RESEARCH ETHICS

Chapter Objectives

 Understand the roles of IRBs and the APA Guidelines in the ethical conduct of research using human participants
 Learn the meaning of animal welfare and how it is protected
 Learn the meaning of animal rights and the views of animal rights activists
 Understand scientific fraud and how to avoid plagiarism
 Become skilled at ethical considerations of research reports

“Do we have the right to perform any experiment imaginable just for the sake of new knowledge?”

Research Ethics

 Research that is harmful to participants is undesirable even though it may increase wisdom.
o early experience is an important aspect of child development
o He or she is liable for any harm to subjects, even if it occurs unintentionally.
o Institutional Review Board (IRB): review committee; to evaluate proposed studies before they are
conducted.
 (1) To decide whether the proposed study puts the subjects at risk.
 A subject at risk is one who is more likely to be harmed in some way by participating in
the research.
 Risk/Benefit Analysis: The IRB must determine whether any risks to the individual are
outweighed by potential benefits or the importance of the knowledge to be gained.
 Robert Rosenthal’s 3 reasons why poorly designed research is unethical:
o Students’, teachers’, and administrators’ time will be taken from potentially
more beneficial educational experiences
o Poorly designed research can lead to unwarranted and inaccurate conclusions
that may be damaging to the society that directly or indirectly pays for the
research.
o Allocating time and money to poor-quality science will keep those finite
resources from better-quality science.
 (2) To safeguard the rights of individuals by making certain that each subject at risk gives
informed consent to participate.
 Informed Consent: the subject agrees to participate after having been fully informed
about the nature of the study
o First, individuals must give their consent freely, without the use of force, duress,
or coercion.
o Second, they must be free to drop out of the experiment at any time.
o Third, researchers must give subjects a full explanation of the procedures to be
followed and offer to answer any questions about them.
o Fourth, researchers must make clear the potential risks and benefits of the
experiment. If there is any possibility of pain or injury, researchers must explain
this in advance so that subjects know what they are getting into before they
agree to participate.
o Fifth, researchers must provide assurances that all data will remain private and
confidential.
o Finally, according to federal guidelines (45CFR 46.115), subjects may not be
asked to release the researchers (or study sponsors, institutions, or other
agents) from liability or to waive their legal rights in the case of injury.
 Consent should be obtained in writing, and subjects should receive a copy to keep.
o Consent forms need to be written in clear, understandable language at the
appropriate reading level for participants.
o Merely allowing your subjects to read and sign the consent form, however, may
not be enough to guarantee that they fully comprehend what they have signed.
  Whenever the subject is a minor or is cognitively impaired, researchers need to obtain
consent from a parent or legal guardian.
o The assent or agreement of minor children ages 7 and above is usually a
requirement of their participation. To the extent possible, assent is also
obtained from cognitively impaired subjects, both adults (e.g., adults with
Alzheimer’s) and children (e.g., children with autism or learning disabilities).
 The consent form provides subjects with information relevant to their participation in
the experiment:
o the nature of the experiment,
o an overview of the procedures that will occur,
o how long it will take,
o the potential risks and benefits,
o and what they will be required to do.
 The specific hypothesis of the experiment, however, is typically not disclosed on the
form.

The Evolution of Ethics in Research

o After World War II, ethics came to the forefront after the discoveries of brutal experiments conducted on Jewish
concentration camp prisoners by about 200 Nazi doctors.
o Simon Wiesenthal Center: More than 7,000 prisoners were forced to be subjects in cruel experiments that
“broke all the rules and norms of medical research.” During international trials that followed the war (the
Nuremberg War Crimes Trials), a code of ethical standards for scientific research was created. This Nuremberg
Code of 1947 formed the basis of today’s ethical standards.
o In 1974, the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
was created as part of the U.S. National Research Act. In 1979, the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare issued the Belmont Report, a statement of government policy on research involving human subjects.
The Belmont Report contains three basic ethical principles— respect for persons, beneficence, and justice
o Respect for Persons: Acknowledges autonomy and requires obtaining informed consent from
participants (even vulnerable populations)
o Beneficence: Researchers must maximize potential benefits while minimizing risks to participants
(society and individuals)
 At times, the potential for risk to human subjects must be weighed against possible benefits the
research could provide for society.
 The principle of beneficence also refers to each researcher’s responsibility to estimate potential
risks as truthfully and accurately as possible before proposing any research
 Minimize harm and maximize benefits
o Justice: Fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of research among all groups, ensuring no group is
unfairly burdened or excluded from potential benefits.
 The principle of justice requires that researchers select their samples of subjects with an eye
toward fairness, to ensure that some people are not being selected simply because they are
disadvantaged, readily available, or easily manipulated.
 Justice means that research subjects should come from the groups most likely to reap the
benefits.

American Psychological Association (APA) Guidelines

The APA provides a framework for ethical research practices, emphasizing the importance of ethical treatment in studies
involving human and animal subjects.

 Seek advice from IRB; employ all possible safeguards for the research participants
 IRB approval before the study is performed.
 Obtain informed consent.
 Minimal Risk: risk that is no greater in probability and severity than that ordinarily encountered in daily life or
during the performance of routine physical or psychological examinations or tests.
o Even in minimal risk studies, the researcher has the responsibility of identifying any potential risks and
minimizing them before conducting the research.
 o Observations of public behavior, anonymous questionnaires, and certain kinds of archival research
 The responsibilities of both subject and experimenter must be agreed upon in advance, and the experimenter
must honor all commitments made to subjects.
o Commitments include promises to pay subjects, to give them credit in courses, to maintain
confidentiality, and to share the results of the study with them.

Deception and Full Disclosure

 Open and honest relationship

 But the true purpose of the study is disguised.
 Deception is enjoyable and more beneficial (according to subjects); no perceived harm done
 The consensus among researchers seems to be that the use of deception is most often justified by the
knowledge that is gained.
 How can this be reconciled with the principles of informed consent?
o the deception must not influence a subject’s decision to take part in the research—any deception that is
used must be such that subjects would not refuse to participate if they knew what was really happening
 Debriefing: explain the true nature and purpose of the study at the end of the experiment.
 Even if subjects are debriefed, will the explanation completely undo the effects of deception? Perhaps not.
o Bramel's (1963) study on attributive projection: Male participants were deceived about their sexual
arousal responses to photographs of men, leading them to believe they had homosexual tendencies.
Despite being debriefed and informed that the feedback was false, the anxiety and discomfort caused by
the deception may not have been fully alleviated. Subjects might have doubted the honesty of the
debriefing, leading to lingering feelings of confusion and embarrassment about their sexual identity.
o Some experimental procedures can cause lasting negative effects on participants. For instance, studies
involving violent pornography have shown that exposure can lead to harmful attitudes towards women,
which do not dissipate quickly even after debriefing.

Anonymity and Confidentiality

 To achieve this, data collection should ideally be conducted anonymously, using code numbers or fictitious
names instead of real identities.
 Most psychological research focuses on aggregated data, reporting statistical results as average scores for
treatment groups, which further safeguards individual identities.
 Researchers must ensure that data is securely stored and kept confidential, used solely for the purposes
communicated to participants. Participants' reactions and experiences should not be shared casually or become
subjects of gossip. When discussing findings with colleagues, researchers must exercise discretion to protect
participants' identities and disguise any details that could lead to recognition.

Protecting Animal Welfare

Ethical considerations extend to animal research, requiring humane treatment and justification for the use of animals in
studies.

 Animal Welfare: humane care and treatment of animals

 The Animal Welfare Act (AWA) of 1966 regulates the humane treatment of animals in research, mandating that
researchers provide appropriate care and enrichment for animals, particularly nonhuman primates. This includes
creating environments that allow for species-specific activities and social interactions.
 Research facilities must establish an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) to oversee animal
research, ensuring that alternatives to animal use are considered and that all procedures minimize pain and
distress. The IACUC comprises scientists, laypersons, and a veterinarian with expertise in laboratory animal
science.
 Despite legal regulations, concerns about animal abuse in research persist. Critics like Peter Singer have
highlighted instances of unethical treatment, such as the use of electric shock in studies. However, a review by
Coile and Miller (1984) found that extreme allegations of abuse were not supported by the literature from major
psychology journals during 1979-1983. Most studies involving animals did not employ extreme methods or
cause significant suffering.
 Animal Rights Movement
 o The Animal Rights Movement centers on the ethical debate regarding animal research, particularly the
contention that human interests should not automatically overshadow animal rights. Critics argue for
the equal value and rights of all sentient species, especially those capable of feeling pain. A notable
ethical dilemma emerged in 1984 when a baboon's heart was transplanted into a newborn baby,
prompting questions about the morality of sacrificing animals for human benefit.
o Despite the controversy, animal research has yielded substantial benefits for human health, contributing
to treatments for various psychological disorders and advancing knowledge in behavioral science. For
example, Edward Taub's research on monkeys led to techniques for restoring limb movement after
strokes in humans.
o Animal rights activists have historically focused on research animals rather than those used for food, but
recent surveys show a shift in priorities toward concerns about agricultural practices. While a majority of
psychologists support animal research under ethical conditions, there is growing opposition to painful
experiments, especially involving higher animals like primates and dogs.
o As animal experimentation continues, researchers are urged to act responsibly and ethically, ensuring
that each study contributes meaningfully to scientific knowledge while minimizing harm to animal
subjects. The evolving focus on ethics within the American Psychological Association reflects a
commitment to improving animal welfare in research contexts.

Fraud in Science

Scientific integrity is paramount; researchers must avoid fraudulent practices such as data fabrication or falsification.

 Fraud in scientific research is a significant ethical concern, particularly regarding the honest reporting of
procedures and findings. The American Psychological Association (APA) emphasizes that psychologists must not
fabricate data, as stated in their ethical guidelines. Several safeguards exist to prevent fraud, including:
o Peer Review: Most research articles undergo rigorous review by editors and experts before publication.
This process helps identify potential issues or inaccuracies in the findings.
o Replication: Researchers often attempt to replicate published studies. If data has been falsified,
successful replication is unlikely.
o Academic Competition: The competitive nature of academia, where researchers face pressure to
publish, can deter fraud; however, it may also tempt some to fabricate results to maintain their
positions.
 Despite these safeguards, instances of fraud do occur. Notable cases include:
o Karen Ruggiero: A researcher who falsified data during her tenure at Harvard, leading to her resignation
from the University of Texas after an investigation revealed her misconduct.
o Sir Cyril Burt: An influential psychologist whose work on the heritability of IQ was later scrutinized for
statistical anomalies, raising suspicions of data fabrication.
o Stephen Breuning: A psychologist who admitted to falsifying data on the effectiveness of stimulant
drugs for treating childhood hyperactivity, resulting in significant consequences for both him and his
university.
 The implications of scientific misconduct can be severe, including loss of funding, damage to reputations, and
legal repercussions. As funding becomes scarcer, tighter controls and more frequent investigations into research
practices are expected to ensure integrity in scientific reporting.

Plagiarism

Presenting someone else's work or ideas as one's own is unethical; proper citation and acknowledgment are essential.

 Plagiarism, the act of representing someone else's ideas, words, or written work as one's own, is a serious
ethical violation that can lead to legal consequences. This breach extends beyond simply borrowing facts; it
includes failing to give proper credit for others' ideas.
 Unfortunately, plagiarism rates are rising among university students, partly due to easy access to online
resources. A survey indicated that only 27% of college students recognized cutting and pasting others' work as
plagiarism, with estimates suggesting that around 6% of essays submitted by freshmen contained plagiarized
content. The issue is not limited to students; even university officials have faced repercussions for plagiarism, as
seen in the resignation of Hamilton College's president for copying a speech from an online source.
  To combat this trend, many universities are implementing clear guidelines on plagiarism and utilizing web-based
tools for detection. Academic misconduct policies often impose severe penalties for plagiarism, ranging from
failing grades to expulsion. One case highlighted the consequences when a student received a failing grade just
before graduation due to plagiarism.
 While some instances of plagiarism are intentional, others may occur due to oversight, such as failing to credit
sources when paraphrasing. Even common knowledge requires attribution if derived from specific sources. To
avoid unintentional plagiarism, researchers should diligently cite all relevant literature and maintain clear
records of their sources. Following established guidelines can help mitigate the risk of plagiarism in academic
writing.

Tips to Avoid Plagiarism

1. Take complete notes, which include a complete citation of the source: author’s name, title of article, journal
name, volume number, issue number, year of publication, and page numbers. For books, include the author’s
name, the title of the book, the year, the names of the editors (if it is an edited volume), and the publisher’s
name, city, and state.
2. Within your report, identify the source of any ideas, words, or information that are not on your own.
3. Identify any direct quotes by quotation marks at the beginning and end of the quotes and indicate where you
got the quotes. Include the page number where you found the quote.
4. Be careful with paraphrasing (restating someone else’s words). There is a great temptation to lift whole phrases
or catchy words from another source. Use your own words instead or use quotes. Again, be sure to give credit to
your source.
5. Include a complete list of references at the end of the report. In psychology, references are written in APA style,
and the style is somewhat different for each type of source.
6. If in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite the source anyway. You will do no harm by being
especially cautious (and, citing many sources will inform the reader that you have read more of the important
articles in your research area.).