Developments in International

Relations UNIT 10 EMERGING CENTRES OF POWER*

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concept of Power in International Relations
10.2.1 Types of Power: ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ Power
10.2.2 Global, Regional and Sub-regional Powers
10.3 Polarity in International System
10.3.1 Unipolar System
10.3.2 Bipolar System
10.3.3 Multipolar System
10.4 Post-Cold War Period and the Emergence of New Centres of Power
10.4.1 China
10.4.2 Russia
10.4.3 India
10.4.4 BRICS
10.4.5 European Union
10.5 Let Us Sum Up
10.6 References
10.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

10.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit would enable you to understand:
Various definitions and discourses on the concept of Power in International
Relations
Types and levels of Power and the concept of Polarity in International system
and
Characteristics of emerging centres of Power

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Power in International Relations (IR) is related to the power of a state in terms of
influencing the actions and policies of other states. A state’s ability to influence
can be drawn from its socio-cultural, political, economic and military capabilities.
A powerful state can influence, control the political environment, events, issues
and interactions between the states at international level. A powerful state can
also resist, dominate, maintain status quo of any kind of consequences,
complications, implications for itself which may be the result of the interactions
between other states. Realists argue that the primary objective of a state in
international relations is to acquire that power, one, to influence the actions of
other states according to its wish; two, to resist any negative implications of

*
Dr. Om Prasad Gadde, Dept. of Political Science, School of Social Sciences & Humanities,
132 Sikkim University
these interactions for itself; and finally, to successfully project its own power Emerging Centres of Power
and influence far and wide beyond its geographic region. Likewise, a regional
power is one who can make a difference to regional peace and stability on the
basis of its similar power capabilities. Based on the ability of states to influence
the actions and policies of other states, and the spheres of influence, powerful
states can be categorised into global powers, regional powers and sub-regional
powers. The nature of influence can be classified into ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ powers. If
the power is distributed among many states in international system it can be
called a multipolar system; and if there are only two states which can influence,
it is regarded as bipolar system. If there is only one hegemonic power which
dominates over the world, then it is a unipoar world.

10.2 CONCEPT OF POWER IN INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS
Hans J Morgenthau (1948), a well-known Realist whom you have studied in
earlier Units, defines international politics as ‘struggle for power’; and that
countries are engaged in relations with each other for securing power. This
aspiration for power is the driving force behind countries’ willingness to have
relations with other countries and to participate in international affairs. Since all
the countries are engaged with each other with the same motive, power politics
and struggle for power is an inevitable phenomenon. Neorealists, like Kenneth
Waltz (1979) whom again you have studied earlier, argue that the bipolar system
is the most stable world order as the power is divided between two hegemons
with their satellites. The bipolar structure determines the foreign policies of
individual states; and thus the global politics. Here the individual national interests
are integral to the interests of power blocs. Waltz had found the Cold War bipolarity
as a source of stability and predictability in international system. Robert Gilpin
in his seminal work War and Change in International Politics opines that states
enter into relations and create structures to advance their interests. As the interests
of states change over time, states seek to change the system to get a more
favourable distribution of benefits. The ability of the states to change the
international system depends on the military, economic, and technological
capabilities of states and the changes in the interests of the states are according
to the change in domestic preferences – which, in turn, are due to changes in
domestic politics.

John Mearsheimer, known as ‘offensive’ Neorealist, insists on the ability of the

hegemonic power to dominate other countries in the region. He argues that a
hegemonic power always works to strengthen its own power and weaken the
powers of its rivals with the fear that if it does not do so, it can lose its domination
over the region. American Political Scientist Robert Dahl in his work The Concept
of Power (1957), had proposed a formal definition of power. He defines power:
“A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would
not otherwise do.” Here, A refers to the influencer and B refers upon whom the
influence is being exercised. A’s ability to exercise power is relative and not
absolute and eternal. Robert Dahl’s argument on power goes with the relational
concept and declares that power is a causal and multidimensional concept. Power
can be derived from many and varied sources; and, it is without any permanency.

The relationship between power and interdependence among independent states

had been analysed by Jospeh Keohane and Robert Nye in their 1977 work titled 133
Developments in International Power and Interdependence, in which they argue the relationship between the
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two are asymmetrical in the sense that the interdependence itself is a power
resource. They say the asymmetries in interdependence are most likely to provide
sources of influence for actors in their dealings with one another.

10.2.1 Types of Power: ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ Power

Power in International Relations can be classified into various types. These types
indicate the nature and ability of states to influence the policies and actions of
other states. Though all states posses certain amount of power, only few states
posses the ability to influence the conduct of other states.

There are basically two types of power, ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ which are used by the
great power to influence the behaviour of other states. What is ’hard’ power and
what is ‘soft’ power? Let us discuss and analyze.

‘Hard’ power: ‘Hard’ power is the capability to influence the behaviour and
actions of other states with the use, or threat of use, of military and economic
means. The exercise of ‘hard’ power is aggressive and coercive and is often used
to forcefully mend the policies of other states according to the interests of the
‘hard’ power. The results of exercise of ‘hard’ power are often immediate; or can
be seen in a very short time. A state’s emergence as a ‘hard’ power requires
economic development coupled with military might. It requires huge investments
in infrastructure, manufacturing, military, technological and innovation sectors
and a steady GDP growth rate. A ‘hard’ power effectively uses advances in these
sectors for its own national interest. The use of ‘hard’ power goes along with
risks both at economy and military fronts and a state which aspires to be a ‘hard’
power has to bear these risks. The premier example of a ‘hard’ power is United
States of America. Its intervention in Iraq in 1991 and 2003 and its ‘global war
on terrorism’ (GWOT) can be cited as illustrations of ‘hard’ power capability.
‘Hard’ power goes along with risks to the economy and the military; America is
engaged in its longest war in Afghanistan without a definite military or political
victory. Some countries like Japan and Germany can be called as economic
powers but not ‘hard’ powers because they lack the military ability and outreach
to influence other states like the United States.

‘Soft’ power: What does ‘soft’ power mean? In contrasts with ‘hard’ power
which is heavily relied on coercive methods, ‘soft’ power can influence other
states with the use of culture, movies, values, ethics, social, ethnic, linguistic,
historical and human relations. ‘Soft’ power can also use lobbying as a tool to
influence foreign policies of other states. Diaspora can play an important role in
this kind of influence. The ‘soft’ power concept was proposed by Joseph Nye
who argued that a country can achieve its interests by influencing the policies of
other countries through ‘soft’ tools like culture. Thus the ‘soft’ power depends
on its abilities to gain results through ‘soft’ tools and not ‘hard’ tools. Though the
‘soft’ power influence may not be as immediate and effective as ‘hard’ power, it
can nevertheless play an important role in shaping the public opinion and
developing a positive environment among the interacting states. The example of
a ‘soft’ power is India which has the ability to influence the policies, perceptions,
perspectives of other states through its historical and cultural background and a
wide diaspora. UN International Yoga Day, Bollywood, Indian philosophy and
diversity are deemed its ‘soft’ power. Football, Amazon rainforest etc. are the
134 ‘soft’ powers of Brazil. Canada is a ‘good’ international citizen; a trustworthy
‘mediator’ and a useful ‘go-between’ are its ‘soft’ power assets. US has immense Emerging Centres of Power
‘soft’ power – Hollywood, fashion, premier educational institutions and
universities, knowledge production and its research and development (R&D) in
the field of natural and human sciences etc.

10.2.2 Global, Regional and Sub-regional Powers

Based on a state’s capability to influence other states, a power can be categorised
as global, regional or sub-regional power.

Global Power: A global power exerts its influence at a global level; and is also
called by others as global power. A more commonly used expression is the ‘great’
power for these global powers. A great power possesses both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’
powers to influence other states in their domestic as well as foreign policy
decisions. Paul Kennedy (1987) argues that historically power of a ‘great’ power
cannot be compared on a single parameter. It depends on the political environment
of that period; and, further, the power can be measured in terms of the power of
other states. The characteristics of a ‘great’ power include the resources
availability, economic strength and military ability for a sustained campaign.
Kenneth Waltz opines that it is through mutual understanding that states decide
on who are the ‘great’ powers of a period (Waltz 1979, 131). Martin Wight in his
book Power Politics published in 1978, argues that a ‘great’ power is the one
with the ability to create, define and monopolise the international conflict. Though
Wight used the word ‘dominant power’ instead of ‘great’ power, his ‘dominant’
power does not deny the existence of other powers in the international system.

Kenneth Waltz identified five essential requirements to be a ‘great’ power. These

essential requirements are: state’s population and territory; availability of
resources and resource mobilisation; economic output and power; political
stability; and military strength and outreach. These five essential requirements
which are necessary for a state to be identified as a ‘great’ power are to be mixed
together and should be available at any point of time. Absence of any of these
can make a state a power but not a great power. For instance absence of resources
makes a power dependent for the same on other states. Absence of military strength
can make a state only an economic power. Absence of economic power and mere
presence of military power can make a state only a military power and not a
great power. Apart from these essential requirements, other tenets of a great
power include socio-cultural influence over the majority of the states of the world,
ability to innovate, adopt advancements in science and technology, etc.

Regional Power: A regional power will have all the characteristics of a great
power, but confined to a particular region. It plays a very dominant role in
determining the issues of the region, guiding the economic activities of states,
playing a vital role in the intra-regional trade and security etc. It would have a
major share in regional production, population, skilled workforce, technological
advancements and investments. A regional power would also have a significant
influence on the cultural aspects of other states and will have all the ‘soft’ power
qualities. Thus the basic characteristics of a regional power includes: economic
indicators such as the major share in regional GDP, per capita income, per capita
production, per capita expenditure and regional trade. Military indicators include
modern and well-equipped armed forces which can reach out to major parts of
the region, ability to conduct wars, influence the internal security of neighbouring
countries in the region, and majority share in the military expenditure. Political 135
Developments in International indicators are like the ability to influence the internal political environment of
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other states, a stable domestic political environment, ability to lead and guide in
the regional policy matters, and ability to determine the inter-regional networks,
connectivities, contacts etc. A regional power can also play role of a cultural
hegemon in the sense that its own culture, media, social relations, outlook, music
and movies can play a dominant role in socio-cultural aspects of other states in
the region. In this sense its own diaspora plays a crucial role at socio-cultural
levels and also as a pressure group at political level. Analysts often describe
India and Brazil as examples of dominant regional powers.

Sub-regional Power: A sub-regional power can exercise its influence over its
neighbouring countries and at a relatively smaller regional level. It would have
its say in determining the sub-regional issues, can guide its neighbours in their
foreign policy options, dominates the trade and investments, posses much larger
military strength and enjoys relatively better political environment. A sub-regional
power aspires to be a major player at regional level and seeks to become a regional
player. The examples of sub-regions are Middle East, South Asia, East Asia,
Central Asia, East Africa, West Africa, South America, Central America and the
Caribbean region, etc.

The powers at the various levels work towards sustaining their position and as
well as to improve their position. For example, a great power would work to
sustain its position at global level, for which it adopts various strategies ranging
from providing assistance to imposing sanctions in order to make the countries
at global level to fall in line with its approaches and interests. Similarly the
regional power aspires to be a global power and a sub-regional power seeks to
achieve the position of a regional power. The position of these powers at various
levels depends on the political and other environments of that particular period.
A power of a particular time may not be enjoying the same position at later
periods of time; and thus there can be no permanent power hierarchy in
international system.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss characteristics of various ‘types’ and ‘levels’ of powers in the
international system.
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10.3 POLARITY IN INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM

Based on the ability of states to influence the affairs of other states at various
levels and the distribution of power, an international system can be defined in
terms of polarity. It means polarisation of power. Polarity examines whether or
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how the power is distributed in one or more countries at global levels. There are Emerging Centres of Power
three types of international system - Unipolar, Bipolar and Multipolar.

10.3.1 Unipolar System

A Unipolar system is defined in terms of a single state having highest economic,
military, cultural and political influence all over the world. It goes against the
theory of balance of power as there will be no other power to balance the system.
Unipolarity is hegemonic. The global hegemon enjoys absolute domination in
guiding the international policies and providing direction to international politics.
Moneteiro in his work titled, Unrest Assured: Why Unipolarity is not Peaceful
provides three characteristics of a Unipolar system. This system is marked by
existence of several individual states with mutual relations among them. These
mutual relations are inter-state/ inter-national relations. Secondly, since there is
no superior authority to supervise these relations; the system is marked by
anarchical situation and situation constrains the Unipolar system as the states
will not readily accept the domination and dictation of the Unipolar state. Thirdly,
the balance of power will be absent in a Unipolar system as there exists no similar
or equal power.

10.3.2 Bipolar System

Bipolar system indicates the distribution of power between two states or blocs in
international system. These two states or blocs can influence the global affairs,
issues and relations. Majority of the states express their solidarity or align with
the interests of a single power or a bloc; and thus bipolarity divides the states
internationally. Cold War era international system which was dominated by USA
and Soviet Union is the best example of Bipolar world order. There are three
basic characteristics of a Bipolar system: First, it represents the international
system in which majority of the states are either allies or express their tactical
support with any of the two powers. Secondly it reflects a competitive environment
in which two powers compete with each other in all the spheres ranging from
economy to military, technological advancements to extending support to other
states, and from influencing international issues to controlling conflicts and
conflicting conditions. Thirdly, it represents zero sum game in which if one wins,
other power loses.

10.2.3 Multipolar System

A Multipolar system in international relations reflects the existence of multiple
powers as poles of power. It indicates that the power is not concentrated in a
single hand but distributed among many players. Not all power poles are of the
same size, strength and resourcefulness. Some power poles are durable others
may prove short-lived. Nevertheless, the powers at the core of the pole are
players which exercise considerable amount of influence on other smaller or
weaker states. Emergence of a Multipolar system depends on many factors.
First the economic developments, technological advancements, political
influences, military outreach in many countries can create multiple power centres.
Second, the weakening of a bipolar system disturbs the international status quo
and the balance of power leaving a power vacuum. This vacuum encourages
other states to step in and fill up the gap, focusing on rapid growth in many
spheres. Third, the efforts by the states to fill up the vacuum lead to competition
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Developments in International in all the areas. The existence of Multipolar world order does not mean the absence
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of a single hegemon but it means competition among other states to match up or
to step into the shoes of a competing hegemon. The post-Cold War period marks
the emergence of Multipolar system. US is the global hegemon, unmatched and
unchallenged in military and technological terms, but other power poles have
emerged with strong economies, political stability, technological and military
capability and with considerable ‘soft’ power appeal of their own.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss the concept of polarity in international system.
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10.4 POST-COLD WAR PERIOD AND EMERGENCE

OF NEW CENTRES OF POWER
The first decade of post-Cold War period witnessed the world adjusting to the
changing world order. The period also marked remarkable US domination on
one hand and a steady growth in the number and strength of non-state actors
taking frontline positions in defining the relations between the states. This period
saw a steady growth of terrorism which was earlier confined to a single state or
region. This growth of terrorism particularly Islamist terrorism challenged and
narrowed down the idea of nation–state. Terrorism, money laundering, arms
trafficking and similar other challenges were not confined to particular states or
regions; they were global with established global networks. This growth of global
terror networks required cooperation between the states across the boundaries,
regions and ideological barriers. In the Cold War period, the international system
was largely divided based on the ideology and the dominant factor for the
relationship between the states was the ideology. This was the main victim in the
post-Cold War period. Though capitalist ideology became the guiding principle
for globalisation, it no longer was the reason for conflict between the states.
Another important development of post-Cold War period is the phenomenal
growth of globalisation and linkages of global networks. Globalisation is relatively
a new idea for many developing and developed countries. It demanded
unprecedented interdependence between the states. The interdependence in terms
of securing resources, production process and market forces created a network –
a chain which could not be broken. In other words states needed each other; they
need to cooperate with each other.

Growing economic and technological interdependence led to the redistribution

of power. Since no state no longer controlled all the resources and enjoyed
absolute economic might, the distribution of power became dynamic, random
and vague. The basic characteristic of this system is not polarisation of power
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but distribution and diffusion of power. The countries which are in the process of Emerging Centres of Power
increasing their economic, military and political powers comparatively than other
states began to be described as ‘emerging powers’. ‘Emerging powers’ are those
countries which should have substantial land mass with vast natural resources
and population. Since modern idea of economic development needs the countries
with huge manufacturing base, self-sustainability in agricultural production,
political stability and sustainable policy making process, states with these qualities
were categorised as ‘emerging powers’. Robert J. Guttman in his book titled,
Europe in the New Century: Visions of an Emerging Superpower published in
2001 writes that in the 21st century, a super power requires not only economic
and military power but also strong market, young, highly educated workers and
high technology with a global vision. Emerging powers also need to adjust
themselves to the changing global dynamics in economic, political and strategic
spheres and also should be in a position to take up leadership position.

Based on the above discussion and description, one finds that the post-Cold War
period has witnessed the emergence of new centres of power. These centres range
from nation-states to association of states to non-state actors. However there is
no conceptual clarity about the category called the ‘emerging power’. Taking
into account parametres like economic development, military capability, political
stability and cultural strength, BRICS countries of Brazil, Russia, India, China
and South Africa are generally described as ‘emerging’ powers or ‘emerging’
economies. Others such as Mexico, Indonesia etc. are not far behind being
similarly described. European Union as a single economic community is an
emerging centre of power; it is a member of G-20 and also finds representation
at various other multilateral platforms. Others, such as Japan, Germany, France,
UK remain as great powers in their own domain. US continued to be described
as the sole superpower or global hegemon.

10.4.1 China
China is world’s most populous country with an estimated population of about
1.4 billion and with an area of about 9,600,000 square kilometres; it is one of the
world’s biggest countries. According to World Economic Outlook published by
International Monetary Fund, it’s GDP is about 14 thousand billion US dollars
which is about 16 percent of world’s GDP. China adopted centrally planned and
closed economy along Marxist-Leninist-Maoist philosophy. During the rule of
various leaders like Deng Xiaoping’s since the 1980s, reforms were introduced
which slowly and steadily transformed China’s economy. Soon after, it became
an investment hub for manufacturing and infrastructure sectors. The
manufacturing sector grew phenomenally; so much so that China began to be
described as the ‘global factory’ of cheap and affordable manufactures for rest of
the world. Its economy is highly export competitive; and share of exports in the
GDP is quite high.

China also hosts largest number of armed forces, spends second highest amount
on its military defence after the USA; and has emerged as a military power in the
Asian region. In order to play a key role in adjacent regions, it is expanding its
military presence. The claims on islands in South China Sea, its military base in
Djibouti in the horn of Africa, increased naval presence in Indian Ocean are the
examples of its effort for military outreach. China has adopted ‘String of Pearls’
strategy in Indian Ocean. By building ports, which bear strategic importance,
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Developments in International China wants to have effective control over the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). ‘String
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of Pearls’ extends from Chinese ports to Sudan Port in northern Africa, linking
Strait of Mandeb, the Strait of Malacca, Strait of Hormuz and Strait of Lombok.
As part of this strategy, it built strategic ports in Pakistan (Gwadar Port), Sri
Lanka (Hambantota), container shipping facility at Chittagong in Bangladesh,
Marao Atoll in the Maldives, and Somalia. These ports are being developed for
commercial, communication and strategic purposes.

Apart from ‘String of Pearls’ strategy, another important strategic initiative is

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) which aims to develop infrastructure along ancient
Silk Road and Maritime Silk Road connecting Asia, Europe and Africa. This
initiative has brought many Asian, African countries directly under the influence
of China, as the country has initiated huge infrastructure development projects.
China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is one such example. Belt and Road
Initiative has also invited many concerns, doubts about China’s intentions and
also seen as a strategic effort by China to emerge as countering power to the
USA.

10.4.2 Russia
After the end of Cold War and collapse of Soviet Union, Russia faced enormous
political and economic problems. It is the largest country in the world, spread in
about 17 million square kilometres, which accounts about 16 percent of
geographical area of the world across Asia and Europe. Russia is rich in natural
resources, and hosts about 30% of all the world’s natural resources with an
estimated value of about 75 trillion US dollars. Russia also owns second largest
armed forces in the world and largest nuclear weapons. According to SIPRI, it is
the fourth biggest military spenders in the world. It spends about 5.5 percent of
its GDP on armed forces. Russia is second biggest arms exporter after the USA.
It takes about 22 per cent of share in global arms exports. Russia is 11th largest
economy in the world and the second largest oil exporter after Saudi Arabia. It
accounts for about 11 per cent of global oil exports. Russia has the reserves of
about 175 billion tonnes of coal and produces 5th largest amount of coal in the
world. Many neighbouring regions including Europe import huge quantities of
natural gas from Russia. Russia has its military presence in many Central Asian
Republics like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and former Soviet allies like
Armenia, Georgia, Belarus, Moldova. It has direct involvement in Syrian conflict
and took over Crimea from Ukraine.

10.4.3 India
India is the second most populated country in the world and also hosts highest
number of young population which can also be called as human capital. Census
of India 2011 recorded that India has about 30 per cent of working population in
its total population, which amounts to about 36 crores. According to IMF
estimates, it’s GDP is about 2.96 thousand billion US dollars which is
approximately 3.36 percent of world’s GDP. India adopted liberal economic
policies since 1991 and since then it is one of the fastest growing economies in
the world. India also receives highest amount of remittances from its overseas
working population. In 2018 it received about 68 billion US dollars as remittances.
India is a nuclear weapons power. It has the fourth largest strength of armed
forces in the world; and according to SIPRI spends about 2.5 percent of its GDP
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on armed forces. India is the largest importer of arms in the world. In between Emerging Centres of Power
2008 to 2017 the imports increased by 24 per cent. Russia is the largest exporter
of arms to India which accounts for about 62 per cent of its total imports followed
by USA and Israel. India imports about 12 per cent of total global arms imports.

As an emerging economy, India depends a lot on the safety and security of Sea
Lanes of Communications (SLOCs). A peaceful and rule based freedom of
navigation is necessary for its economic growth and security, in particular energy
secuirty. In strategic perspective, India is in the process of establishing patrolling,
surveillance radar systems in Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, a naval base in
Seychelles to protect its trade and strategic interests. It has close military relations
with Bhutan and Sri Lanka. It also initiated collaborations with Japan for the
Asia Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) aimed at forging strategic partnership to
connect Asian and African countries with development projects. In 2017 India
along with USA, Japan and Australia became part of Quadrilateral Security
Dialogue to address its concerns in Indian Ocean. India also launched ‘Act East’
Policy (erstwhile Look East Policy) to forge strong economic, trade and security
relations with neighbouring South East Asian countries. All these initiatives and
strengths make India an emerging power in Asia.

10.4.4 BRICS
In 2009 first ever summit meeting of the four fastest growing economies of that
time came took place in Yekaterinburg in Russia. The imperative of their coming
together was to push for a multipolar world order, reform of the international
governance mechanisms and institutions including the UN, IMF and World Bank,
and to make globalization a transparent, just and development-oriented process.
South Africa joined the BRIC grouping in 2011 making it BRICS - Brazil, Russia,
India, China and South Africa. BRICS countries account for about 40 per cent of
global population, have a combined contribution of about 23% of the global
GDP and GDP in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms of around 32%. Fast
growing economies, the grouping maintains, despite slowdowns of recent years,
high growth rate – on average about 5 per cent.

Economic and financial cooperation among the member countries is the most
important activity of BRICS. For this purpose formation of New Development
Bank (NDB) or BRICS bank with an objective of financing infrastructure projects
and sustainable development in developing countries, and creation of Contingent
Reserves Arrangement (CRA) to assist countries during the situations of instability
in the balance of payments were initiated. These initiatives are seen as an
alternative arrangement to Western dominated World Bank and IMF. Both these
institutions are evidence of growing financial multipolarity and diffusion of
financial power away from the ‘West’ to the ‘Rest’. BRICS also provides platform
for the non-OECD countries to discuss global issues and negotiate actions
independent of existing global institutions. However it is not a political alliance
or a military pact; hence, BRICS is not a direct challenge to the US hegemony.
In a multipolarised world, BRICS can only be seen as another pole.

Individual countries within BRICS like Brazil, Russia, India and China have
their own strategic and national interests. There are also differences and disputes
among them; for example, India-China border dispute. India and China are
competing with each other on many issues in the region. Russia is seen as a
direct threat to Western interests. These countries have very different strategic 141
Developments in International interests and their national agendas are, most of time, competing with one another.
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BRICS is also an asymmetrical grouping; China is far bigger an economy than
rest of the BRICS combined. The other four BRICS also depend heavily on
trade with China and look for investment from China.

10.4.5 European Union

The European Union (EU) is a union of 27 states in Europe. It is an arrangement
for internal trade, market, movement of goods, investments and people. There
exists an administrative setup, with a European Parliament, Council, Court of
Justice, an evolved legal system, democratic functioning and with a separate
budget and currency. EU occupies about 15 per cent of global share in trade, and
is one of the 3 largest players in international trade. EU is the largest contributor
to the humanitarian aid in the world. Its European Civil Protection and
Humanitarian Aid Operations (ECHO) has partnership with multiple states and
NGOs in providing humanitarian assistance to the needy. Though EU does not
have its own dedicated armed forces and depends on the forces contributed by
the member countries. Looking at the ‘soft’ power abilities of EU, many scholars
like Reid (2004) and Leonard (2005) describe European Union as an emerging
power. In spite of the fact that Britain has exited from EU, it still remains one of
the most important trading partners to many developed and developing countries
in the world. EU, in the absence of large ‘hard’ power, is counted as an example
of ‘soft’ power with enormous cultural and diplomatic weight in the world.

The end of Cold War marked end of bipolar system in International Relations
and paved the way for competition among aspiring states to emerge as independent
power centres. The phenomenon of globalisation opened gates for transfer of
investments, capital, and technology among states; and gave rise to a new strategic
outlook which focussed on greater economic and commercial exchanges based
on the principles of free trade. Accordingly competition among countries to
play a key role and to take a leadership position in regional and global matters to
enhance their respective national interests increased. The new opportunities
provided by the post-Cold War period gave rise to emergence of new centres of
power. ‘Emerging’ powers and ‘emerging’ economies came onto the global and
regional stages with leadership claims; European Union became an economic
and technological powerhouse, essential for an orderly global economic and
trade system. China raced to become the second largest economy with great
technological capability in Artificial Intelligence (AI), robotics, internet of things
etc. These emerging and rising powers seek power in the traditional meaning of
power – which is dominated by the military, economic and political power. The
new centres of power also possess ‘soft’ power resources and skills to play a role
in international relations. Thus, states like China, Russia, India and groupings
like BRICS and EU are significant centres of power of the post-Cold War world.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What do you mean by emerging centres of power?
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 Emerging Centres of Power
10.5 LET US SUMUP
The above discussion has provided a conceptual understanding of Power in
International Relations; the capabilities and roles expected of a powerful state.
The Unit also discussed and described characteristics, types and levels of Power
in international system. It also discussed the developments of the post-Cold War
power; and the opportunities provided by these developments to the states which
aspired to become a power in their own right under the existing system. The Unit
has identified, based on the prevailing conditions, few states as emerging centres
of power. The states like China, Russia, India and collaborative arrangements
like BRICS and EU as emerging centres of power. Of course, as international
power dynamics continue to change, some new members could as well be added
to the list of emerging power centres.

10.6 REFERENCES
Chellaney, Brahma. (2010). Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India and
Japan. Noida: Harper Business Publications.
Dahl, Robert. (1957). The Concept of Power. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
Gilpin, Robert. (1981). War and Change in International Politics. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Guttman, Robert J. (2011). Europe in the New Century: Visions of an Emerging
Superpower. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Kennedy, Paul. (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change
and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, New York: Vintage Books.
Keohane, Robert O; Joseph S Nye. (1977). Power and Interdependence: World
Politics in Transition. Boston : Little Brown.
Leonard, Mark. (2005). Why Europe Will Run the 21st Century. London: Fourth
Estate.
Margenthau, Hans J & Kenneth W Thomson. Politics Among Nations: The
Struggle for Power and Peace. New York: Mc Graw Hill
Mearsheimer, John. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company.
Moneteiro, Nuno P. Unrest assured: Why Unipolarity is not peaceful, International
Security. Vol 36 (3). Pp 9-40.
Nye Jr, Joseph. (2004). Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics.
Cambridge: Perseus Books.
Nye, Joseph. (1990). Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power.
New York: Basic Books.
Reid, T. R.. (2005). The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the
End of American Supremacy. London: Penguin Books.
Waltz, Kenneth N. (1993).The Emerging Structure of International Politics, in
International Security. Vol. 18 (2), p. 50.
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Developments in International Waltz, Kenneth. N. (1979). Theory of international politics. Reading, Mass:
Relations
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Wight, Martin. (1978). Power Politics. London: Continuum.

10.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should highlight the following
Hard and soft power
Global, regional and sub-regional powers
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Your answer should highlight the following
Polarity examines how the power is distributed in one or more countries
at global levels
There are three types of international system - Unipolar, Bipolar and
Multipolar
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Your answer should highlight the following
No conceptual clarity about the category called the ‘emerging power’
Based on parametres like economy, military, political stability and
cultural strength

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