the stage where it can be determined if
the trials in the session with the learner are effective or not.
• If there is improvement in target behaviours then more complex
skills can be added to the session to help the learner.
• If there is no improvement or there is a decrease in
improvement of meeting target behaviours, the BCABA team
has to review the trials and SDs being implemented with the
learner immediately to ensure that they aren’t wasting time with
the learner and are focused on meeting the targets.

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 Mastery and Generalization
• Fluent- On a given skill taught in DTI format, meeting mastery
criteria of 90% correct responding or above across multiple
consecutive sessions can be considered fluent.
• Generalization- The process of generalization starts before
fluency is achieved. Prompt and stimulus fading mark the
beginning of this process. It is achieved when the learner uses
the skill taught in DTI in the environment in response to the
naturally occurring cues.

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 How generalization is implemented
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xU395HgXl2s

1. Using varied materials to achieve the same responses on programs as

prescribed by the program.

2. Having different behaviour technicians implement the DTI program so

the learner responds to more than one person.

3. Implementing the DTI in various locations.

4. Using stimulus and prompt fading techniques as directed by the

program.

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 Criticisms of DTI
• Though there has been extensive research resulting positive results from
DTI, there have been a couple of criticisms regarding it and as well as
ABA-
• DTI has been criticized for being rote and rigid in it’s highly structured
learning settings. This can be true if well enough prompt and stimulus
fading and generalization techniques are not implemented in the trials. To
make the trials and the skills learnt from it more applicable to real life,
generalization techniques have to be implemented accurately and at the
right time.

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 Innovations
• Mass trials- This is when the same target is presented over and over again-
encouraging repetition. This method is useful when starting out DTI with a new
learner who has undeveloped skills. EG- T1- Touch Red, T2- Touch red, T3-
Touch Red.
• Distractor Trials- Usually used after mass trials. These trials are implemented by
providing a distractor along with the target item. The learner has to discriminate
the target item from the distractor item in order to provide the correct response.
• Current DTI trials initially involve mass trials but then progress to implementing
random rotation or mixed trials.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o27lKuEqyEw

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• By including distractors and randomly rotating trials
systematically, you are working towards improving the learner’s
memory of the SD or target response. This aids in retention of
information and long term retention of skills.
• Mixing trials that are easier with more difficult ones also helps to
motivate the learner to maintain responding at higher levels and
to reduce the motivation to escape.

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 Errorless Learning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5_zJIm1B_k
• This is helpful when teaching the learner a new skill. It helps keep the
learner motivated. This technique is where the correct response is
prompted right before the learner responds to encourage correct response
hence reinforcing the learner.
• The process is-
1. Deliver the SD
2. Quickly provide the most intrusive prompt necessary for correct
responding.
3. Deliver the reinforcer immediately
4. Repeat trials reducing the prompts as the response warrants.

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NATURAL ENVIRONMENT TEACHING

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 Reinforcement-Based
Discrimination
SD After
Brelandlesss Chicken
target has food

Before Behavior

Chicken Chicken
has no food pulls the
trigger
After
SD Chicken
has no food
Breland
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 Reinforcement-Based
Discrimination
SD After
Written word Student has
“shoe” n + 1 tokens

Behavior
Before
Student says
Student has “shoe”
n tokens

SD After
NOT written Student has
word “shoe” n tokens
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 Reinforcement-Based
Discrimination 
After
SD
Child has
 cookie

Before Behavior

Child has Child asks

no cookie for cookie

SD After
Child has
No  no cookie

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 Reinforcement-Based
Discrimination
After

SD Student has
answer

Behavior
Before
Student
Student has asks
no answer questions

After

S D Student has
no answer
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 discriminaTion Training
procedure
• Reinforcing a response in the presence of one stimulus and
extinguishing it in the presence of another stimulus.

S D

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 Discrimination Training
Procedure
• Reinforcing a response in the presence of
one stimulus and extinguishing it in the
presence of another stimulus.

S D

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 Discrimination Training
Procedure
• Reinforcing a response in the presence of
one stimulus and extinguishing it in the
presence of another stimulus.

S D

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 sTimulus discriminaTion
(sTimulus conTrol)
• The occurrence of a response more frequently in the presence
of one stimulus than in the presence of another, usually as a
result of a discrimination training procedure

S D

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Discriminated Reinforcement
SD After
Light on Food

Before Behavior
No food M270
presses the
lever
After
SD
No food
Light off

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 What is the Prompt Hierarchy?
“ The prompt hierarchy is defined by the amount of
assistance/instruction that each prompt requires from
the teacher for the child to present a correct response.”

 Evidence based intervention

 Systematic method of teaching
students
 The main goal is
i nd e pe nd e n c e

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 Naturalor

Environmental

Set up environment so that student completes desired task

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 Position
Position object in a way that a student is likely to take it

 Consider access method for child

 Consider if child is left or right handed (put in middle)

 Consider if the child throws items or is in crisis

 Consider if the item itself is easily accessible e.g.,

coat/jacket
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 Gesture
Point or use another gesture that will direct student

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 Object
Place a needed object near student to encourage
them to complete the task

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 Visual
Student refers to icons/symbols, pictures or visual
schedules to complete desired task

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 Indirect Verbal
Give student hints as to what they are supposed to do

It looks like
you Oh, What’snext?
dropped Oh my,
something.
it is socold
out today.
I can’t
Yum, something understan
smells good. d you…
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 Direct Verbal
Full verbal instructions

• Please check your schedule.

• Please stand up andwalk.

• Please pick up and throw away.

• I need that, thankyou.

If you ask a student if they want to do something, they have the right to say no!
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 Partial Physical
Light physical touch or direction
to encourage student to finish the task

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 Full Physical
Full hand-over-hand or hand-under-hand support

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 Natural or
leasT
Position resTricTive
Position object in a way that a student is likely to take it

Gesture
Point or use another gesture that will direct student

Object
Place a needed object near student to
encourage them to complete
the task
Visual

Indirect Verbal
Give student hints as to what they are supposed to do

Direct Verbal
Full verbal instructions

Partial Physical
Light physical touch or direction
to encourage student to finish the task

Full Physical Most Restrictive

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 Simultaneous Prompting

Near Errorless
Teacher Provides a Controlling
Prompt on Every Trial
 Prompts Never Fade
Determine Controlling Prompt
Ahead of Teaching
Two Type of Trials
 Probe
 Teaching

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Simultaneous Prompting

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Constant Time Delay

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Constant Time Delay

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Progressive Time Delay

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Most to least

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No-No-Prompting

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 mainTenance
The ability to maintain the learned skill across time.

Maintenance

Avoid Occasionally
Self Management
Reinforcement Punishment / Train Loosely Probe & Teach
Strategy
Extinction Maintenance Skill

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 mainTenance

◾The child can “perform a response over time, even after systematic
applied behavior procedures have been withdrawn” (Alberto & Troutman, 2013,
p. 405)

◾Cannot be assumed
 Particularly true for children with autism, who often display deficits in
maintaining previously acquired skills (Harris &Weiss, 2007)

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 sTraTegies To promoTe
mainTenance: Fading
prompTs
◾ Prompting is commonly used to teach children with developmental
disabilities

◾ 3 main prompting methods

 physical, visual, and verbal
 A continuum of support

◾ Prompts must be systematically faded as efficiently as possible

 Temporary teaching tool, not end result

◾ Prompt dependency
 When a child becomes dependent on the prompt for correct responding (Maurice,
Green, & Luce, 1997)
 Not uncommon for children with autism
 When stimulus control from the prompt to the naturally occurring cue does not
occur

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 Fading prompTs, conT’d
◾Most-to-least prompting
 Begin with a more supportive/intrusive prompt, and fade to a less supportive
one
 Fade in a gradual &systematic manner
 E.g., full physical partial physical gestural verbal

◾Least-to-most prompting
 Begin with less supportive prompt &increase support as needed
 E.g., verbal gestural physical
 One child responds correctly with prompt, fade support over time (begin most-
to-least)
 Disadvantage: high number of errors

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 Fading prompTs, conT’d
◾Stimulus shaping (LeBlanc & Etzel, 1979)
◾Extra-stimulus &within-stimulus prompting (Schreibman, 1975)

 Extra-stimulus
 An additional cue is presented
 Child attends to 2stimuli: prompt & training stimulus
 Fading procedure: most-to-least

 Within-stimulus
 “exaggeration of the relevant component of the training stimulus” (p. 91)
 Child attends to 1 stimulus: the training stimulus
 Fading procedure: gradually fade exaggerated feature

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 Fading prompTs: eXamples
◾Least-to-most prompting
 TBD

◾Extra-stimulus prompting
 TBD

◾Within-stimulus prompting
 TBD

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 sTraTegies To promoTe
mainTenance: Thinning
sr+ schedule
◾When teaching a new skill, it is often necessary to initially reinforce
behavior more frequently that what would be typical in the natural
environment
 In teaching situations, a CRF may be used
 But in the natural environment, a VR schedule may be in place

◾Need to “bridge the gap” between teaching situation &natural

environment
 Dense (teaching situation) Thin (natural environment)

◾Otherwise, EXT will occur when the behavior is emitted in natural

environment
 Extinction (EXT): when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced
&subsequently, the occurrence of that behavior decreases
Pinkelman & Barton (2012)
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 sTraTegies TopromoTe mainTenance:
naTurallY occurring reinForcers
◾It is sometimes necessary to initially use reinforcers that don’t occur in
the natural environment

◾Once the child acquires the skill, reinforcers should be introduced that
will maintain the behavior in the natural environment

◾Extrinsic reinforcers fulfill two objectives:

 To initially teach the skill
 Condition natural consequences as reinforcers (Horcones, 1992)

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sTraTegies To promoTe mainTenance:
oTher consideraTions
◾Frequency of skill
 How often does the student have the opportunity to perform the skill?

◾Naturally occurring cues

 Cue in teaching situation should resemble cue in natural context

◾Maintenance checks
 Build into part of child’s program
 Probe performance every 2 days, week, 2 weeks, etc.

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 generaliZaTion
◾Stimulus generalization
 Train a response under 1 set of stimuli
 The response occurs in the presence of different (but similar) stimuli

◾Response generalization
 Train a response under 1 set of stimuli
 In the presence of the training stimuli, if the trained response is no longer
reinforced, the student engages in a new response

◾Common description of generalization

 When a skill “it is taught under one set of conditions and the child is able to
apply the same skill with different people, in anew place, and using other
materials” (Anderson, Jablonski, Thomeer, &Knapp, 2007)
 Is this stimulus or response generalization?
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 eXamples
◾Stimulus generalization
 TBD

◾Response generalization
 TBD

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programming For generaliZed ouTcomes

◾ Generalization cannot be assumed

 Children with autism have difficulty generalizing newly learned skills to settings that
differ from training conditions (Maurice, Green, & Luce, 1996)

◾ Stokes and Baer (1977)

 “Train and hope” versus explicitly programming for generalization
 Sequential modification
 Naturally maintaining contingencies
 Train sufficient exemplars
 Train loosely
 Use indiscriminable contingencies
 Program common stimuli
 Mediate generalization
 Train to generalize

◾ General case programming (Horner, McDonnell, & Bellamy, 1986)

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 seQuenTial modiFicaTion

◾Teach under conditions in which generalization is desired

◾Training settings are generalization settings

◾Teach in the natural environment

◾E.g., teaching hand-washing

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naTurallY occurring conTingencies
◾Use reinforcers that occur in the natural environment
 In natural settings, what reinforcer is contingent on the behavior?

◾Perhaps the “most dependable of all generalization programming

mechanisms” (Stokes & Baer, 1977, p. 353)

◾Previously mentioned in programming for maintenance

◾Increases likelihood the skill will generalize to other settings, where

that reinforcer is available

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 mulTiple eXemplars

◾Provide multiple examples of the concept you are teaching

◾Without an adequate array of examples

 The child may stipulate on irrelevant features of the training stimuli
 Concept will not generalize to other stimuli

◾E.g., teaching the color red

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 program common sTimuli

◾Arrange the training setting to resemble natural environment

◾Increases likelihood of generalization from training to natural setting

◾E.g., teaching hand-washing

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 mediaTe generaliZaTion

◾Student provides report of their attempts to generalize

◾Might need to teach students how to accurately self-monitor and report

on their behavior

◾Reinforcement contingent on student reporting that they engaged in the

generalized response

◾E.g., teaching a student to join in a conversation with a group of peers

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 Train To generaliZe
◾When ageneralized response occurs throughout the school day,
reinforce it!
 Especially when unprompted, or not instructed to do so

◾Reinforcement contingent on generalized response

 Only generalized response

◾E.g.,
 Teaching play
 Teaching requests for attention

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promoTing generaliZaTion: general case
programming
◾Teach behaviors that (Horner, McDonnell, & Bellamy, 1986)
1. Are “performed across the full range of appropriate stimulus conditions
encountered by the student” (p. 290)
2. Are not performed in conditions when the behavior is inappropriate
3. Endure over time

◾ Stimulus condition: everything astudent is exposed to at a given point

in time (e.g., objects, sounds, colors, movements, etc.)
 Instructional universe (Becker, Engelman, &Thomas, 1975)

◾ Select and sequence teaching examples so students learn to perform

skill across all appropriate stimulus conditions

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