Course: School Administration and Supervision (8616)

0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739

Semester: Autumn, 2021
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 How will you define school administration? Strengthen your answer with relevant literature.
The top administrator, whether she's called superintendent, head of school, president or principal, is the
institution's equivalent of a chief executive officer in business. She takes an active role in personnel issues, budget
decisions, curriculum planning and setting policy that staff and students will abide by. Administrators are
responsible for setting the institution's tone and serve as its public face. School districts, colleges and universities
often employ assistant administrators to be responsible for budget, curriculum and personnel. Still other
educational administrators work in research and policy-making roles in governmental and private departments
and organizations where students typically never set foot.
Educational Administration Degrees
Typically, an educational administrator will need an advanced educational administration degree such as a Master
of Education, Master of Arts in Educational Leadership or a Doctor of Education. At the master's in administration
level, coursework typically includes the sociology and law of education, educational research, curricular and
instructional strategies and leadership and management skills. Earning a doctoral degree requires advanced study
in leadership; educational theory, practice and planning; supervisory skills; research and statistics; and
organizational dynamics.
Styles of Educational Administration
Educational researchers have devoted considerable effort to defining and analyzing what makes an effective
administrator. Effectiveness is measured using research tools such as school climate surveys and institutional
health assessments. Educational leadership focuses on different types of administrative styles. The authoritarian
leader is unemotional and runs a tight ship using coercive tactics. Participative leaders emphasize collegiality and
collaboration. Transactional leaders strive for a happy middle ground between the two, and transformational
leaders who focus on servant leadership and empowerment. No definitive evidence exits proving that one of these
styles works better than all of the others; what matters is a good fit between the administrator and the institution's
key stakeholders.
Leaderships Careers in Education
Many a teacher takes a look at the way things are being run and either admires or detests it so much that he decides
to go for that master's and become a decision maker. To make this decision less difficult, practically speaking,
many graduate programs are designed to accommodate the needs of working teachers seeking senior level careers
in education. Aspiring educational administrators need to prepare themselves for long days during which they'll
handle a variety of problems and successes and be the one held responsible in good times and bad. It's a job for
problem solvers with superb time management skills.

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
1 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
1. Structural Democracy:
Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural
perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light
should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to
their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national
levels.
This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing
and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational
administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.
In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary
to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically
as possible.
2. Operational Democracy:
This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life
and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual
and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit,
way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational
administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that
are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school
or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture
of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours
where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter
of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the
view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any
decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution
as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration
gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational
perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.
3. Justice:
Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality.
This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic
administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
2 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due
reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities,
aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational
administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not
happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly
apply uniform rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard
the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of
justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this
tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle
of modern educational administration.
4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward
or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.
In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration
plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake
of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation
will be reduced to minimum.
The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as
equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to
every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational
opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the
field of educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.
(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available
talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this
context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational
opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational
process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
3 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
5. Prudence:
Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in
approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of
administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight
skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in
future by the educational administrator.
This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to
ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education
by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there
will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control?
It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure
for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature
which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-
appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like
general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance”
to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation.
Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is
granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it
is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the
interest of good administration.
They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need
remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to
prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective
communication ability with him as attributes.
6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:
An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving
its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called
adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human
beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its
products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or
disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these
three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons
concerned in some way or other.
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
4 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called
as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful
evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and
stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an
enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance
with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.
Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the
process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to
each other.
Q.2 Write note on educational administrative structures.
The top administrator, whether she's called superintendent, head of school, president or principal, is the
institution's equivalent of a chief executive officer in business. She takes an active role in personnel issues, budget
decisions, curriculum planning and setting policy that staff and students will abide by. Administrators are
responsible for setting the institution's tone and serve as its public face. School districts, colleges and universities
often employ assistant administrators to be responsible for budget, curriculum and personnel. Still other
educational administrators work in research and policy-making roles in governmental and private departments
and organizations where students typically never set foot.
Educational Administration Degrees
Typically, an educational administrator will need an advanced educational administration degree such as a Master
of Education, Master of Arts in Educational Leadership or a Doctor of Education. At the master's in administration
level, coursework typically includes the sociology and law of education, educational research, curricular and
instructional strategies and leadership and management skills. Earning a doctoral degree requires advanced study
in leadership; educational theory, practice and planning; supervisory skills; research and statistics; and
organizational dynamics.
Styles of Educational Administration
Educational researchers have devoted considerable effort to defining and analyzing what makes an effective
administrator. Effectiveness is measured using research tools such as school climate surveys and institutional
health assessments. Educational leadership focuses on different types of administrative styles. The authoritarian
leader is unemotional and runs a tight ship using coercive tactics. Participative leaders emphasize collegiality and
collaboration. Transactional leaders strive for a happy middle ground between the two, and transformational
leaders who focus on servant leadership and empowerment. No definitive evidence exits proving that one of these
styles works better than all of the others; what matters is a good fit between the administrator and the institution's
key stakeholders.

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
5 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
Leaderships Careers in Education
Many a teacher takes a look at the way things are being run and either admires or detests it so much that he decides
to go for that master's and become a decision maker. To make this decision less difficult, practically speaking,
many graduate programs are designed to accommodate the needs of working teachers seeking senior level careers
in education. Aspiring educational administrators need to prepare themselves for long days during which they'll
handle a variety of problems and successes and be the one held responsible in good times and bad. It's a job for
problem solvers with superb time management skills.
1. Structural Democracy:
Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural
perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light
should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to
their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national
levels.
This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing
and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational
administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.
In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary
to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically
as possible.
2. Operational Democracy:
This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life
and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual
and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit,
way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational
administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that
are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school
or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture
of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours
where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter
of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the
view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any
decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution
as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
6 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational
perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.
3. Justice:
Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality.
This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic
administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form
and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due
reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities,
aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational
administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not
happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly
apply uniform rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard
the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of
justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this
tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle
of modern educational administration.
4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward
or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.
In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration
plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake
of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation
will be reduced to minimum.
The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as
equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to
every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational
opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the
field of educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.
(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
7 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available
talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this
context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational
opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational
process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.
5. Prudence:
Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in
approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of
administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight
skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in
future by the educational administrator.
This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to
ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education
by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there
will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control?
It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure
for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature
which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-
appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like
general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance”
to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation.
Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is
granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it
is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the
interest of good administration.
They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need
remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to
prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective
communication ability with him as attributes.
6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:
An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving
its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called
adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
8 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its
products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or
disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these
three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons
concerned in some way or other.
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called
as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful
evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and
stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an
enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance
with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.
Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the
process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to
each other.
Q.3 How performance appraisal is useful in evaluation? Discuss its techniques.
The top administrator, whether she's called superintendent, head of school, president or principal, is the
institution's equivalent of a chief executive officer in business. She takes an active role in personnel issues, budget
decisions, curriculum planning and setting policy that staff and students will abide by. Administrators are
responsible for setting the institution's tone and serve as its public face. School districts, colleges and universities
often employ assistant administrators to be responsible for budget, curriculum and personnel. Still other
educational administrators work in research and policy-making roles in governmental and private departments
and organizations where students typically never set foot.
Educational Administration Degrees
Typically, an educational administrator will need an advanced educational administration degree such as a Master
of Education, Master of Arts in Educational Leadership or a Doctor of Education. At the master's in administration
level, coursework typically includes the sociology and law of education, educational research, curricular and
instructional strategies and leadership and management skills. Earning a doctoral degree requires advanced study
in leadership; educational theory, practice and planning; supervisory skills; research and statistics; and
organizational dynamics.
Styles of Educational Administration
Educational researchers have devoted considerable effort to defining and analyzing what makes an effective
administrator. Effectiveness is measured using research tools such as school climate surveys and institutional
health assessments. Educational leadership focuses on different types of administrative styles. The authoritarian
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
9 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
leader is unemotional and runs a tight ship using coercive tactics. Participative leaders emphasize collegiality and
collaboration. Transactional leaders strive for a happy middle ground between the two, and transformational
leaders who focus on servant leadership and empowerment. No definitive evidence exits proving that one of these
styles works better than all of the others; what matters is a good fit between the administrator and the institution's
key stakeholders.
Leaderships Careers in Education
Many a teacher takes a look at the way things are being run and either admires or detests it so much that he decides
to go for that master's and become a decision maker. To make this decision less difficult, practically speaking,
many graduate programs are designed to accommodate the needs of working teachers seeking senior level careers
in education. Aspiring educational administrators need to prepare themselves for long days during which they'll
handle a variety of problems and successes and be the one held responsible in good times and bad. It's a job for
problem solvers with superb time management skills.
1. Structural Democracy:
Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural
perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light
should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to
their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national
levels.
This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing
and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational
administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.
In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary
to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically
as possible.
2. Operational Democracy:
This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life
and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual
and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit,
way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational
administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that
are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school
or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture
of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
10 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter
of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the
view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any
decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution
as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration
gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational
perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.
3. Justice:
Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality.
This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic
administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form
and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due
reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities,
aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational
administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not
happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly
apply uniform rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard
the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of
justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this
tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle
of modern educational administration.
4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward
or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.
In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration
plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake
of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation
will be reduced to minimum.
The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as
equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to
every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational

Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
11 Diya.pk
 0314-4646739 0332-4646739 0336-4646739
opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the
field of educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.
(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available
talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this
context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational
opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational
process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.
5. Prudence:
Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in
approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of
administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight
skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in
future by the educational administrator.
This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to
ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education
by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there
will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control?
It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure
for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature
which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-
appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like
general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance”
to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation.
Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is
granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it
is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the
interest of good administration.
They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need
remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
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prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective
communication ability with him as attributes.
6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:
An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving
its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called
adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human
beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its
products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or
disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these
three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons
concerned in some way or other.
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called
as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful
evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and
stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an
enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance
with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.
Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the
process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to
each other.
Q.4 Briefly explain the developmental approach and synergistic supervision.
The objective of students is to get a good academic record while the faculty aims to get a good feedback.
Students believe that the institution is a mere place for getting a certificate.
In many cases, they believe that the certificate is a passport for getting employed and is obtainable as soon
as the fees are paid.
All the information that is required is available on the Internet and can be easily digested by reading casually
before the exams. They also believe conveniently what they hear from the industry personnel that the syllabus
is outdated and the gap between what is taught and what is actually practised is huge.
Quality of learning
One of the tools available to measure the adequacy of this academic input is ‘Academic Audit’.
The academic audit provides an opportunity for a regular strategic overview of a college’s teaching-learning
process.

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It is the process by which the authorities assure themselves of the quality of the learning process. The
academic audit is normally carried out once in five years.
It has four distinct features: It is college-based and is normally reviewed independently, it is based on a
process of self-evaluation carried out by the college itself, the use of an external evaluator helps in objectivity,
and the audit evaluates the full range of college activities so as to ensure a balanced recommendation by the
audit panel.
An audit takes into account the following:
Whether the activities and programmes being implemented have been authorised by the concerned authorities
(in the case of a university set-up — have the programmes been approved by the university, academic council,
the board of management, an so on).
Whether the activities and programmes are being conducted in a manner geared to accomplish the objectives
intended by the authorities.
Whether the activities and programmes are efficiently and effectively serving the purpose intended by the
authorities.
Whether the activities and programmes being conducted and funds expended in compliance with the
applicable laws.
Are adequate operating, administrative procedures and practices, systems, etc. in place?
Are the needs of the various stakeholders such as students, parents, employers, statutory authorities, society
and the top management or the trustees satisfied?
The advantages of an academic audit are manifold. Some of these are given below:
For students: It helps in eliminating unnecessary workload and dwells mainly on those essentially required
for the success of a student’s career.
For teachers: It helps in clarifying their roles and responsibilities and thus avoids conflicts.
For the society: It ensures effective use of public money.
For employers: It ensures availability of well-rounded students who can contribute from day one itself.
The process of academic audit involves three stages: self-study involving understanding the teaching-
learning process, peer review and evaluating the self-study and the peer review.
Discussions with persons in higher educational institutions reveal that it is a herculean task to get the students
to listen to a guest lecture. These discussions also revealed that students prefer to sit in the canteen and
discuss some social problems rather than listening to lectures. The students need to be coaxed or sometimes
even incentivised with means such as additional marks to attend to the guest lectures.
In many cases, the parents of the students strongly believe that the failure of the student implies that the
faculty does not understand the subject or does not communicate well. Students demand a good placement,
both in terms of companies as well as packages.
Yet, basic etiquettes are not followed. Dressing casually and being late for interviews is the norm.
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This dissatisfaction can perhaps be reduced by controlling the input side of the institution by reducing the
intake of students, limiting the number of higher education institutions and by continuously monitoring the
academic progress of the student.
Q.5 What is the difference between the administrative structure of public/government and private
schools?
A manager’s style of giving direction, setting strategy, and motivating people is the result of his or her personality,
values, training, and experience. Let’s examine some of the most common management styles and the
circumstances under which each is most appropriate.
Autocratic/Authoritarian Management Style
Under an autocratic management style, decision-making power is concentrated in the manager. Autocratic
managers don’t entertain any suggestions or consider initiatives from subordinates. This style of management is
effective for quick decision making but is generally not successful in fostering employee engagement or
maintaining worker satisfaction. When do managers tend to use this style?
• In crisis situations, when it’s impractical to solicit employee input, managers may become autocratic. For
example, a manager might order employees to vacate the building because of fire or another emergency.
Taking the time to seek advice or opinions is not only impractical but could endanger lives.
• Traditionally, if the workforce is comprised of low-skill workers, employee input isn’t encouraged because
it’s considered to be of limited value or importance. However, more forward-thinking managers regard all
worker input as valuable, regardless of skill level.
Laissez-Faire/Free-Rein Management Style
The laissez-faire style is sometimes described as “hands-off” management because the manager delegates the
tasks to the followers while providing little or no direction. If the laissez-faire manager withdraws too much, it
can sometimes result in a lack of productivity, cohesion, and satisfaction. Under this type of management,
subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.When do managers employ this
approach?
• When workers have the skills to work independently, are self-motivated, and are held accountable for
results (physicians are a good example), laissez-faire management may be effective. Highly skilled
employees require less frequent instruction, and managers must rely on them to use their professional
expertise to make sound decisions.
• Managers of creative or innovative employees often adopt this approach in order to foster creativity. For
example, computer programmers, artists, or graphic designers can benefit from a hands-off management
style. Managers step out of the way to make room for new ideas, creative problem-solving, and
collaboration.

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Participative/Democratic Management Style
Under a participative or democratic style of management, the manager shares the decision-making authority with
group members. This approach values individual interests and perspectives while also contributing to team
cohesion. Participative management can help employees feel more invested in decisions, outcomes, or the choices
they’ve made, because they have a say in them. When is this an appropriate managerial choice?
• When an organization enters a transitional period—a merger or acquisition, expanding into a new market,
closing a facility, or adding new products, for example—managers need to guide the workforce through
the change. Such circumstances involve adjustments and adaptations for a large group of people, so
managers may find that a participative management style is most effective.
• Businesses often encounter new or unexpected challenges. During tough times, resourceful managers will
solicit input from employees at many levels within the organization. A democratic approach can uncover
people with invaluable experience, advice, and solutions.
Each style of management can be effective if matched with the needs of the situation and used by a skilled,
versatile manager. The best managers are adept at several styles and able to exercise good judgement about which
one is suited to the task at hand.
Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leaders work with subordinates to identify needed change, create and share an inspiring vision,
and bring about change together with committed members of a group. Transformational leadership serves to
enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include
connecting the follower’s sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization;
being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging
followers to take greater ownership for their work; and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers,
allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance. Transformational leaders are
often idealized and viewed as moral exemplars for their contributions to a team, an organization, or a community.
Transactional Leadership Style
Transactional leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and later by Bernard Bass in 1981. This kind
of leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on supervision, organization, and performance.
Unlike transformational leaders, those using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future—
they value the status quo. Transactional leaders pay attention to their followers’ work in order to find fault or
deviation and gain their compliance through a system of rewards and punishments. There are two factors that form
the basis for this reward/punishment system: contingent reward and management by exception. Contingent
reward provides rewards (material or psychological) for effort and recognizes good performance. Management
by exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo; the leader intervenes when subordinates do not meet
acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve performance.

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Narcissistic Leadership Style
Narcissistic leaders are visionary and charismatic, with a keen ability to attract and inspire followers.
Anthropologist and psychoanalyst Michael Maccoby observes that “one reason we look to productive narcissists
in times of great transition is that they have the audacity to push through the massive transformations that society
periodically undertakes. Productive narcissists are not only risk takers willing to get the job done but also charmers
who can convert the masses with their rhetoric.”[2] Narcissism exists on a continuum from normal to pathological.
To Maccoby’s point, narcissistic leaders can be viewed as either productive or unproductive. Although narcissistic
leaders can be transformational leaders, they can also be toxic to an organization. Narcissists tend to listen only
to information and advice that supports their view, regardless of the reality. Their sense of supreme self-worth,
combined with a continual need for affirmation, eliminates independent thought and creates a culture of yes
people. Organizations led by narcissists are typically characterized by fierce internal competition and changing
alliances. This culture can be energizing or, if everyone and everything is perceived as a threat, destructive.
Many of us choose to be in social groups because there are number of benefits that we receive as members. We
may choose to be in a group for instrumental (or task) reasons so that the other group members can help us
accomplish something. Or, we may choose to be in a group for expressive (or emotional) reasons so that the other
group members can provide us with companionship, love, and security.
Think about our social groups in the context of leadership. There are typically two types of leadership:
instrumental and expressive. Instrumental leadership focuses on achieving goals. Leaders who are dominantly
instrumental work to maintain productivity and ensure that tasks are completed. They make good managers
because they get the job done. However, they are often so focused on the task that they can alienate other members
of the group.
Expressive leadership, on the other hand, focuses on maintaining group cohesion. Leaders who are dominantly
expressive work to maintain warm, friendly relationships and ensure the collective well-being of the group. They
make good bosses because they truly care for their employees. However, they are sometimes lacking efficiency
and organizational skills.
Although most leaders are dominantly instrumental or expressive, both styles are needed for groups to work
effectively. So, the most effective leaders have the ability to use the style that best fits the situation. They can
switch from being instrumental and focusing on the task, to being expressive and focusing on collaboration,
whenever they see a need.
Authoritarian Decision-Making
Beyond dominant leadership types and abilities, leaders also vary in their decision-making styles. There are three
basic styles of leadership decision-making: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Leaders who use authoritarian decision-making make all the major group decisions and demand compliance
from the group members. Authoritarian leaders typically make decisions on their own and tell other group

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members what to do and how to do it. Authoritarian leadership can be beneficial when a decision needs to be
made quickly or when a project or situation is particularly stressful.
For example, imagine you're a member of the Greek army during the Trojan War. It would have been beneficial
for Odysseus to practice authoritarian decision-making in order to determine who would perform each task of
building the Trojan Horse. You and the other soldiers would not have had to worry about making complex
decisions, but instead, you could focus on your individual tasks. Imagine what would have happened if all of
those soldiers had spent days debating while in the midst of a war!
While authoritarian leadership can be beneficial at times, it is often the case that it's more problematic. This type
of decision-making is easily abused, and authoritarian leaders are often viewed as bossy and controlling. Because
authoritarian leaders make decisions without consulting the group, many group members may resent the leader
because they are unable to contribute ideas.
Democratic Decision-Making
The next type of leadership decision-making is democratic. Leaders who use democratic decision-
making encourage group discussion and believe in decision-making through consensus. Democratic leaders still
make the final decision, but do so only after carefully considering what other group members have said. Usually,
their decision goes with the majority. Democratic leaders are generally the most popular. They make members of
the group feel included and promote teamwork and creativity.
For example, think about King Arthur and his knights. Most of us are familiar with the famous round table, where
all of the knights plus King Arthur would sit in equal status. They would discuss problems in the kingdom together
and come to a consensus before King Arthur would take action.

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 How will you define school administration? Strengthen your answer with relevant literature.
The top administrator, whether she's called superintendent, head of school, president or principal, is the
institution's equivalent of a chief executive officer in business. She takes an active role in personnel issues, budget
decisions, curriculum planning and setting policy that staff and students will abide by. Administrators are
responsible for setting the institution's tone and serve as its public face. School districts, colleges and universities
often employ assistant administrators to be responsible for budget, curriculum and personnel. Still other
educational administrators work in research and policy-making roles in governmental and private departments
and organizations where students typically never set foot.
Educational Administration Degrees
Typically, an educational administrator will need an advanced educational administration degree such as a Master
of Education, Master of Arts in Educational Leadership or a Doctor of Education. At the master's in administration
level, coursework typically includes the sociology and law of education, educational research, curricular and
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instructional strategies and leadership and management skills. Earning a doctoral degree requires advanced study
in leadership; educational theory, practice and planning; supervisory skills; research and statistics; and
organizational dynamics.
Styles of Educational Administration
Educational researchers have devoted considerable effort to defining and analyzing what makes an effective
administrator. Effectiveness is measured using research tools such as school climate surveys and institutional
health assessments. Educational leadership focuses on different types of administrative styles. The authoritarian
leader is unemotional and runs a tight ship using coercive tactics. Participative leaders emphasize collegiality and
collaboration. Transactional leaders strive for a happy middle ground between the two, and transformational
leaders who focus on servant leadership and empowerment. No definitive evidence exits proving that one of these
styles works better than all of the others; what matters is a good fit between the administrator and the institution's
key stakeholders.
Leaderships Careers in Education
Many a teacher takes a look at the way things are being run and either admires or detests it so much that he decides
to go for that master's and become a decision maker. To make this decision less difficult, practically speaking,
many graduate programs are designed to accommodate the needs of working teachers seeking senior level careers
in education. Aspiring educational administrators need to prepare themselves for long days during which they'll
handle a variety of problems and successes and be the one held responsible in good times and bad. It's a job for
problem solvers with superb time management skills.
1. Structural Democracy:
Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural
perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light
should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to
their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national
levels.
This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing
and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational
administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.
In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary
to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically
as possible.
2. Operational Democracy:
This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life
and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual
and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit,
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way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational
administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that
are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school
or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture
of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours
where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter
of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the
view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any
decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution
as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration
gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational
perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.
3. Justice:
Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality.
This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic
administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form
and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due
reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities,
aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational
administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not
happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly
apply uniform rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard
the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of
justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this
tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle
of modern educational administration.
4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward
or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.
In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration
plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake
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of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation
will be reduced to minimum.
The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as
equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to
every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational
opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the
field of educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.
(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available
talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this
context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational
opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational
process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.
5. Prudence:
Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in
approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of
administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight
skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in
future by the educational administrator.
This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to
ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education
by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there
will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control?
It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure
for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature
which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-
appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like
general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance”
to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation.

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Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is
granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it
is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the
interest of good administration.
They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need
remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to
prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective
communication ability with him as attributes.
6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:
An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving
its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called
adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human
beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its
products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or
disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these
three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons
concerned in some way or other.
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called
as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful
evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and
stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an
enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance
with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.
Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the
process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to
each other.
Q.2 Write note on educational administrative structures.
The top administrator, whether she's called superintendent, head of school, president or principal, is the
institution's equivalent of a chief executive officer in business. She takes an active role in personnel issues, budget
decisions, curriculum planning and setting policy that staff and students will abide by. Administrators are
responsible for setting the institution's tone and serve as its public face. School districts, colleges and universities
often employ assistant administrators to be responsible for budget, curriculum and personnel. Still other

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educational administrators work in research and policy-making roles in governmental and private departments
and organizations where students typically never set foot.
Educational Administration Degrees
Typically, an educational administrator will need an advanced educational administration degree such as a Master
of Education, Master of Arts in Educational Leadership or a Doctor of Education. At the master's in administration
level, coursework typically includes the sociology and law of education, educational research, curricular and
instructional strategies and leadership and management skills. Earning a doctoral degree requires advanced study
in leadership; educational theory, practice and planning; supervisory skills; research and statistics; and
organizational dynamics.
Styles of Educational Administration
Educational researchers have devoted considerable effort to defining and analyzing what makes an effective
administrator. Effectiveness is measured using research tools such as school climate surveys and institutional
health assessments. Educational leadership focuses on different types of administrative styles. The authoritarian
leader is unemotional and runs a tight ship using coercive tactics. Participative leaders emphasize collegiality and
collaboration. Transactional leaders strive for a happy middle ground between the two, and transformational
leaders who focus on servant leadership and empowerment. No definitive evidence exits proving that one of these
styles works better than all of the others; what matters is a good fit between the administrator and the institution's
key stakeholders.
Leaderships Careers in Education
Many a teacher takes a look at the way things are being run and either admires or detests it so much that he decides
to go for that master's and become a decision maker. To make this decision less difficult, practically speaking,
many graduate programs are designed to accommodate the needs of working teachers seeking senior level careers
in education. Aspiring educational administrators need to prepare themselves for long days during which they'll
handle a variety of problems and successes and be the one held responsible in good times and bad. It's a job for
problem solvers with superb time management skills.
1. Structural Democracy:
Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural
perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light
should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to
their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national
levels.
This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing
and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational
administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.

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In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary
to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically
as possible.
2. Operational Democracy:
This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life
and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual
and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit,
way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational
administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that
are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school
or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture
of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours
where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter
of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the
view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any
decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution
as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration
gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational
perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.
3. Justice:
Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality.
This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic
administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form
and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due
reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities,
aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational
administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not
happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly
apply uniform rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard
the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of
justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this
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tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle
of modern educational administration.
4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward
or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.
In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration
plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake
of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation
will be reduced to minimum.
The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as
equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to
every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational
opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the
field of educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.
(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available
talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this
context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational
opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational
process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.
5. Prudence:
Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in
approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of
administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight
skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in
future by the educational administrator.
This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to
ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education
by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there
will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control?

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It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure
for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature
which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-
appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like
general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance”
to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation.
Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is
granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it
is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the
interest of good administration.
They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need
remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to
prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective
communication ability with him as attributes.
6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:
An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving
its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called
adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human
beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its
products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or
disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these
three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons
concerned in some way or other.
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called
as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful
evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and
stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an
enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance
with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.
Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the
process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to
each other.
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Q.3 How performance appraisal is useful in evaluation? Discuss its techniques.
The top administrator, whether she's called superintendent, head of school, president or principal, is the
institution's equivalent of a chief executive officer in business. She takes an active role in personnel issues, budget
decisions, curriculum planning and setting policy that staff and students will abide by. Administrators are
responsible for setting the institution's tone and serve as its public face. School districts, colleges and universities
often employ assistant administrators to be responsible for budget, curriculum and personnel. Still other
educational administrators work in research and policy-making roles in governmental and private departments
and organizations where students typically never set foot.
Educational Administration Degrees
Typically, an educational administrator will need an advanced educational administration degree such as a Master
of Education, Master of Arts in Educational Leadership or a Doctor of Education. At the master's in administration
level, coursework typically includes the sociology and law of education, educational research, curricular and
instructional strategies and leadership and management skills. Earning a doctoral degree requires advanced study
in leadership; educational theory, practice and planning; supervisory skills; research and statistics; and
organizational dynamics.
Styles of Educational Administration
Educational researchers have devoted considerable effort to defining and analyzing what makes an effective
administrator. Effectiveness is measured using research tools such as school climate surveys and institutional
health assessments. Educational leadership focuses on different types of administrative styles. The authoritarian
leader is unemotional and runs a tight ship using coercive tactics. Participative leaders emphasize collegiality and
collaboration. Transactional leaders strive for a happy middle ground between the two, and transformational
leaders who focus on servant leadership and empowerment. No definitive evidence exits proving that one of these
styles works better than all of the others; what matters is a good fit between the administrator and the institution's
key stakeholders.
Leaderships Careers in Education
Many a teacher takes a look at the way things are being run and either admires or detests it so much that he decides
to go for that master's and become a decision maker. To make this decision less difficult, practically speaking,
many graduate programs are designed to accommodate the needs of working teachers seeking senior level careers
in education. Aspiring educational administrators need to prepare themselves for long days during which they'll
handle a variety of problems and successes and be the one held responsible in good times and bad. It's a job for
problem solvers with superb time management skills.
1. Structural Democracy:
Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural
perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light
should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to
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their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national
levels.
This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing
and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational
administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.
In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary
to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically
as possible.
2. Operational Democracy:
This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life
and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual
and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit,
way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational
administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that
are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school
or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture
of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours
where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter
of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the
view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any
decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution
as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration
gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational
perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.
3. Justice:
Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality.
This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic
administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form
and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due
reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities,
aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational
administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not
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happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly
apply uniform rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard
the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of
justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this
tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle
of modern educational administration.
4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward
or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.
In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration
plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake
of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation
will be reduced to minimum.
The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as
equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to
every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational
opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the
field of educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.
(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available
talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this
context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational
opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational
process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.
5. Prudence:
Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in
approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of
administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight
skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in
future by the educational administrator.
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This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to
ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education
by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there
will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control?
It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure
for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature
which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-
appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like
general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance”
to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation.
Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is
granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it
is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the
interest of good administration.
They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need
remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to
prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective
communication ability with him as attributes.
6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:
An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving
its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called
adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human
beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its
products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or
disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these
three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons
concerned in some way or other.
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called
as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful
evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and
stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an

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enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance
with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.
Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the
process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to
each other.
Q.4 Briefly explain the developmental approach and synergistic supervision.
The objective of students is to get a good academic record while the faculty aims to get a good feedback.
Students believe that the institution is a mere place for getting a certificate.
In many cases, they believe that the certificate is a passport for getting employed and is obtainable as soon
as the fees are paid.
All the information that is required is available on the Internet and can be easily digested by reading casually
before the exams. They also believe conveniently what they hear from the industry personnel that the syllabus
is outdated and the gap between what is taught and what is actually practised is huge.
Quality of learning
One of the tools available to measure the adequacy of this academic input is ‘Academic Audit’.
The academic audit provides an opportunity for a regular strategic overview of a college’s teaching-learning
process.
It is the process by which the authorities assure themselves of the quality of the learning process. The
academic audit is normally carried out once in five years.
It has four distinct features: It is college-based and is normally reviewed independently, it is based on a
process of self-evaluation carried out by the college itself, the use of an external evaluator helps in objectivity,
and the audit evaluates the full range of college activities so as to ensure a balanced recommendation by the
audit panel.
An audit takes into account the following:
Whether the activities and programmes being implemented have been authorised by the concerned authorities
(in the case of a university set-up — have the programmes been approved by the university, academic council,
the board of management, an so on).
Whether the activities and programmes are being conducted in a manner geared to accomplish the objectives
intended by the authorities.
Whether the activities and programmes are efficiently and effectively serving the purpose intended by the
authorities.
Whether the activities and programmes being conducted and funds expended in compliance with the
applicable laws.
Are adequate operating, administrative procedures and practices, systems, etc. in place?

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Are the needs of the various stakeholders such as students, parents, employers, statutory authorities, society
and the top management or the trustees satisfied?
The advantages of an academic audit are manifold. Some of these are given below:
For students: It helps in eliminating unnecessary workload and dwells mainly on those essentially required
for the success of a student’s career.
For teachers: It helps in clarifying their roles and responsibilities and thus avoids conflicts.
For the society: It ensures effective use of public money.
For employers: It ensures availability of well-rounded students who can contribute from day one itself.
The process of academic audit involves three stages: self-study involving understanding the teaching-
learning process, peer review and evaluating the self-study and the peer review.
Discussions with persons in higher educational institutions reveal that it is a herculean task to get the students
to listen to a guest lecture. These discussions also revealed that students prefer to sit in the canteen and
discuss some social problems rather than listening to lectures. The students need to be coaxed or sometimes
even incentivised with means such as additional marks to attend to the guest lectures.
In many cases, the parents of the students strongly believe that the failure of the student implies that the
faculty does not understand the subject or does not communicate well. Students demand a good placement,
both in terms of companies as well as packages.
Yet, basic etiquettes are not followed. Dressing casually and being late for interviews is the norm.
This dissatisfaction can perhaps be reduced by controlling the input side of the institution by reducing the
intake of students, limiting the number of higher education institutions and by continuously monitoring the
academic progress of the student.
Q.5 What is the difference between the administrative structure of public/government and private
schools?
A manager’s style of giving direction, setting strategy, and motivating people is the result of his or her personality,
values, training, and experience. Let’s examine some of the most common management styles and the
circumstances under which each is most appropriate.
Autocratic/Authoritarian Management Style
Under an autocratic management style, decision-making power is concentrated in the manager. Autocratic
managers don’t entertain any suggestions or consider initiatives from subordinates. This style of management is
effective for quick decision making but is generally not successful in fostering employee engagement or
maintaining worker satisfaction. When do managers tend to use this style?
• In crisis situations, when it’s impractical to solicit employee input, managers may become autocratic. For
example, a manager might order employees to vacate the building because of fire or another emergency.
Taking the time to seek advice or opinions is not only impractical but could endanger lives.

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• Traditionally, if the workforce is comprised of low-skill workers, employee input isn’t encouraged because
it’s considered to be of limited value or importance. However, more forward-thinking managers regard all
worker input as valuable, regardless of skill level.
Laissez-Faire/Free-Rein Management Style
The laissez-faire style is sometimes described as “hands-off” management because the manager delegates the
tasks to the followers while providing little or no direction. If the laissez-faire manager withdraws too much, it
can sometimes result in a lack of productivity, cohesion, and satisfaction. Under this type of management,
subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.When do managers employ this
approach?
• When workers have the skills to work independently, are self-motivated, and are held accountable for
results (physicians are a good example), laissez-faire management may be effective. Highly skilled
employees require less frequent instruction, and managers must rely on them to use their professional
expertise to make sound decisions.
• Managers of creative or innovative employees often adopt this approach in order to foster creativity. For
example, computer programmers, artists, or graphic designers can benefit from a hands-off management
style. Managers step out of the way to make room for new ideas, creative problem-solving, and
collaboration.
Participative/Democratic Management Style
Under a participative or democratic style of management, the manager shares the decision-making authority with
group members. This approach values individual interests and perspectives while also contributing to team
cohesion. Participative management can help employees feel more invested in decisions, outcomes, or the choices
they’ve made, because they have a say in them. When is this an appropriate managerial choice?
• When an organization enters a transitional period—a merger or acquisition, expanding into a new market,
closing a facility, or adding new products, for example—managers need to guide the workforce through
the change. Such circumstances involve adjustments and adaptations for a large group of people, so
managers may find that a participative management style is most effective.
• Businesses often encounter new or unexpected challenges. During tough times, resourceful managers will
solicit input from employees at many levels within the organization. A democratic approach can uncover
people with invaluable experience, advice, and solutions.
Each style of management can be effective if matched with the needs of the situation and used by a skilled,
versatile manager. The best managers are adept at several styles and able to exercise good judgement about which
one is suited to the task at hand.
Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leaders work with subordinates to identify needed change, create and share an inspiring vision,
and bring about change together with committed members of a group. Transformational leadership serves to
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enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include
connecting the follower’s sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization;
being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging
followers to take greater ownership for their work; and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers,
allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance. Transformational leaders are
often idealized and viewed as moral exemplars for their contributions to a team, an organization, or a community.
Transactional Leadership Style
Transactional leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and later by Bernard Bass in 1981. This kind
of leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on supervision, organization, and performance.
Unlike transformational leaders, those using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future—
they value the status quo. Transactional leaders pay attention to their followers’ work in order to find fault or
deviation and gain their compliance through a system of rewards and punishments. There are two factors that form
the basis for this reward/punishment system: contingent reward and management by exception. Contingent
reward provides rewards (material or psychological) for effort and recognizes good performance. Management
by exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo; the leader intervenes when subordinates do not meet
acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve performance.
Narcissistic Leadership Style
Narcissistic leaders are visionary and charismatic, with a keen ability to attract and inspire followers.
Anthropologist and psychoanalyst Michael Maccoby observes that “one reason we look to productive narcissists
in times of great transition is that they have the audacity to push through the massive transformations that society
periodically undertakes. Productive narcissists are not only risk takers willing to get the job done but also charmers
who can convert the masses with their rhetoric.”[2] Narcissism exists on a continuum from normal to pathological.
To Maccoby’s point, narcissistic leaders can be viewed as either productive or unproductive. Although narcissistic
leaders can be transformational leaders, they can also be toxic to an organization. Narcissists tend to listen only
to information and advice that supports their view, regardless of the reality. Their sense of supreme self-worth,
combined with a continual need for affirmation, eliminates independent thought and creates a culture of yes
people. Organizations led by narcissists are typically characterized by fierce internal competition and changing
alliances. This culture can be energizing or, if everyone and everything is perceived as a threat, destructive.
Many of us choose to be in social groups because there are number of benefits that we receive as members. We
may choose to be in a group for instrumental (or task) reasons so that the other group members can help us
accomplish something. Or, we may choose to be in a group for expressive (or emotional) reasons so that the other
group members can provide us with companionship, love, and security.
Think about our social groups in the context of leadership. There are typically two types of leadership:
instrumental and expressive. Instrumental leadership focuses on achieving goals. Leaders who are dominantly
instrumental work to maintain productivity and ensure that tasks are completed. They make good managers
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because they get the job done. However, they are often so focused on the task that they can alienate other members
of the group.
Expressive leadership, on the other hand, focuses on maintaining group cohesion. Leaders who are dominantly
expressive work to maintain warm, friendly relationships and ensure the collective well-being of the group. They
make good bosses because they truly care for their employees. However, they are sometimes lacking efficiency
and organizational skills.
Although most leaders are dominantly instrumental or expressive, both styles are needed for groups to work
effectively. So, the most effective leaders have the ability to use the style that best fits the situation. They can
switch from being instrumental and focusing on the task, to being expressive and focusing on collaboration,
whenever they see a need.
Authoritarian Decision-Making
Beyond dominant leadership types and abilities, leaders also vary in their decision-making styles. There are three
basic styles of leadership decision-making: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Leaders who use authoritarian decision-making make all the major group decisions and demand compliance
from the group members. Authoritarian leaders typically make decisions on their own and tell other group
members what to do and how to do it. Authoritarian leadership can be beneficial when a decision needs to be
made quickly or when a project or situation is particularly stressful.
For example, imagine you're a member of the Greek army during the Trojan War. It would have been beneficial
for Odysseus to practice authoritarian decision-making in order to determine who would perform each task of
building the Trojan Horse. You and the other soldiers would not have had to worry about making complex
decisions, but instead, you could focus on your individual tasks. Imagine what would have happened if all of
those soldiers had spent days debating while in the midst of a war!
While authoritarian leadership can be beneficial at times, it is often the case that it's more problematic. This type
of decision-making is easily abused, and authoritarian leaders are often viewed as bossy and controlling. Because
authoritarian leaders make decisions without consulting the group, many group members may resent the leader
because they are unable to contribute ideas.
Democratic Decision-Making
The next type of leadership decision-making is democratic. Leaders who use democratic decision-
making encourage group discussion and believe in decision-making through consensus. Democratic leaders still
make the final decision, but do so only after carefully considering what other group members have said. Usually,
their decision goes with the majority. Democratic leaders are generally the most popular. They make members of
the group feel included and promote teamwork and creativity.
For example, think about King Arthur and his knights. Most of us are familiar with the famous round table, where
all of the knights plus King Arthur would sit in equal status. They would discuss problems in the kingdom together
and come to a consensus before King Arthur would take action.
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ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Analyze the load of responsibility, dispersion of tasks and the roles of supervisor.
A manager’s style of giving direction, setting strategy, and motivating people is the result of his or her personality,
values, training, and experience. Let’s examine some of the most common management styles and the
circumstances under which each is most appropriate.
Autocratic/Authoritarian Management Style
Under an autocratic management style, decision-making power is concentrated in the manager. Autocratic
managers don’t entertain any suggestions or consider initiatives from subordinates. This style of management is
effective for quick decision making but is generally not successful in fostering employee engagement or
maintaining worker satisfaction. When do managers tend to use this style?
• In crisis situations, when it’s impractical to solicit employee input, managers may become autocratic. For
example, a manager might order employees to vacate the building because of fire or another emergency.
Taking the time to seek advice or opinions is not only impractical but could endanger lives.
• Traditionally, if the workforce is comprised of low-skill workers, employee input isn’t encouraged because
it’s considered to be of limited value or importance. However, more forward-thinking managers regard all
worker input as valuable, regardless of skill level.
Laissez-Faire/Free-Rein Management Style
The laissez-faire style is sometimes described as “hands-off” management because the manager delegates the
tasks to the followers while providing little or no direction. If the laissez-faire manager withdraws too much, it
can sometimes result in a lack of productivity, cohesion, and satisfaction. Under this type of management,
subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.When do managers employ this
approach?
• When workers have the skills to work independently, are self-motivated, and are held accountable for
results (physicians are a good example), laissez-faire management may be effective. Highly skilled
employees require less frequent instruction, and managers must rely on them to use their professional
expertise to make sound decisions.
• Managers of creative or innovative employees often adopt this approach in order to foster creativity. For
example, computer programmers, artists, or graphic designers can benefit from a hands-off management
style. Managers step out of the way to make room for new ideas, creative problem-solving, and
collaboration.
Participative/Democratic Management Style
Under a participative or democratic style of management, the manager shares the decision-making authority with
group members. This approach values individual interests and perspectives while also contributing to team
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cohesion. Participative management can help employees feel more invested in decisions, outcomes, or the choices
they’ve made, because they have a say in them. When is this an appropriate managerial choice?
• When an organization enters a transitional period—a merger or acquisition, expanding into a new market,
closing a facility, or adding new products, for example—managers need to guide the workforce through
the change. Such circumstances involve adjustments and adaptations for a large group of people, so
managers may find that a participative management style is most effective.
• Businesses often encounter new or unexpected challenges. During tough times, resourceful managers will
solicit input from employees at many levels within the organization. A democratic approach can uncover
people with invaluable experience, advice, and solutions.
Each style of management can be effective if matched with the needs of the situation and used by a skilled,
versatile manager. The best managers are adept at several styles and able to exercise good judgement about which
one is suited to the task at hand.
Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leaders work with subordinates to identify needed change, create and share an inspiring vision,
and bring about change together with committed members of a group. Transformational leadership serves to
enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include
connecting the follower’s sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization;
being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging
followers to take greater ownership for their work; and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers,
allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance. Transformational leaders are
often idealized and viewed as moral exemplars for their contributions to a team, an organization, or a community.
Transactional Leadership Style
Transactional leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and later by Bernard Bass in 1981. This kind
of leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on supervision, organization, and performance.
Unlike transformational leaders, those using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future—
they value the status quo. Transactional leaders pay attention to their followers’ work in order to find fault or
deviation and gain their compliance through a system of rewards and punishments. There are two factors that form
the basis for this reward/punishment system: contingent reward and management by exception. Contingent
reward provides rewards (material or psychological) for effort and recognizes good performance. Management
by exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo; the leader intervenes when subordinates do not meet
acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve performance.
Narcissistic Leadership Style
Narcissistic leaders are visionary and charismatic, with a keen ability to attract and inspire followers.
Anthropologist and psychoanalyst Michael Maccoby observes that “one reason we look to productive narcissists
in times of great transition is that they have the audacity to push through the massive transformations that society
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periodically undertakes. Productive narcissists are not only risk takers willing to get the job done but also charmers
who can convert the masses with their rhetoric.”[2] Narcissism exists on a continuum from normal to pathological.
To Maccoby’s point, narcissistic leaders can be viewed as either productive or unproductive. Although narcissistic
leaders can be transformational leaders, they can also be toxic to an organization. Narcissists tend to listen only
to information and advice that supports their view, regardless of the reality. Their sense of supreme self-worth,
combined with a continual need for affirmation, eliminates independent thought and creates a culture of yes
people. Organizations led by narcissists are typically characterized by fierce internal competition and changing
alliances. This culture can be energizing or, if everyone and everything is perceived as a threat, destructive.
Many of us choose to be in social groups because there are number of benefits that we receive as members. We
may choose to be in a group for instrumental (or task) reasons so that the other group members can help us
accomplish something. Or, we may choose to be in a group for expressive (or emotional) reasons so that the other
group members can provide us with companionship, love, and security.
Think about our social groups in the context of leadership. There are typically two types of leadership:
instrumental and expressive. Instrumental leadership focuses on achieving goals. Leaders who are dominantly
instrumental work to maintain productivity and ensure that tasks are completed. They make good managers
because they get the job done. However, they are often so focused on the task that they can alienate other members
of the group.
Expressive leadership, on the other hand, focuses on maintaining group cohesion. Leaders who are dominantly
expressive work to maintain warm, friendly relationships and ensure the collective well-being of the group. They
make good bosses because they truly care for their employees. However, they are sometimes lacking efficiency
and organizational skills.
Although most leaders are dominantly instrumental or expressive, both styles are needed for groups to work
effectively. So, the most effective leaders have the ability to use the style that best fits the situation. They can
switch from being instrumental and focusing on the task, to being expressive and focusing on collaboration,
whenever they see a need.
Authoritarian Decision-Making
Beyond dominant leadership types and abilities, leaders also vary in their decision-making styles. There are three
basic styles of leadership decision-making: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Leaders who use authoritarian decision-making make all the major group decisions and demand compliance
from the group members. Authoritarian leaders typically make decisions on their own and tell other group
members what to do and how to do it. Authoritarian leadership can be beneficial when a decision needs to be
made quickly or when a project or situation is particularly stressful.
For example, imagine you're a member of the Greek army during the Trojan War. It would have been beneficial
for Odysseus to practice authoritarian decision-making in order to determine who would perform each task of
building the Trojan Horse. You and the other soldiers would not have had to worry about making complex
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decisions, but instead, you could focus on your individual tasks. Imagine what would have happened if all of
those soldiers had spent days debating while in the midst of a war!
While authoritarian leadership can be beneficial at times, it is often the case that it's more problematic. This type
of decision-making is easily abused, and authoritarian leaders are often viewed as bossy and controlling. Because
authoritarian leaders make decisions without consulting the group, many group members may resent the leader
because they are unable to contribute ideas.
Democratic Decision-Making
The next type of leadership decision-making is democratic. Leaders who use democratic decision-
making encourage group discussion and believe in decision-making through consensus. Democratic leaders still
make the final decision, but do so only after carefully considering what other group members have said. Usually,
their decision goes with the majority. Democratic leaders are generally the most popular. They make members of
the group feel included and promote teamwork and creativity.
For example, think about King Arthur and his knights. Most of us are familiar with the famous round table, where
all of the knights plus King Arthur would sit in equal status. They would discuss problems in the kingdom together
and come to a consensus before King Arthur would take action.
Q.2 Discuss the concept of growth orientation, two-way communication and focus on competence.
Financial audit is a routine job. It does not focus on any specific problem. Performance audit, on the other hand
focuses on problems and the process of identification of its causes. In financial audit, attention is more on figures,
in performance audit, however, the attention is more on people, and other resources.
This is dependent primarily on three stakeholders — students, faculty members and the industry. The industry
very rarely takes an interest in providing quality education through guest lectures or visiting faculty, but
loves to criticise and say that the quality of teaching is bad or the contents are outdated.
The only personnel from the industry who are readily available as guest lecturers or visiting faculty are those
who are retired and would now like to “contribute to the society.” This implies that the burden of providing
quality education lies mainly on faculty members. The objective of students is to get a good academic record
while the faculty aims to get a good feedback. Students believe that the institution is a mere place for getting
a certificate. In many cases, they believe that the certificate is a passport for getting employed and is
obtainable as soon as the fees are paid. All the information that is required is available on the Internet and
can be easily digested by reading casually before the exams. They also believe conveniently what they hear
from the industry personnel that the syllabus is outdated and the gap between what is taught and what is
actually practised is huge.
1. One of the tools available to measure the adequacy of this academic input is ‘Academic Audit’.
2. The academic audit provides an opportunity for a regular strategic overview of a college’s teaching-
learning process.

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3. It is the process by which the authorities assure themselves of the quality of the learning process. The
academic audit is normally carried out once in five years.
4. It has four distinct features: It is college-based and is normally reviewed independently, it is based
on a process of self-evaluation carried out by the college itself, the use of an external evaluator helps
in objectivity, and the audit evaluates the full range of college activities so as to ensure a balanced
recommendation by the audit panel.
5. An audit takes into account the following:
6. Whether the activities and programmes being implemented have been authorised by the concerned
authorities (in the case of a university set-up — have the programmes been approved by the
university, academic council, the board of management, an so on).
7. Whether the activities and programmes are being conducted in a manner geared to accomplish the
objectives intended by the authorities.
8. Whether the activities and programmes are efficiently and effectively serving the purpose intended
by the authorities.
9. Whether the activities and programmes being conducted and funds expended in compliance with the
applicable laws.
10. Are adequate operating, administrative procedures and practices, systems, etc. in place?
11. Are the needs of the various stakeholders such as students, parents, employers, statutory authorities,
society and the top management or the trustees satisfied?
12. The advantages of an academic audit are manifold. Some of these are given below:
13. For students: It helps in eliminating unnecessary workload and dwells mainly on those essentially
required for the success of a student’s career.
14. For teachers: It helps in clarifying their roles and responsibilities and thus avoids conflicts.
15. For the society: It ensures effective use of public money.
16. For employers: It ensures availability of well-rounded students who can contribute from day one
itself.
17. The process of academic audit involves three stages: self-study involving understanding the teaching-
learning process, peer review and evaluating the self-study and the peer review.
18. Discussions with persons in higher educational institutions reveal that it is a herculean task to get the
students to listen to a guest lecture. These discussions also revealed that students prefer to sit in the
canteen and discuss some social problems rather than listening to lectures. The students need to be
coaxed or sometimes even incentivised with means such as additional marks to attend to the guest
lectures.

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19. In many cases, the parents of the students strongly believe that the failure of the student implies that
the faculty does not understand the subject or does not communicate well. Students demand a good
placement, both in terms of companies as well as packages.
20. Yet, basic etiquettes are not followed. Dressing casually and being late for interviews is the norm.
21. This dissatisfaction can perhaps be reduced by controlling the input side of the institution by reducing
the intake of students, limiting the number of higher education institutions and by continuously
monitoring the academic progress of the student.
Q.3 Elaborate the supervision school environment and supervision administrative practices.
In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more attention has been
given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig & Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had
originated from France under Napoleon’s Regime at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties
followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools
were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin & Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801
(Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms “inspector” and “inspection” are still being used in various
developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and
some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007).
Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in
the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different
countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the
assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on
providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and
improvement in their teaching learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and
support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and
preferring the term “supervisor” over that of “inspector”. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have
recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses “education methods advisor”, and Uganda “teacher
development advisor”.
The concepts of “supervision” and “inspection” have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and
the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for
the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the
fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that:
Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical
rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any
significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12)
From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management.
According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center
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(Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school
level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers.
According to Haileselassie (1997), the functional and true sense of educational supervision depends on the
supervisory operation made at the grassroots level, i.e. School level. In this regard, subject-area instructional
supervision has practiced in all schools of Addis Ababa since the beginning of 2004. The major responsibilities
of subject-area instructional supervisors in Addis Ababa include: (1) examining and reporting the programs,
organization and management of the teaching-learning activities; (2) developing and presenting alternative
methods used to improve instructional programs; (3) guiding and monitoring schools and teachers; (4) preparing
and organizing professional trainings, workshops, seminars, etc.; (5) monitoring and supporting the mentoring
(induction) programs for beginner teachers; and (6) providing direct assistance and perform instructional and
managerial activities in schools with teachers and principals by organizing and implementing clinical, collegial,
peer coaching and cognitive coaching techniques of instructional supervision, etc (Alemayehu, 2008).
According to Blasé and Blasé (1998), although many supervisory approaches are collaborative in nature, for long
time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described
supervision as a “ritual they [supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without
much consequence” (p. 203). This author continued that “today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an
artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education” (p. 204). He
explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative
stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled.
Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, “because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort
of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to use” (p.1).
It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because
supervisory authority and control are essential for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000)
explained this as “much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded” (p. 37). Having said
this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a
formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that
“instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning”
(p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and carry out a range of professional growth
opportunities designed to meet teacher’s professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different
levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is “a summative process that focus on assessing the competence of
teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individual’s professional competence at
specific time” (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should
go hand in hand (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers’ professional growth,
evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990).

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The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-
assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching,
cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso & Firth, 1990;
Clarke, 1995; Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different
supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also important to provide choices to
the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as
follows.
Clinical Supervision
According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a “face- to- face contract with teachers with
the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth” (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and
systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed
to improve the teacher’s classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according
to Snow-Gerono (2008) is “to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers’ abilities
to be self-supervising” (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a “specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers”
(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of
supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is
right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure of clinical
supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision
conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with: inexperienced
beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving
their instructional performance.
Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its
evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches “collaborate to research their practices and improve
their teaching and learning” (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical
supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality
of teaching and students’ performance (Sergiovanni &Starratt, 2007).
Collaborative Supervision
Collaboration and collegiality are very important in today’s modern schools. According to Burke and Fessler
(1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to
supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching
environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an
ethical and professional responsibility of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that “needs do not exist for
professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward
improvement” (Burke & Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision
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which are especially needed for beginner or novice teachers are: peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring
(Showers & Joyce, 1996; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007; Sullivan & Glanz, 2003; Kutsyuruba, 2003).
Peer coaching
Peer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as “teachers helping teachers reflect on and
improve teaching practice and/or carry out particular teaching skills needed to carry out knowledge gained
through faculty or curriculum development” (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice
and feedback following staff development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective
if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction
with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for efficient communication,
and involve them in decision-making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to
develop communities within which “teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value: when we learn together,
we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students” (p. 251). Thus, peer
coaching provides possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative
relationships, participatory decision-making, and immediate feedback (Bowman & McCormick, 2000; Sullivan
& Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who
coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
Cognitive coaching
According to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to “a nonjudgmental process built around a
planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference” (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer
coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching
is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers & Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described,
cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however,
when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further
identified three components of cognitive coaching: planning, lesson observation, and reflection.
Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely: (1) developing and
maintaining trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior; and
(3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and
encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy i.e. the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze
(Garmston, Linder & Whitaker, 1993).
Mentoring
Mentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is “a process that facilitates instructional improvement
wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff
member” (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or
beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and

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its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and
Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors as:
The mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and
deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific
area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All
interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213)
Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and
professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of
teachers (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the
emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a
colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and learn ways to overcome them.
As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved.
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Self-Reflection
As the context of education is ever-changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to
reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective
reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self assessment reflective
practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a
teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. According to Sergiovanni (1991),
self-directed approaches are “mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling
or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers”(305). Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007)
considered this option to be “efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others”.
Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision “teachers work alone by assuming responsibility for
their own professional development” (p. 276).
Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is “an option provided for teachers that enable
them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake
the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes” (p. 200). In addition, this approach is “particularly suited to
competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well” (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007, p.
276).
Portfolios
As teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take
ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such
practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with
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teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers’
professional growth and abilities (Riggs & Sandlin, 2000).
A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is “an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the
opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time” (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and
Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records,
photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and
teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective
practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth “through self-reflection,
analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing” (p. 215). The writers further described that
portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships.
Professional Growth Plans
Professional growth plans are defined as “individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop
and carry out relating to the teaching” (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional
and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth
plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan
in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read,
and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans “could
produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and
increased focus and commitment to learning” (p. 422).
Summative Evaluation
There is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda,
2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components: formative evaluation and summative evaluation
(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended
to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers’ professional growth, where as
summative teacher evaluation is designed to judge and rate the quality of one’s own teaching and level of
professional growth. In this regard, the purposes of instructional supervision are formative- focused on teachers’
ongoing professional development, and the intents of evaluation are summative- assessment of professional
performance which leads to a final judgment (Zepeda, 2007). However, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated
that both formative and summative teacher evaluations cannot be separated, for each contains aspects of the other.
Summative evaluation, therefore, uses various techniques such as, administrative monitoring, report writing,
checklists, and self-assessment tools (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
Teachers’ Perception of Supervisory Processes
From laypersons conducting school inspection in the 18th century, up to the practice of neo-scientific
management, instructional supervision in most schools of the world has focused on inspection and control of
teachers (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), “Historically the evaluation function of
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supervision was rooted in bureaucratic inspectional type supervision” (p. 22). The writers further described that
teachers view supervision for the sake of evaluation as often being anything other than up lifting. In a study of
supervision and teacher satisfaction, Fraser (1980) stated that “the improvement of the teaching learning process
was dependent upon teacher attitudes toward supervision” (p. 224). The writer noted that unless teachers perceive
supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory practice will not
bring the desired effect.
Q.4 How online reporting and dissemination of information and accounting system are useful technology
in administration?
Through the effective supervision of instruction, administrators can reinforce and enhance teaching practices that
will contribute to improved student learning. By skillfully analyzing performance and appropriate data,
administrators can provide meaningful feedback and direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on the
learning that occurs in each classroom. Because student learning is the primary function of the schools, the
effective supervision of instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator. If schools are to
provide equal access to quality educational programs for all students, administrators must hold teachers
accountable for providing an appropriate and well-planned program. These programs include a variety of
teaching strategies designed to meet the diverse needs of all students in our complex society.
This chapter reviews areas of focus for teacher evaluation, the components of effective teaching, some basic
strategies and procedures for data gathering and conferencing, and steps administrators should consider in the
effective preparation of conference memorandums and letters of reprimand. Approaches that are discussed which
differ from existing procedures in the district should be used to stimulate discussion and prompt a review of
current practices. This process may lead to a restructuring of practices and procedures that could result in the
enhancement of student learning.
Teacher Evaluation
To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators must be skilled in these areas: (a)
what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and analyze classroom observation information and other data, and (c) how
to translate the results of observations and the summary of data into meaningful conference feedback that guides
and encourages teachers to improve instruction. Expectancies for teacher performance were enacted by California
State Senate Bill 813 and are included in Section 44662 of the California Education Code. This section requires
the governing board of each school district to establish standards of expected pupil achievement at each grade
level in each area of study. Under this code, evaluation and assessment
of certificated employee competency are required in four areas. These include: (1) the progress of pupils toward
the district-adopted standards, (2) the instructional strategies and techniques utilized by the teacher, (3) the
teacher's adherence to curricular objectives, and (4) the establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning
environment. Although this code section prohibits the evaluation and assessment of certificated employee
competence by the use of published norms established by standardized tests, it does give the board of education
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of each district authority to adopt additional evaluation guidelines and criteria. In addition, the school board in
each district is required to establish and define job responsibilities of other certificated
non-instructional personnel (supervision or administrative positions) whose responsibilities cannot be evaluated
in the aforementioned four areas.
The ability to assess teacher competence in California in the four areas outlined in SB 813 is a critical factor in
achieving educational excellence and a positive learning experience for all students. In the following sections,
methods that can be used to assess the competency of teachers in each of the four areas will be addressed.
Assessing Pupil Progress
To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to facilitate the planning of various types
of instruction, administration should ensure that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and
appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could include data regarding students'
backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as well as other data from student records to ascertain academic
needs and to facilitate planning appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that
information regarding students and their families is used by the staff for professional purposes only and is kept
confidential as a matter of professional ethics.
Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative and summative diagnostic
processes available to assist in planning meaningful instruction. Formative measures include ongoing teacher
monitoring of student progress during the lessons, practice sessions, and on daily assignments. Measures
administered periodically like criterion-referenced tests, grade level examinations, or placement tests that are
teacher-made or part of district-adopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of student learning
as instruction progresses.
Summative measures like minimum competency examinations, district mastery tests, the California Assessment
Program examinations, and standardized tests provide a different perspective from the ongoing formative
measures. This type of data enables the teacher to evaluate the long-term retention rate of their students and to
compare student learning on a regional, state, or national basis.
The administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining adequate and accurate records of
student progress. This will include the regular and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student
progress on specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for the grade level or course they
are teaching. Once students' success levels have been identified from the records, the teacher should use the
information to plan instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing ongoing information
on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and challenging expectations for all students. Students and
parents should be informed of the students' progress toward achieving district goals and
objectives through comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing, report cards, and other
measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in self-assessment as a way of motivating students to
improve academic achievement.
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Instructional Strategies
When a profession deals with people, cause-and-effect relationships are never identified as certainties, only as
possibilities. Therefore, there are no certainties in teaching. It is a situational process requiring constant decision-
making which, when properly implemented, increases the probability of learning. Research on teacher
effectiveness has been intensified in the last two decades. The results have helped identify an instructional process
that provides a solid and basic framework for planning instruction which is helpful in guiding the administrator
in what to look for when visiting a classroom. These steps include planning, preparing, presenting the lesson,
monitoring student progress, and conducting practice sessions.
Planning the Lesson
Formulating a well-defined objective of the lesson is a critical first step as it provides the direction and framework
for the decisions which will follow. The objective should describe the specific content to be learned and the
observable behavior the student will exhibit to demonstrate that learning has occurred. No matter how expertly
the objectives are stated, objectives facilitate learning only if they are appropriate to the academic achievement
of students. A well-written objective includes specific information on what is to be included in the lesson and
what is not. This specifically expedites the next step, which is the identification of sub-skills or sub-objectives. A
task analysis of each of the sub-objectives enables the teacher to sequence them in order of difficulty to provide
a logical sequence to the lesson.
Preparing the Lesson
Administrators will know if the appropriate planning for instruction has taken place when the teacher is able to
design a lesson that achieves the objective. This means everything the teacher and students do during the lesson
is related to the objective. Birdwalking is a term coined by Madeline Hunter that refers to the inability of a teacher
to focus on the objective of the lesson (Gentile, 1987). Instead, the teacher birdwalks, pecking at interesting ideas
with what seems to be worthwhile or informative digressions, distracting the students' thinking processes and
leaving the students confused about the topic of the lesson. Avoiding birdwalking does not mean there can never
be spontaneity. The decision to adjust a lesson must be a conscious one where the advantage of postponing or
interrupting the lesson is weighed against the disadvantage of interrupting the logic of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).
Presenting the Lesson
The beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus of students' attention from
previous classes or discussions with friends to the objective of the lesson. The importance of eliciting appropriate
associations prior to presenting a lesson can be found in research on positive transfer and advanced organizers
(Ausubel, 1960; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Emmer & Evertson, 1979).
Research indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories of organized principles and
prerequisite concepts related to the lesson are reviewed at the beginning of the lesson. The focus portion, or
anticipatory set as it is called by Madeline Hunter, requires the student overtly or covertly have the prerequisites
in memory. The activity must be designed effectively to elicit information related to the lesson objective.
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During the opening it is important for students to know the direction of the instruction, the relevance of what they
are learning, and to have a sense of continuity. Students are often not able to see the relationship between today's
work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective of the lesson informally with students would include
teacher statements such as "what we are going to do today" and "the reason we are studying this concept."
The body of the lesson includes the presentation of information; what Rosenshine (1986) would call the
explanation-demonstration stage of the lesson. To implement this phase of the lesson, administrators should note
that teachers have a wide variety of different styles and models of teaching from which to choose. The larger the
number of alternative teaching styles teachers are comfortable utilizing, the more likely they will select techniques
that match the desired objectives, learning styles, and academic levels of their students. Publications that describe
a wide variety of models of teaching include Joyce and Weil (1986) and Bellon, Bellon, and Handler (1977).
Other authors have described specialized models like cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1975) and Ethna
Reid's ERIC model. Current literature is in agreement that there is
no single right way of teaching or one approach that will be effective for all learning objectives. To determine if
the best teaching strategy was selected administrators should determine if the teacher achieved the objective.
While well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are some attributes common to all
strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom observers should be aware that each strategy has a set of activities
with a distinct purpose and role for the teacher and students. Each strategy has a logical sequence which is
necessary if students are to accomplish the objective of the lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional
strategy is a complex task because there are numerous effective strategies that could be used, depending on the
instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a wide range of teaching studies to organize the methods of
instruction into four major categories which they refer to as families of instruction.
Based upon research in education and psychology, the four families categorize strategies according to the intended
learning outcomes.
The families include information processing, personal, social interaction, and behavioral. The information
processing family promotes a discovery process of learning. Methods included in this family stress thinking kills
and the content and process of learning. There is no single right answer. Motivation comes from the natural
curiosity of the students. Models in the information processing family are based upon the findings of Bruner,
Piaget, Taba, Suchman, and others. Some examples of teaching styles that promote information processing are
inquiry, concept attainment, and advanced organizers.
The personal family, derived from the work of Rogers, Perls, Gordon, and A.S. Neill, emphasizes individual
student development and problem-solving techniques. In this model the teacher assists the students in developing
interpersonal and cognitive skills and creativity. It enables the students to determine and evaluate their own
learning. Some examples from this family include non-directive teaching, synectics, and the classroom meetings.
Selecting a model of instruction from this family is appropriate when the goal of the lesson is to teach group
process and academic skills. Examples include various forms of cooperative learning and role-playing.
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The behavioral family emphasizes convergent thinking and a linear learning process where learning is broken
down into small, sequenced behaviors with frequent rewards for correct responses. This family includes the work
of Skinner, Bandura, Gagne, Walper, and others who share an emphasis on changing the behavior of the learner.
It is an appropriate method of instruction when the objective of the lesson is to teach facts, concepts, or skills.
Examples of teaching strategies included in this family are direct instruction and contingency management.
An ability to utilize several models in each of the four families enables teachers to review the needs of the students
and the objectives of the lesson, and select the particular approach that is most likely to facilitate achievement of
the learning objective. Classroom observers should understand that the four families provide a valuable source of
information for staff development training sessions.
Monitoring Student Progress
It is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the lesson and adjusting instruction
accordingly (Good, 1983; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986; Hunter, 1982). Periodic and formal assessments of
student learning through a mid-term or final examination may be helpful in formulating grades, but are not
frequent enough to enable the teacher to adjust the teaching to correct for misconceptions. When observing a
lesson, administrators should note points in the lesson where teachers should monitor instruction as it progresses
to enable them to immediately respond to students' misunderstandings and insure that all students are learning the
material. Checking for understanding can be done in large groups by having all of the students signal the response
at the same time to the same question. This can be done with the use of their fingers to signal multiple choice
answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or down to indicate true or false (Hunter, 1982). Other
techniques for group signaling include the use of individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or laminated cards on
which students record their responses with a grease pencil or crayon and flash the answer. A group choral response
can also be used. Students' understanding can also be checked through the use of brief written responses, or mini-
diagnostic tests. As students are completing the quick quiz the teacher walks around the room monitoring the
approach the students are using to solve the problems as well as their answers, and determines if adjustment in
teaching needs to be made. Another method would be a pair share where students take turns telling each other the
answers to two different questions related to the same objective while the teacher monitors. Although some
measures may not indicate specifically which students are confused, they do provide the teacher with the
information needed to determine if the direction or pace of the lesson needs to be adjusted.
Teachers who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students perform some observable behavior
congruent with the objective of the lesson while they check the behavior. They analyze the correctness and
completeness of the responses and determine if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the lesson before
they move on. Once this is completed they proceed to the next concept--teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and
providing the necessary practice.

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Conducting Practice Sessions
Once students have an adequate level of understanding, research concludes that it is extremely important that
students be given the opportunity to practice the new skill and its application (Russell & Hunter, 1977). In the
initial phase, practice should be conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher. Hunter refers to the process
as guided practice. The teacher moves about the room providing support, encouragement, praise, individual
assistance, and re-teaching. It can be particularly effective during this portion of the lesson if the teacher utilizes
cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous grouping strategies to form practice groups. This provides an
opportunity for peer-tutoring while the teacher circulates among the groups and keeps them on task while
monitoring their level of understanding.
It is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain amount of information before it
needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning interferes with the old and produces confusion. For longer or
more complicated lessons it may be critical to stop and get closure at several points throughout the lesson as well
as at the end. Students who actively participate in the process are able to reorganize the material and achieve
greater retention and clarity of the information.
Prior to allowing students time for independent practice, the use of summary or review statements helps students
put the information into perspective and identify the key points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it
will relate to the lesson planned for the following day. Providing closure, at any point in the lesson, provides
students with the opportunity to consolidate and organize what they have learned.
After providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting, students should be provided the
opportunity to practice the new skill independently. To insure that this practice session is positive and productive,
the material must relate directly to the lesson just mastered.
Adherence to Curricular Objectives
The third area supervisors are required to evaluate and assess is the teacher's ability to adhere to curricular
objectives. To comply with this requirement of SB 813, administrators should assure that teachers are utilizing
state frameworks, district curriculum guides, scope and sequence charts, and course outlines to assist them in
planning instruction. Lesson plans should have a clearly defined objective that is appropriate to the class learning
level and consistent with established district, school, department, or grade level curriculum standards for expected
achievement. Further, plans should incorporate the needs, interests, and special talents of students in the class and
include enrichment or acceleration activities for students who complete basic tasks early. Activities in the lesson
should revolve around the acquisition of new learning.
Planning should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of instruction to insure that the intended
curricular objectives are taught and mastered in the allocated time. Administrators should verify that a variety of
ongoing assessment measures are being utilized by the teacher to monitor achievement of intended objectives.
Information from these measures should be used to make adjustments to the pace, objectives, or sequence when

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necessary. Teachers should utilize district-adopted materials and appropriate supplemental materials to meet
individual student's academic needs and learning styles
Teachers should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending texts and supplementary
materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize their knowledge of students' skills, needs, and interests
in selecting a product that will more closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.
Suitable Learning Environment
The fourth and final requirement of SB 813 is that evaluators verify that teachers establish and maintain a suitable
learning environment. Therefore, each teacher should develop and implement clear classroom routines and
appropriate standards at the beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and welfare of their
students. This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly learning environment that includes establishment
of good work habits and discipline. Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and
procedures as well as the consequences for misbehavior with students and their parents. Students should show
evidence of respect for the rules in the classroom and on the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm, and
consistent as they maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules throughout the school.
Teachers should refer students to support staff when necessary to maintain the appropriate learning environment.
Administrators should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular and ongoing recognition and
reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among pupils, teachers, and staff should be evident on campus and in
classrooms. Everyone should work together cooperatively, communicate with sensitivity, and utilize appropriate
language. Administrators and teachers should serve as role models for students in developing self-control, a sense
of responsibility, and attitudes of tolerance and sensitivity.
Emergency procedures should be reviewed with students and practiced regularly. In addition, administrators
should verify that materials and supplies that will be needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student
information, are readily available.
Teachers should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort. The classroom arrangement
should make good use of space, foster good study habits, and enable students to see and hear instruction. The
classroom should have attractive and appropriate visuals and decorations that do not distract from learning.
Good home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and can be enhanced by regular
communication. This can include information on what is to be taught as well as the methods and materials that
will be used to achieve the objectives. Evaluators should check to see that systems have been established to
communicate with parents on a regular basis regarding student progress. Parents should have opportunities for
classroom visitations as well as parent conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return parents'
phone calls.
Supervision Strategies
Supervision of instruction must be built on the observer's thorough understanding and in-depth knowledge of
instructional theory, not on a check list of what should be in a lesson.
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Gathering Data
Three main sources of information help identify a teacher's competency on the four SB 813 criteria. They include:
observations, interviews, and documents.
Observations should include walk-throughs conducted on at least a weekly basis. These brief visits, lasting only
a minute or two, provide a quick look at teacher performance and classroom environmental factors. Walk-
throughs are helpful in identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is an unannounced visit
lasting more than 10 minutes during which the teacher's behaviors or classroom factors may be observed to
document consistent trends or patterns of behavior. The informal observation can be followed by a written
summary or conference with the teacher.
A formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of time. During the observation, the
administrator records what was said by the teacher and the students. The formal observation also includes a pre-
and post-conference and a written summary. The summary includes a description of the conference, observation,
observer's judgments, and agreements or directions for changes in teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom
environment. A peer observation is agreed upon by the teacher and peer and can be used to verify a trend or
pattern of behavior perceived by the evaluator.
Interviews are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include discussions with students to verify
perceptions. At times, parents request a conference to discuss their perceptions. In addition, other members of the
administrative team or classified employees who are assigned to work in the classroom can be interviewed to
provide their perceptions.
The review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or behaviors. These include written
parent and student letters or complaint forms. Individual pieces of students' work, folders, or portfolio assessments
which contain a number of samples of students' work also provide helpful information on their achievement.
Documents should include both formative (ongoing assessment measures) and summative measures (culminating
assessment) including homework, practice exercises completed in class, examinations, and student projects.
Reviewing student work on district developed criterion-referenced tests is also helpful. An analysis of the lesson
plans in respect to required or recommended district curriculum requirements or course outlines is also beneficial.
Teacher Conferencing
Conferences throughout the year provide a means to communicate the evaluation of the teacher's performance.
Decisions shared during the conference are based upon the data collected through observations, review of
documents, and interviews that relate to the assessment and evaluation of the teacher's ability to meet the
requirements of SB 813 as adopted by the local district governing board. The conference should provide the
teacher with the means to change unsatisfactory behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The
conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's knowledge and concepts and reinforce his or
her understanding of the missions of the school. The pre-conference is held before a formal observation and

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provides the administrator with the opportunity to obtain as much information about the upcoming observation
as possible.
Post-conferences can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of conference is planned by the
supervising administrator to achieve a different goal. A collaborative conference is effective when the teacher is
able to identify problem areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan, and is ready and willing to grow
professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed to conclude with mutually determined follow-
up activities that will enhance the teacher's capabilities. The conference begins with the teacher presenting an
overview and analysis of the lesson that was observed. The teacher identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the
lesson while the administrator listens to the teacher's perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher's
perceptions and offers his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange, possible activities for the next steps
are discussed and the conference concludes with agreement on a final plan.
A guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying problem areas and alternatives to
current practices and need support to carry out the action plan. In addition, the guided conference is effective with
a teacher who has little or no difficulty identifying areas that need improvement but is unwilling or not committed
to making the necessary changes. During a guided conference it is important that the principal provides prompts
to encourage the teacher's thinking, to allow the teacher freedom to explore various possibilities, and to enable
the teacher to make a commitment.
During the guided conference the teacher is encouraged to describe the lesson observed. The administrator probes
for further information and possible plans for growth and time frames. The administrator paraphrases his or her
understanding of the teacher's messages and asks for clarification when necessary. At the culmination of the
guided conference the teacher restates the criteria for action and the time frame.
A directive conference is effective for teachers who cannot identify problem areas, require a great deal of support,
and are unwilling or unable to change. In conducting the directive conference the administrator identifies the
problems and allows the teacher to provide input. The administrator shares the details of a plan for support and
assistance that is designed to enable the teacher to meet the desired expectations. Following the conference the
administrator directs and monitors the follow-up activities. It is the administrator's responsibility to provide
support, monitor the time line activities, and to evaluate the degree of effectiveness resulting from the assistance.
During each conference it is important to stay on the topic and focus on the data and documentation regarding the
lessons observed. If the data collected clearly indicate a change must occur to increase student learning, a directive
for change is appropriate. Some administrators find this type of conference difficult. It is important to avoid
compromising statements that provide an excuse for poor performance like, "I know this is asking a lot since it's
your first year in advanced science," or "You shouldn't be concerned that the lesson didn't go well, it happens to
everyone." When teachers make threats or caustic statements, the administrator must remember that teachers who
use this strategy are often diverting attention from the task at hand. It is important to avoid this diversion and
remain on task.
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At the close of a collaborative, guided, or directive conference there should be an agreed-upon or directed
statement clearly outlining the changes expected in the undesirable patterns of behavior, and where appropriate,
the specific professional growth activities that will be utilized to achieve the desired changes. The statement
should include the support and assistance, monitoring process, time lines for skill transfer, observable changes,
and which data will be reviewed. When preparing the statement it is important to select several changes that will
have the greatest effect on students' learning. Once the focus is established it is important to consider what is
reasonable to achieve in the given time frame. The administrator who will monitor
and conduct the review should consider all data needed to document whether the desired changes have taken
place.
Planning the Conference
In preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to review the data and identify the strengths and
areas of concern. The administrator should select only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth
activity or activities that will have the greatest effect on the learning for the largest number of students. These
selected areas will be the focus or objective of the conference. It will be necessary to identify specific aspects of
the data collected that support the need for growth in these areas. It is helpful to formulate questions before the
conference that will help the teacher focus on these issues or clarify aspects of the lesson for the administrator.
The administrator should identify possible resources and personnel that could assist in a follow-up plan prior to
the conference. The recommendations considered should be doable and reasonable based on the teacher's
readiness and the time available. The administrator should select the type of conference collaborative, guided, or
directive) and prepare a conference outline. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes. Longer sessions
become an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It is the administrator's responsibility to have his or
her thoughts well-organized and to keep the conference on task so it can be completed in a timely manner.
During the conference the teacher and/or administrator should cite purpose, strengths, and areas of concern with
reference to supporting data. A follow-up plan with the desired specific outcome, activities, and a summary of
decisions should be developed.
The evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or at the end of the year. The
purpose of the conference is to communicate the teacher's rating based upon the SB 813 performance criteria
adopted by the district and should include any commendations for exemplary performance. Additionally, the
conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's thinking and develop means to strengthen
performance. The conference provides yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school's missions, goals,
and values. The administrator prepares for the evaluation conference in much the same manner as other
conferences. The administrator should review all of the data collected to-date, including conference memoranda
and data prepared during the evaluation period. He or she should determine the teacher's ratings,
commendations, and recommendations, then prepare the evaluation forms. In addition, the administrator should
identify the objectives that will have the greatest effect on student learning, recommendations for improvement,
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methods of improvement and support, and a reasonable time line. The administrator should select the type of
conference (collaborative, guided, or directive) and formulate questions that help guide the staff to review specific
areas of performance.
The teacher and administrator should develop plans for enhancement or improvement. Following the conference
the administrator should prepare a legally sound evaluation conference memorandum following the format
suggested in the next section. Summative evaluation written documentation is required by law and must be
delivered in person to the teacher no later than thirty days prior to the end of the school year.
Memorandum and Letters of Reprimand
In education, a memorandum is often defined as any written material given to a teacher regarding his or her
performance or conduct. There are a wide variety of administrative correspondence that qualify as memoranda.
These include observation checklists, letters regarding an observation or conference, and letters summarizing a
conference. To insure that the desired results are achieved it is important that memoranda be legally sound.
Memorandum, as well as letters of reprimand, must be written in a timely manner, should include a reference
date, and state specific facts. These can include the date, time, place, and names of others who were present and/or
witnesses of the actions of the staff member being evaluated or reprimanded. These actions should be described
in an explicitly factual and objective manner using sensory facts (what was seen, heard, touched, tasted, or
smelled). Subjective opinions, conclusions, or educational jargon should be avoided. The consequences of the
performance or action on students, teachers, classified staff, administrators, or the work unit, should be described.
Extenuating or enhancing circumstances surrounding the performance should also be noted, as well as the
teacher's reasons or motives for the action if they were expressed. The appropriate and related teaching certificates
of the staff member should be referenced as well as related staff development efforts. Letters which cite
unsatisfactory behavior should reference the contract provision, rules, regulations, students' rights, guidelines,
and curriculum guides that were upheld or violated. Previous oral or written commendations or reprimands or
warnings, including compliments or complaints from students or parents that are related to the actions described
in the memo, should be noted. Efforts related to this area that have been made in the past to
assist the staff member and the employer's reactions to these efforts (positive and negative) should be teviewed.
The author should state his or her belief regarding the likelihood of recurrence. If it is a letter of reprimand; it
must be specifically stated. If this is the case, the letter should indicate that the staff member is being given another
opportunity to improve their performance with the hope they will be successful. The letter should state that if the
staff member does not improve, further disciplinary action will follow, although the specific action should not be
noted. On both the memorandum and letter of reprimand it must indicate that the staff member has the right to
respond. The letter should be handed, not mailed, to the employee with a copy
forwarded to the personnel office for inclusion in the staff member's personnel file.
Q.5 Write your understanding about;
1. Ubiquitous Supervision
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The supervising teacher performs a vital role in the professional learning, support and assessment of pre-
service teachers and in the task and activities that pre-service teachers undertake while enhancing and refining
their classroom practice.
As suggested by the diagram, the role of the supervising teacher is a multi-dimensional one. Supervising teachers
are teacher educators and mentors or guides for pre-service teachers, as well as being assessors of their progress
against the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.
A valued feature of performing these interconnected roles includes opportunities for discussion and reflection on
practices that improve student learning to foster pre-service teachers’ confidence, competence and ongoing
professional development.
The list of tasks performed by supervising teachers outlined here draws on the practices of high quality
supervising teachers described by Rosie Le Cornu (2015). The list includes references to documents, people and
assessment and reporting processes that are specific to the supervision of pre-service teachers.
Supervising teachers:
• provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to complete the professional learning tasks and activities
outlined in the Information and Guidelines Booklet for the given placement
• facilitate opportunities for pre-service teachers to observe effective teaching practice
• support pre-service teachers to interpret and respond to observations of teaching and learning by sharing
expertise and knowledge of students and discussing teaching practice
• support pre-service teachers to build constructive learning relationships and plan and implement an
appropriate learning program for students
• help pre-service teachers understand and interpret student data to effectively plan and modify their
teaching practice
• provide feedback on the pre-service teacher’s practices using the focus areas outlined in the Information
and Guidelines Booklet or areas of strength and need for improvement
• assist pre-service teachers to identify evidence of the impact of their teaching on student learning
• liaise with the University Coordinator allocated to the site to clarify expectations for the placement and
discuss the pre-service teacher’s progress
• assess the pre-service teacher’s progress towards or demonstration of the Australian Professional
Standards for Teachers at a level appropriate to his / her experience or progress throughout the course of
study
• complete the Interim Report and Final Summative Report by rating the pre-service teacher’s progress
against the criteria outlined in the Guide to Making Judgements for the given placement (See Appendices
in the relevant Information and Guidelines Booklet for the criteria and Guide to Making Judgements)
• finalise the pre-service teacher’s Summative Report at the conclusion of the placement by ensuring all
site-based signatures have been obtained and provide a copy of the report to the pre-service teacher.
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This list of roles makes it obvious that supporting pre-service teachers and making good judgements on their
progress at different stages of their development depends on supervising teachers having clear, shared
understandings of the expectations for their practice during a particular professional experience placement.
Professional experience placements represent a developmental continuum where pre-service teachers move from
needing high levels of guidance and support during their first placement towards independent demonstration of
the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers at Graduate Career Stage in their final placement.
In other words, context matters when providing appropriate support for pre-service teachers and making
assessment judgements. A first year pre-service teacher will be at a vastly different stage of development to a
final year pre-service teacher.
2. Application of Technology in accounting
Accounting technology has always played a part in making the accountant's job just a little easier. As our
knowledge of technology increased so has the accountant's ability to analyze statistical values. Technology
advancements have enhanced the accountant's ability to interpret data efficiently and effectively. In accounting
and finance, robotic process automation (RPA) can handle repetitive and time-consuming tasks such as
document analysis and processing, which is abundant in any accounting department. Freed up from these
mundane tasks, accountants are able to spend time on strategy and advisory work.
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Analyze the load of responsibility, dispersion of tasks and the roles of supervisor.
A manager’s style of giving direction, setting strategy, and motivating people is the result of his or her personality,
values, training, and experience. Let’s examine some of the most common management styles and the
circumstances under which each is most appropriate.
Autocratic/Authoritarian Management Style
Under an autocratic management style, decision-making power is concentrated in the manager. Autocratic
managers don’t entertain any suggestions or consider initiatives from subordinates. This style of management is
effective for quick decision making but is generally not successful in fostering employee engagement or
maintaining worker satisfaction. When do managers tend to use this style?
• In crisis situations, when it’s impractical to solicit employee input, managers may become autocratic. For
example, a manager might order employees to vacate the building because of fire or another emergency.
Taking the time to seek advice or opinions is not only impractical but could endanger lives.
• Traditionally, if the workforce is comprised of low-skill workers, employee input isn’t encouraged because
it’s considered to be of limited value or importance. However, more forward-thinking managers regard all
worker input as valuable, regardless of skill level.
Laissez-Faire/Free-Rein Management Style
The laissez-faire style is sometimes described as “hands-off” management because the manager delegates the
tasks to the followers while providing little or no direction. If the laissez-faire manager withdraws too much, it
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can sometimes result in a lack of productivity, cohesion, and satisfaction. Under this type of management,
subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.When do managers employ this
approach?
• When workers have the skills to work independently, are self-motivated, and are held accountable for
results (physicians are a good example), laissez-faire management may be effective. Highly skilled
employees require less frequent instruction, and managers must rely on them to use their professional
expertise to make sound decisions.
• Managers of creative or innovative employees often adopt this approach in order to foster creativity. For
example, computer programmers, artists, or graphic designers can benefit from a hands-off management
style. Managers step out of the way to make room for new ideas, creative problem-solving, and
collaboration.
Participative/Democratic Management Style
Under a participative or democratic style of management, the manager shares the decision-making authority with
group members. This approach values individual interests and perspectives while also contributing to team
cohesion. Participative management can help employees feel more invested in decisions, outcomes, or the choices
they’ve made, because they have a say in them. When is this an appropriate managerial choice?
• When an organization enters a transitional period—a merger or acquisition, expanding into a new market,
closing a facility, or adding new products, for example—managers need to guide the workforce through
the change. Such circumstances involve adjustments and adaptations for a large group of people, so
managers may find that a participative management style is most effective.
• Businesses often encounter new or unexpected challenges. During tough times, resourceful managers will
solicit input from employees at many levels within the organization. A democratic approach can uncover
people with invaluable experience, advice, and solutions.
Each style of management can be effective if matched with the needs of the situation and used by a skilled,
versatile manager. The best managers are adept at several styles and able to exercise good judgement about which
one is suited to the task at hand.
Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leaders work with subordinates to identify needed change, create and share an inspiring vision,
and bring about change together with committed members of a group. Transformational leadership serves to
enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include
connecting the follower’s sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization;
being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging
followers to take greater ownership for their work; and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers,
allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance. Transformational leaders are
often idealized and viewed as moral exemplars for their contributions to a team, an organization, or a community.
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Transactional Leadership Style
Transactional leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and later by Bernard Bass in 1981. This kind
of leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on supervision, organization, and performance.
Unlike transformational leaders, those using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future—
they value the status quo. Transactional leaders pay attention to their followers’ work in order to find fault or
deviation and gain their compliance through a system of rewards and punishments. There are two factors that form
the basis for this reward/punishment system: contingent reward and management by exception. Contingent
reward provides rewards (material or psychological) for effort and recognizes good performance. Management
by exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo; the leader intervenes when subordinates do not meet
acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve performance.
Narcissistic Leadership Style
Narcissistic leaders are visionary and charismatic, with a keen ability to attract and inspire followers.
Anthropologist and psychoanalyst Michael Maccoby observes that “one reason we look to productive narcissists
in times of great transition is that they have the audacity to push through the massive transformations that society
periodically undertakes. Productive narcissists are not only risk takers willing to get the job done but also charmers
who can convert the masses with their rhetoric.”[2] Narcissism exists on a continuum from normal to pathological.
To Maccoby’s point, narcissistic leaders can be viewed as either productive or unproductive. Although narcissistic
leaders can be transformational leaders, they can also be toxic to an organization. Narcissists tend to listen only
to information and advice that supports their view, regardless of the reality. Their sense of supreme self-worth,
combined with a continual need for affirmation, eliminates independent thought and creates a culture of yes
people. Organizations led by narcissists are typically characterized by fierce internal competition and changing
alliances. This culture can be energizing or, if everyone and everything is perceived as a threat, destructive.
Many of us choose to be in social groups because there are number of benefits that we receive as members. We
may choose to be in a group for instrumental (or task) reasons so that the other group members can help us
accomplish something. Or, we may choose to be in a group for expressive (or emotional) reasons so that the other
group members can provide us with companionship, love, and security.
Think about our social groups in the context of leadership. There are typically two types of leadership:
instrumental and expressive. Instrumental leadership focuses on achieving goals. Leaders who are dominantly
instrumental work to maintain productivity and ensure that tasks are completed. They make good managers
because they get the job done. However, they are often so focused on the task that they can alienate other members
of the group.
Expressive leadership, on the other hand, focuses on maintaining group cohesion. Leaders who are dominantly
expressive work to maintain warm, friendly relationships and ensure the collective well-being of the group. They
make good bosses because they truly care for their employees. However, they are sometimes lacking efficiency
and organizational skills.
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Although most leaders are dominantly instrumental or expressive, both styles are needed for groups to work
effectively. So, the most effective leaders have the ability to use the style that best fits the situation. They can
switch from being instrumental and focusing on the task, to being expressive and focusing on collaboration,
whenever they see a need.
Authoritarian Decision-Making
Beyond dominant leadership types and abilities, leaders also vary in their decision-making styles. There are three
basic styles of leadership decision-making: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Leaders who use authoritarian decision-making make all the major group decisions and demand compliance
from the group members. Authoritarian leaders typically make decisions on their own and tell other group
members what to do and how to do it. Authoritarian leadership can be beneficial when a decision needs to be
made quickly or when a project or situation is particularly stressful.
For example, imagine you're a member of the Greek army during the Trojan War. It would have been beneficial
for Odysseus to practice authoritarian decision-making in order to determine who would perform each task of
building the Trojan Horse. You and the other soldiers would not have had to worry about making complex
decisions, but instead, you could focus on your individual tasks. Imagine what would have happened if all of
those soldiers had spent days debating while in the midst of a war!
While authoritarian leadership can be beneficial at times, it is often the case that it's more problematic. This type
of decision-making is easily abused, and authoritarian leaders are often viewed as bossy and controlling. Because
authoritarian leaders make decisions without consulting the group, many group members may resent the leader
because they are unable to contribute ideas.
Democratic Decision-Making
The next type of leadership decision-making is democratic. Leaders who use democratic decision-
making encourage group discussion and believe in decision-making through consensus. Democratic leaders still
make the final decision, but do so only after carefully considering what other group members have said. Usually,
their decision goes with the majority. Democratic leaders are generally the most popular. They make members of
the group feel included and promote teamwork and creativity.
For example, think about King Arthur and his knights. Most of us are familiar with the famous round table, where
all of the knights plus King Arthur would sit in equal status. They would discuss problems in the kingdom together
and come to a consensus before King Arthur would take action.
Q.2 Discuss the concept of growth orientation, two-way communication and focus on competence.
Financial audit is a routine job. It does not focus on any specific problem. Performance audit, on the other hand
focuses on problems and the process of identification of its causes. In financial audit, attention is more on figures,
in performance audit, however, the attention is more on people, and other resources.

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This is dependent primarily on three stakeholders — students, faculty members and the industry. The industry
very rarely takes an interest in providing quality education through guest lectures or visiting faculty, but
loves to criticise and say that the quality of teaching is bad or the contents are outdated.
The only personnel from the industry who are readily available as guest lecturers or visiting faculty are those
who are retired and would now like to “contribute to the society.” This implies that the burden of providing
quality education lies mainly on faculty members. The objective of students is to get a good academic record
while the faculty aims to get a good feedback. Students believe that the institution is a mere place for getting
a certificate. In many cases, they believe that the certificate is a passport for getting employed and is
obtainable as soon as the fees are paid. All the information that is required is available on the Internet and
can be easily digested by reading casually before the exams. They also believe conveniently what they hear
from the industry personnel that the syllabus is outdated and the gap between what is taught and what is
actually practised is huge.
22. One of the tools available to measure the adequacy of this academic input is ‘Academic Audit’.
23. The academic audit provides an opportunity for a regular strategic overview of a college’s teaching-
learning process.
24. It is the process by which the authorities assure themselves of the quality of the learning process. The
academic audit is normally carried out once in five years.
25. It has four distinct features: It is college-based and is normally reviewed independently, it is based
on a process of self-evaluation carried out by the college itself, the use of an external evaluator helps
in objectivity, and the audit evaluates the full range of college activities so as to ensure a balanced
recommendation by the audit panel.
26. An audit takes into account the following:
27. Whether the activities and programmes being implemented have been authorised by the concerned
authorities (in the case of a university set-up — have the programmes been approved by the
university, academic council, the board of management, an so on).
28. Whether the activities and programmes are being conducted in a manner geared to accomplish the
objectives intended by the authorities.
29. Whether the activities and programmes are efficiently and effectively serving the purpose intended
by the authorities.
30. Whether the activities and programmes being conducted and funds expended in compliance with the
applicable laws.
31. Are adequate operating, administrative procedures and practices, systems, etc. in place?
32. Are the needs of the various stakeholders such as students, parents, employers, statutory authorities,
society and the top management or the trustees satisfied?
33. The advantages of an academic audit are manifold. Some of these are given below:
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34. For students: It helps in eliminating unnecessary workload and dwells mainly on those essentially
required for the success of a student’s career.
35. For teachers: It helps in clarifying their roles and responsibilities and thus avoids conflicts.
36. For the society: It ensures effective use of public money.
37. For employers: It ensures availability of well-rounded students who can contribute from day one
itself.
38. The process of academic audit involves three stages: self-study involving understanding the teaching-
learning process, peer review and evaluating the self-study and the peer review.
39. Discussions with persons in higher educational institutions reveal that it is a herculean task to get the
students to listen to a guest lecture. These discussions also revealed that students prefer to sit in the
canteen and discuss some social problems rather than listening to lectures. The students need to be
coaxed or sometimes even incentivised with means such as additional marks to attend to the guest
lectures.
40. In many cases, the parents of the students strongly believe that the failure of the student implies that
the faculty does not understand the subject or does not communicate well. Students demand a good
placement, both in terms of companies as well as packages.
41. Yet, basic etiquettes are not followed. Dressing casually and being late for interviews is the norm.
42. This dissatisfaction can perhaps be reduced by controlling the input side of the institution by reducing
the intake of students, limiting the number of higher education institutions and by continuously
monitoring the academic progress of the student.
Q.3 Elaborate the supervision school environment and supervision administrative practices.
In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more attention has been
given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig & Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had
originated from France under Napoleon’s Regime at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties
followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools
were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin & Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801
(Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms “inspector” and “inspection” are still being used in various
developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and
some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007).
Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in
the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different
countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the
assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on
providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and
improvement in their teaching learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and
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support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and
preferring the term “supervisor” over that of “inspector”. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have
recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses “education methods advisor”, and Uganda “teacher
development advisor”.
The concepts of “supervision” and “inspection” have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and
the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for
the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the
fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that:
Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical
rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any
significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12)
From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management.
According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center
(Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school
level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers.
According to Haileselassie (1997), the functional and true sense of educational supervision depends on the
supervisory operation made at the grassroots level, i.e. School level. In this regard, subject-area instructional
supervision has practiced in all schools of Addis Ababa since the beginning of 2004. The major responsibilities
of subject-area instructional supervisors in Addis Ababa include: (1) examining and reporting the programs,
organization and management of the teaching-learning activities; (2) developing and presenting alternative
methods used to improve instructional programs; (3) guiding and monitoring schools and teachers; (4) preparing
and organizing professional trainings, workshops, seminars, etc.; (5) monitoring and supporting the mentoring
(induction) programs for beginner teachers; and (6) providing direct assistance and perform instructional and
managerial activities in schools with teachers and principals by organizing and implementing clinical, collegial,
peer coaching and cognitive coaching techniques of instructional supervision, etc (Alemayehu, 2008).
According to Blasé and Blasé (1998), although many supervisory approaches are collaborative in nature, for long
time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described
supervision as a “ritual they [supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without
much consequence” (p. 203). This author continued that “today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an
artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education” (p. 204). He
explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative
stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled.
Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, “because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort
of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to use” (p.1).

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It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because
supervisory authority and control are essential for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000)
explained this as “much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded” (p. 37). Having said
this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a
formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that
“instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning”
(p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and carry out a range of professional growth
opportunities designed to meet teacher’s professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different
levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is “a summative process that focus on assessing the competence of
teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individual’s professional competence at
specific time” (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should
go hand in hand (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers’ professional growth,
evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990).
The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-
assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching,
cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso & Firth, 1990;
Clarke, 1995; Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different
supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also important to provide choices to
the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as
follows.
Clinical Supervision
According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a “face- to- face contract with teachers with
the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth” (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and
systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed
to improve the teacher’s classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according
to Snow-Gerono (2008) is “to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers’ abilities
to be self-supervising” (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a “specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers”
(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of
supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is
right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure of clinical
supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision
conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with: inexperienced
beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving
their instructional performance.

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Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its
evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches “collaborate to research their practices and improve
their teaching and learning” (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical
supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality
of teaching and students’ performance (Sergiovanni &Starratt, 2007).
Collaborative Supervision
Collaboration and collegiality are very important in today’s modern schools. According to Burke and Fessler
(1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to
supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching
environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an
ethical and professional responsibility of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that “needs do not exist for
professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward
improvement” (Burke & Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision
which are especially needed for beginner or novice teachers are: peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring
(Showers & Joyce, 1996; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007; Sullivan & Glanz, 2003; Kutsyuruba, 2003).
Peer coaching
Peer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as “teachers helping teachers reflect on and
improve teaching practice and/or carry out particular teaching skills needed to carry out knowledge gained
through faculty or curriculum development” (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice
and feedback following staff development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective
if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction
with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for efficient communication,
and involve them in decision-making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to
develop communities within which “teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value: when we learn together,
we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students” (p. 251). Thus, peer
coaching provides possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative
relationships, participatory decision-making, and immediate feedback (Bowman & McCormick, 2000; Sullivan
& Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who
coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
Cognitive coaching
According to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to “a nonjudgmental process built around a
planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference” (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer
coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching
is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers & Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described,
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cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however,
when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further
identified three components of cognitive coaching: planning, lesson observation, and reflection.
Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely: (1) developing and
maintaining trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior; and
(3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and
encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy i.e. the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze
(Garmston, Linder & Whitaker, 1993).
Mentoring
Mentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is “a process that facilitates instructional improvement
wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff
member” (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or
beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and
its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and
Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors as:
The mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and
deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific
area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All
interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213)
Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and
professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of
teachers (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the
emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a
colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and learn ways to overcome them.
As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved.
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Self-Reflection
As the context of education is ever-changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to
reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective
reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self assessment reflective
practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a
teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. According to Sergiovanni (1991),
self-directed approaches are “mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling
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or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers”(305). Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007)
considered this option to be “efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others”.
Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision “teachers work alone by assuming responsibility for
their own professional development” (p. 276).
Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is “an option provided for teachers that enable
them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake
the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes” (p. 200). In addition, this approach is “particularly suited to
competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well” (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007, p.
276).
Portfolios
As teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take
ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such
practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with
teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers’
professional growth and abilities (Riggs & Sandlin, 2000).
A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is “an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the
opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time” (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and
Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records,
photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and
teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective
practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth “through self-reflection,
analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing” (p. 215). The writers further described that
portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships.
Professional Growth Plans
Professional growth plans are defined as “individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop
and carry out relating to the teaching” (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional
and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth
plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan
in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read,
and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans “could
produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and
increased focus and commitment to learning” (p. 422).
Summative Evaluation
There is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda,
2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components: formative evaluation and summative evaluation
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(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended
to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers’ professional growth, where as
summative teacher evaluation is designed to judge and rate the quality of one’s own teaching and level of
professional growth. In this regard, the purposes of instructional supervision are formative- focused on teachers’
ongoing professional development, and the intents of evaluation are summative- assessment of professional
performance which leads to a final judgment (Zepeda, 2007). However, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated
that both formative and summative teacher evaluations cannot be separated, for each contains aspects of the other.
Summative evaluation, therefore, uses various techniques such as, administrative monitoring, report writing,
checklists, and self-assessment tools (Kutsyuruba, 2003).
Teachers’ Perception of Supervisory Processes
From laypersons conducting school inspection in the 18th century, up to the practice of neo-scientific
management, instructional supervision in most schools of the world has focused on inspection and control of
teachers (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), “Historically the evaluation function of
supervision was rooted in bureaucratic inspectional type supervision” (p. 22). The writers further described that
teachers view supervision for the sake of evaluation as often being anything other than up lifting. In a study of
supervision and teacher satisfaction, Fraser (1980) stated that “the improvement of the teaching learning process
was dependent upon teacher attitudes toward supervision” (p. 224). The writer noted that unless teachers perceive
supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory practice will not
bring the desired effect.
Q.4 How online reporting and dissemination of information and accounting system are useful technology
in administration?
Through the effective supervision of instruction, administrators can reinforce and enhance teaching practices that
will contribute to improved student learning. By skillfully analyzing performance and appropriate data,
administrators can provide meaningful feedback and direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on the
learning that occurs in each classroom. Because student learning is the primary function of the schools, the
effective supervision of instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator. If schools are to
provide equal access to quality educational programs for all students, administrators must hold teachers
accountable for providing an appropriate and well-planned program. These programs include a variety of
teaching strategies designed to meet the diverse needs of all students in our complex society.
This chapter reviews areas of focus for teacher evaluation, the components of effective teaching, some basic
strategies and procedures for data gathering and conferencing, and steps administrators should consider in the
effective preparation of conference memorandums and letters of reprimand. Approaches that are discussed which
differ from existing procedures in the district should be used to stimulate discussion and prompt a review of
current practices. This process may lead to a restructuring of practices and procedures that could result in the
enhancement of student learning.
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Teacher Evaluation
To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators must be skilled in these areas: (a)
what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and analyze classroom observation information and other data, and (c) how
to translate the results of observations and the summary of data into meaningful conference feedback that guides
and encourages teachers to improve instruction. Expectancies for teacher performance were enacted by California
State Senate Bill 813 and are included in Section 44662 of the California Education Code. This section requires
the governing board of each school district to establish standards of expected pupil achievement at each grade
level in each area of study. Under this code, evaluation and assessment
of certificated employee competency are required in four areas. These include: (1) the progress of pupils toward
the district-adopted standards, (2) the instructional strategies and techniques utilized by the teacher, (3) the
teacher's adherence to curricular objectives, and (4) the establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning
environment. Although this code section prohibits the evaluation and assessment of certificated employee
competence by the use of published norms established by standardized tests, it does give the board of education
of each district authority to adopt additional evaluation guidelines and criteria. In addition, the school board in
each district is required to establish and define job responsibilities of other certificated
non-instructional personnel (supervision or administrative positions) whose responsibilities cannot be evaluated
in the aforementioned four areas.
The ability to assess teacher competence in California in the four areas outlined in SB 813 is a critical factor in
achieving educational excellence and a positive learning experience for all students. In the following sections,
methods that can be used to assess the competency of teachers in each of the four areas will be addressed.
Assessing Pupil Progress
To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to facilitate the planning of various types
of instruction, administration should ensure that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and
appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could include data regarding students'
backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as well as other data from student records to ascertain academic
needs and to facilitate planning appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that
information regarding students and their families is used by the staff for professional purposes only and is kept
confidential as a matter of professional ethics.
Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative and summative diagnostic
processes available to assist in planning meaningful instruction. Formative measures include ongoing teacher
monitoring of student progress during the lessons, practice sessions, and on daily assignments. Measures
administered periodically like criterion-referenced tests, grade level examinations, or placement tests that are
teacher-made or part of district-adopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of student learning
as instruction progresses.

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Summative measures like minimum competency examinations, district mastery tests, the California Assessment
Program examinations, and standardized tests provide a different perspective from the ongoing formative
measures. This type of data enables the teacher to evaluate the long-term retention rate of their students and to
compare student learning on a regional, state, or national basis.
The administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining adequate and accurate records of
student progress. This will include the regular and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student
progress on specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for the grade level or course they
are teaching. Once students' success levels have been identified from the records, the teacher should use the
information to plan instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing ongoing information
on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and challenging expectations for all students. Students and
parents should be informed of the students' progress toward achieving district goals and
objectives through comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing, report cards, and other
measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in self-assessment as a way of motivating students to
improve academic achievement.
Instructional Strategies
When a profession deals with people, cause-and-effect relationships are never identified as certainties, only as
possibilities. Therefore, there are no certainties in teaching. It is a situational process requiring constant decision-
making which, when properly implemented, increases the probability of learning. Research on teacher
effectiveness has been intensified in the last two decades. The results have helped identify an instructional process
that provides a solid and basic framework for planning instruction which is helpful in guiding the administrator
in what to look for when visiting a classroom. These steps include planning, preparing, presenting the lesson,
monitoring student progress, and conducting practice sessions.
Planning the Lesson
Formulating a well-defined objective of the lesson is a critical first step as it provides the direction and framework
for the decisions which will follow. The objective should describe the specific content to be learned and the
observable behavior the student will exhibit to demonstrate that learning has occurred. No matter how expertly
the objectives are stated, objectives facilitate learning only if they are appropriate to the academic achievement
of students. A well-written objective includes specific information on what is to be included in the lesson and
what is not. This specifically expedites the next step, which is the identification of sub-skills or sub-objectives. A
task analysis of each of the sub-objectives enables the teacher to sequence them in order of difficulty to provide
a logical sequence to the lesson.
Preparing the Lesson
Administrators will know if the appropriate planning for instruction has taken place when the teacher is able to
design a lesson that achieves the objective. This means everything the teacher and students do during the lesson
is related to the objective. Birdwalking is a term coined by Madeline Hunter that refers to the inability of a teacher
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to focus on the objective of the lesson (Gentile, 1987). Instead, the teacher birdwalks, pecking at interesting ideas
with what seems to be worthwhile or informative digressions, distracting the students' thinking processes and
leaving the students confused about the topic of the lesson. Avoiding birdwalking does not mean there can never
be spontaneity. The decision to adjust a lesson must be a conscious one where the advantage of postponing or
interrupting the lesson is weighed against the disadvantage of interrupting the logic of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).
Presenting the Lesson
The beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus of students' attention from
previous classes or discussions with friends to the objective of the lesson. The importance of eliciting appropriate
associations prior to presenting a lesson can be found in research on positive transfer and advanced organizers
(Ausubel, 1960; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Emmer & Evertson, 1979).
Research indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories of organized principles and
prerequisite concepts related to the lesson are reviewed at the beginning of the lesson. The focus portion, or
anticipatory set as it is called by Madeline Hunter, requires the student overtly or covertly have the prerequisites
in memory. The activity must be designed effectively to elicit information related to the lesson objective.
During the opening it is important for students to know the direction of the instruction, the relevance of what they
are learning, and to have a sense of continuity. Students are often not able to see the relationship between today's
work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective of the lesson informally with students would include
teacher statements such as "what we are going to do today" and "the reason we are studying this concept."
The body of the lesson includes the presentation of information; what Rosenshine (1986) would call the
explanation-demonstration stage of the lesson. To implement this phase of the lesson, administrators should note
that teachers have a wide variety of different styles and models of teaching from which to choose. The larger the
number of alternative teaching styles teachers are comfortable utilizing, the more likely they will select techniques
that match the desired objectives, learning styles, and academic levels of their students. Publications that describe
a wide variety of models of teaching include Joyce and Weil (1986) and Bellon, Bellon, and Handler (1977).
Other authors have described specialized models like cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1975) and Ethna
Reid's ERIC model. Current literature is in agreement that there is
no single right way of teaching or one approach that will be effective for all learning objectives. To determine if
the best teaching strategy was selected administrators should determine if the teacher achieved the objective.
While well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are some attributes common to all
strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom observers should be aware that each strategy has a set of activities
with a distinct purpose and role for the teacher and students. Each strategy has a logical sequence which is
necessary if students are to accomplish the objective of the lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional
strategy is a complex task because there are numerous effective strategies that could be used, depending on the
instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a wide range of teaching studies to organize the methods of
instruction into four major categories which they refer to as families of instruction.
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Based upon research in education and psychology, the four families categorize strategies according to the intended
learning outcomes.
The families include information processing, personal, social interaction, and behavioral. The information
processing family promotes a discovery process of learning. Methods included in this family stress thinking kills
and the content and process of learning. There is no single right answer. Motivation comes from the natural
curiosity of the students. Models in the information processing family are based upon the findings of Bruner,
Piaget, Taba, Suchman, and others. Some examples of teaching styles that promote information processing are
inquiry, concept attainment, and advanced organizers.
The personal family, derived from the work of Rogers, Perls, Gordon, and A.S. Neill, emphasizes individual
student development and problem-solving techniques. In this model the teacher assists the students in developing
interpersonal and cognitive skills and creativity. It enables the students to determine and evaluate their own
learning. Some examples from this family include non-directive teaching, synectics, and the classroom meetings.
Selecting a model of instruction from this family is appropriate when the goal of the lesson is to teach group
process and academic skills. Examples include various forms of cooperative learning and role-playing.
The behavioral family emphasizes convergent thinking and a linear learning process where learning is broken
down into small, sequenced behaviors with frequent rewards for correct responses. This family includes the work
of Skinner, Bandura, Gagne, Walper, and others who share an emphasis on changing the behavior of the learner.
It is an appropriate method of instruction when the objective of the lesson is to teach facts, concepts, or skills.
Examples of teaching strategies included in this family are direct instruction and contingency management.
An ability to utilize several models in each of the four families enables teachers to review the needs of the students
and the objectives of the lesson, and select the particular approach that is most likely to facilitate achievement of
the learning objective. Classroom observers should understand that the four families provide a valuable source of
information for staff development training sessions.
Monitoring Student Progress
It is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the lesson and adjusting instruction
accordingly (Good, 1983; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986; Hunter, 1982). Periodic and formal assessments of
student learning through a mid-term or final examination may be helpful in formulating grades, but are not
frequent enough to enable the teacher to adjust the teaching to correct for misconceptions. When observing a
lesson, administrators should note points in the lesson where teachers should monitor instruction as it progresses
to enable them to immediately respond to students' misunderstandings and insure that all students are learning the
material. Checking for understanding can be done in large groups by having all of the students signal the response
at the same time to the same question. This can be done with the use of their fingers to signal multiple choice
answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or down to indicate true or false (Hunter, 1982). Other
techniques for group signaling include the use of individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or laminated cards on
which students record their responses with a grease pencil or crayon and flash the answer. A group choral response
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can also be used. Students' understanding can also be checked through the use of brief written responses, or mini-
diagnostic tests. As students are completing the quick quiz the teacher walks around the room monitoring the
approach the students are using to solve the problems as well as their answers, and determines if adjustment in
teaching needs to be made. Another method would be a pair share where students take turns telling each other the
answers to two different questions related to the same objective while the teacher monitors. Although some
measures may not indicate specifically which students are confused, they do provide the teacher with the
information needed to determine if the direction or pace of the lesson needs to be adjusted.
Teachers who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students perform some observable behavior
congruent with the objective of the lesson while they check the behavior. They analyze the correctness and
completeness of the responses and determine if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the lesson before
they move on. Once this is completed they proceed to the next concept--teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and
providing the necessary practice.
Conducting Practice Sessions
Once students have an adequate level of understanding, research concludes that it is extremely important that
students be given the opportunity to practice the new skill and its application (Russell & Hunter, 1977). In the
initial phase, practice should be conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher. Hunter refers to the process
as guided practice. The teacher moves about the room providing support, encouragement, praise, individual
assistance, and re-teaching. It can be particularly effective during this portion of the lesson if the teacher utilizes
cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous grouping strategies to form practice groups. This provides an
opportunity for peer-tutoring while the teacher circulates among the groups and keeps them on task while
monitoring their level of understanding.
It is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain amount of information before it
needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning interferes with the old and produces confusion. For longer or
more complicated lessons it may be critical to stop and get closure at several points throughout the lesson as well
as at the end. Students who actively participate in the process are able to reorganize the material and achieve
greater retention and clarity of the information.
Prior to allowing students time for independent practice, the use of summary or review statements helps students
put the information into perspective and identify the key points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it
will relate to the lesson planned for the following day. Providing closure, at any point in the lesson, provides
students with the opportunity to consolidate and organize what they have learned.
After providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting, students should be provided the
opportunity to practice the new skill independently. To insure that this practice session is positive and productive,
the material must relate directly to the lesson just mastered.
Adherence to Curricular Objectives

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The third area supervisors are required to evaluate and assess is the teacher's ability to adhere to curricular
objectives. To comply with this requirement of SB 813, administrators should assure that teachers are utilizing
state frameworks, district curriculum guides, scope and sequence charts, and course outlines to assist them in
planning instruction. Lesson plans should have a clearly defined objective that is appropriate to the class learning
level and consistent with established district, school, department, or grade level curriculum standards for expected
achievement. Further, plans should incorporate the needs, interests, and special talents of students in the class and
include enrichment or acceleration activities for students who complete basic tasks early. Activities in the lesson
should revolve around the acquisition of new learning.
Planning should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of instruction to insure that the intended
curricular objectives are taught and mastered in the allocated time. Administrators should verify that a variety of
ongoing assessment measures are being utilized by the teacher to monitor achievement of intended objectives.
Information from these measures should be used to make adjustments to the pace, objectives, or sequence when
necessary. Teachers should utilize district-adopted materials and appropriate supplemental materials to meet
individual student's academic needs and learning styles
Teachers should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending texts and supplementary
materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize their knowledge of students' skills, needs, and interests
in selecting a product that will more closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.
Suitable Learning Environment
The fourth and final requirement of SB 813 is that evaluators verify that teachers establish and maintain a suitable
learning environment. Therefore, each teacher should develop and implement clear classroom routines and
appropriate standards at the beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and welfare of their
students. This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly learning environment that includes establishment
of good work habits and discipline. Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and
procedures as well as the consequences for misbehavior with students and their parents. Students should show
evidence of respect for the rules in the classroom and on the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm, and
consistent as they maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules throughout the school.
Teachers should refer students to support staff when necessary to maintain the appropriate learning environment.
Administrators should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular and ongoing recognition and
reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among pupils, teachers, and staff should be evident on campus and in
classrooms. Everyone should work together cooperatively, communicate with sensitivity, and utilize appropriate
language. Administrators and teachers should serve as role models for students in developing self-control, a sense
of responsibility, and attitudes of tolerance and sensitivity.
Emergency procedures should be reviewed with students and practiced regularly. In addition, administrators
should verify that materials and supplies that will be needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student
information, are readily available.
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Teachers should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort. The classroom arrangement
should make good use of space, foster good study habits, and enable students to see and hear instruction. The
classroom should have attractive and appropriate visuals and decorations that do not distract from learning.
Good home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and can be enhanced by regular
communication. This can include information on what is to be taught as well as the methods and materials that
will be used to achieve the objectives. Evaluators should check to see that systems have been established to
communicate with parents on a regular basis regarding student progress. Parents should have opportunities for
classroom visitations as well as parent conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return parents'
phone calls.
Supervision Strategies
Supervision of instruction must be built on the observer's thorough understanding and in-depth knowledge of
instructional theory, not on a check list of what should be in a lesson.
Gathering Data
Three main sources of information help identify a teacher's competency on the four SB 813 criteria. They include:
observations, interviews, and documents.
Observations should include walk-throughs conducted on at least a weekly basis. These brief visits, lasting only
a minute or two, provide a quick look at teacher performance and classroom environmental factors. Walk-
throughs are helpful in identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is an unannounced visit
lasting more than 10 minutes during which the teacher's behaviors or classroom factors may be observed to
document consistent trends or patterns of behavior. The informal observation can be followed by a written
summary or conference with the teacher.
A formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of time. During the observation, the
administrator records what was said by the teacher and the students. The formal observation also includes a pre-
and post-conference and a written summary. The summary includes a description of the conference, observation,
observer's judgments, and agreements or directions for changes in teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom
environment. A peer observation is agreed upon by the teacher and peer and can be used to verify a trend or
pattern of behavior perceived by the evaluator.
Interviews are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include discussions with students to verify
perceptions. At times, parents request a conference to discuss their perceptions. In addition, other members of the
administrative team or classified employees who are assigned to work in the classroom can be interviewed to
provide their perceptions.
The review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or behaviors. These include written
parent and student letters or complaint forms. Individual pieces of students' work, folders, or portfolio assessments
which contain a number of samples of students' work also provide helpful information on their achievement.

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Documents should include both formative (ongoing assessment measures) and summative measures (culminating
assessment) including homework, practice exercises completed in class, examinations, and student projects.
Reviewing student work on district developed criterion-referenced tests is also helpful. An analysis of the lesson
plans in respect to required or recommended district curriculum requirements or course outlines is also beneficial.
Teacher Conferencing
Conferences throughout the year provide a means to communicate the evaluation of the teacher's performance.
Decisions shared during the conference are based upon the data collected through observations, review of
documents, and interviews that relate to the assessment and evaluation of the teacher's ability to meet the
requirements of SB 813 as adopted by the local district governing board. The conference should provide the
teacher with the means to change unsatisfactory behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The
conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's knowledge and concepts and reinforce his or
her understanding of the missions of the school. The pre-conference is held before a formal observation and
provides the administrator with the opportunity to obtain as much information about the upcoming observation
as possible.
Post-conferences can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of conference is planned by the
supervising administrator to achieve a different goal. A collaborative conference is effective when the teacher is
able to identify problem areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan, and is ready and willing to grow
professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed to conclude with mutually determined follow-
up activities that will enhance the teacher's capabilities. The conference begins with the teacher presenting an
overview and analysis of the lesson that was observed. The teacher identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the
lesson while the administrator listens to the teacher's perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher's
perceptions and offers his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange, possible activities for the next steps
are discussed and the conference concludes with agreement on a final plan.
A guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying problem areas and alternatives to
current practices and need support to carry out the action plan. In addition, the guided conference is effective with
a teacher who has little or no difficulty identifying areas that need improvement but is unwilling or not committed
to making the necessary changes. During a guided conference it is important that the principal provides prompts
to encourage the teacher's thinking, to allow the teacher freedom to explore various possibilities, and to enable
the teacher to make a commitment.
During the guided conference the teacher is encouraged to describe the lesson observed. The administrator probes
for further information and possible plans for growth and time frames. The administrator paraphrases his or her
understanding of the teacher's messages and asks for clarification when necessary. At the culmination of the
guided conference the teacher restates the criteria for action and the time frame.
A directive conference is effective for teachers who cannot identify problem areas, require a great deal of support,
and are unwilling or unable to change. In conducting the directive conference the administrator identifies the
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problems and allows the teacher to provide input. The administrator shares the details of a plan for support and
assistance that is designed to enable the teacher to meet the desired expectations. Following the conference the
administrator directs and monitors the follow-up activities. It is the administrator's responsibility to provide
support, monitor the time line activities, and to evaluate the degree of effectiveness resulting from the assistance.
During each conference it is important to stay on the topic and focus on the data and documentation regarding the
lessons observed. If the data collected clearly indicate a change must occur to increase student learning, a directive
for change is appropriate. Some administrators find this type of conference difficult. It is important to avoid
compromising statements that provide an excuse for poor performance like, "I know this is asking a lot since it's
your first year in advanced science," or "You shouldn't be concerned that the lesson didn't go well, it happens to
everyone." When teachers make threats or caustic statements, the administrator must remember that teachers who
use this strategy are often diverting attention from the task at hand. It is important to avoid this diversion and
remain on task.
At the close of a collaborative, guided, or directive conference there should be an agreed-upon or directed
statement clearly outlining the changes expected in the undesirable patterns of behavior, and where appropriate,
the specific professional growth activities that will be utilized to achieve the desired changes. The statement
should include the support and assistance, monitoring process, time lines for skill transfer, observable changes,
and which data will be reviewed. When preparing the statement it is important to select several changes that will
have the greatest effect on students' learning. Once the focus is established it is important to consider what is
reasonable to achieve in the given time frame. The administrator who will monitor
and conduct the review should consider all data needed to document whether the desired changes have taken
place.
Planning the Conference
In preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to review the data and identify the strengths and
areas of concern. The administrator should select only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth
activity or activities that will have the greatest effect on the learning for the largest number of students. These
selected areas will be the focus or objective of the conference. It will be necessary to identify specific aspects of
the data collected that support the need for growth in these areas. It is helpful to formulate questions before the
conference that will help the teacher focus on these issues or clarify aspects of the lesson for the administrator.
The administrator should identify possible resources and personnel that could assist in a follow-up plan prior to
the conference. The recommendations considered should be doable and reasonable based on the teacher's
readiness and the time available. The administrator should select the type of conference collaborative, guided, or
directive) and prepare a conference outline. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes. Longer sessions
become an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It is the administrator's responsibility to have his or
her thoughts well-organized and to keep the conference on task so it can be completed in a timely manner.

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During the conference the teacher and/or administrator should cite purpose, strengths, and areas of concern with
reference to supporting data. A follow-up plan with the desired specific outcome, activities, and a summary of
decisions should be developed.
The evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or at the end of the year. The
purpose of the conference is to communicate the teacher's rating based upon the SB 813 performance criteria
adopted by the district and should include any commendations for exemplary performance. Additionally, the
conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's thinking and develop means to strengthen
performance. The conference provides yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school's missions, goals,
and values. The administrator prepares for the evaluation conference in much the same manner as other
conferences. The administrator should review all of the data collected to-date, including conference memoranda
and data prepared during the evaluation period. He or she should determine the teacher's ratings,
commendations, and recommendations, then prepare the evaluation forms. In addition, the administrator should
identify the objectives that will have the greatest effect on student learning, recommendations for improvement,
methods of improvement and support, and a reasonable time line. The administrator should select the type of
conference (collaborative, guided, or directive) and formulate questions that help guide the staff to review specific
areas of performance.
The teacher and administrator should develop plans for enhancement or improvement. Following the conference
the administrator should prepare a legally sound evaluation conference memorandum following the format
suggested in the next section. Summative evaluation written documentation is required by law and must be
delivered in person to the teacher no later than thirty days prior to the end of the school year.
Memorandum and Letters of Reprimand
In education, a memorandum is often defined as any written material given to a teacher regarding his or her
performance or conduct. There are a wide variety of administrative correspondence that qualify as memoranda.
These include observation checklists, letters regarding an observation or conference, and letters summarizing a
conference. To insure that the desired results are achieved it is important that memoranda be legally sound.
Memorandum, as well as letters of reprimand, must be written in a timely manner, should include a reference
date, and state specific facts. These can include the date, time, place, and names of others who were present and/or
witnesses of the actions of the staff member being evaluated or reprimanded. These actions should be described
in an explicitly factual and objective manner using sensory facts (what was seen, heard, touched, tasted, or
smelled). Subjective opinions, conclusions, or educational jargon should be avoided. The consequences of the
performance or action on students, teachers, classified staff, administrators, or the work unit, should be described.
Extenuating or enhancing circumstances surrounding the performance should also be noted, as well as the
teacher's reasons or motives for the action if they were expressed. The appropriate and related teaching certificates
of the staff member should be referenced as well as related staff development efforts. Letters which cite
unsatisfactory behavior should reference the contract provision, rules, regulations, students' rights, guidelines,
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and curriculum guides that were upheld or violated. Previous oral or written commendations or reprimands or
warnings, including compliments or complaints from students or parents that are related to the actions described
in the memo, should be noted. Efforts related to this area that have been made in the past to
assist the staff member and the employer's reactions to these efforts (positive and negative) should be teviewed.
The author should state his or her belief regarding the likelihood of recurrence. If it is a letter of reprimand; it
must be specifically stated. If this is the case, the letter should indicate that the staff member is being given another
opportunity to improve their performance with the hope they will be successful. The letter should state that if the
staff member does not improve, further disciplinary action will follow, although the specific action should not be
noted. On both the memorandum and letter of reprimand it must indicate that the staff member has the right to
respond. The letter should be handed, not mailed, to the employee with a copy
forwarded to the personnel office for inclusion in the staff member's personnel file.
Q.5 Write your understanding about;
1. Ubiquitous Supervision
The supervising teacher performs a vital role in the professional learning, support and assessment of pre-
service teachers and in the task and activities that pre-service teachers undertake while enhancing and refining
their classroom practice.
As suggested by the diagram, the role of the supervising teacher is a multi-dimensional one. Supervising teachers
are teacher educators and mentors or guides for pre-service teachers, as well as being assessors of their progress
against the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.
A valued feature of performing these interconnected roles includes opportunities for discussion and reflection on
practices that improve student learning to foster pre-service teachers’ confidence, competence and ongoing
professional development.
The list of tasks performed by supervising teachers outlined here draws on the practices of high quality
supervising teachers described by Rosie Le Cornu (2015). The list includes references to documents, people and
assessment and reporting processes that are specific to the supervision of pre-service teachers.
Supervising teachers:
• provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to complete the professional learning tasks and activities
outlined in the Information and Guidelines Booklet for the given placement
• facilitate opportunities for pre-service teachers to observe effective teaching practice
• support pre-service teachers to interpret and respond to observations of teaching and learning by sharing
expertise and knowledge of students and discussing teaching practice
• support pre-service teachers to build constructive learning relationships and plan and implement an
appropriate learning program for students
• help pre-service teachers understand and interpret student data to effectively plan and modify their
teaching practice
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• provide feedback on the pre-service teacher’s practices using the focus areas outlined in the Information
and Guidelines Booklet or areas of strength and need for improvement
• assist pre-service teachers to identify evidence of the impact of their teaching on student learning
• liaise with the University Coordinator allocated to the site to clarify expectations for the placement and
discuss the pre-service teacher’s progress
• assess the pre-service teacher’s progress towards or demonstration of the Australian Professional
Standards for Teachers at a level appropriate to his / her experience or progress throughout the course of
study
• complete the Interim Report and Final Summative Report by rating the pre-service teacher’s progress
against the criteria outlined in the Guide to Making Judgements for the given placement (See Appendices
in the relevant Information and Guidelines Booklet for the criteria and Guide to Making Judgements)
• finalise the pre-service teacher’s Summative Report at the conclusion of the placement by ensuring all
site-based signatures have been obtained and provide a copy of the report to the pre-service teacher.
This list of roles makes it obvious that supporting pre-service teachers and making good judgements on their
progress at different stages of their development depends on supervising teachers having clear, shared
understandings of the expectations for their practice during a particular professional experience placement.
Professional experience placements represent a developmental continuum where pre-service teachers move from
needing high levels of guidance and support during their first placement towards independent demonstration of
the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers at Graduate Career Stage in their final placement.
In other words, context matters when providing appropriate support for pre-service teachers and making
assessment judgements. A first year pre-service teacher will be at a vastly different stage of development to a
final year pre-service teacher.
2. Application of Technology in accounting
Accounting technology has always played a part in making the accountant's job just a little easier. As our
knowledge of technology increased so has the accountant's ability to analyze statistical values. Technology
advancements have enhanced the accountant's ability to interpret data efficiently and effectively. In accounting
and finance, robotic process automation (RPA) can handle repetitive and time-consuming tasks such as
document analysis and processing, which is abundant in any accounting department. Freed up from these
mundane tasks, accountants are able to spend time on strategy and advisory work.
Question:1
How will you define school administration? Strengthen your answer with relevant literature.
School administration involves the management of all school operations, from creating a safe learning environment to
managing the school budget. To further define school administration, one needs to consider the different areas of school
administration and who performs these school administrative duties.

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School administrators are the professionals who, as a whole, carry out these different administrative tasks that keep a
school running smoothly. At elementary, middle, and high schools, school administration is typically led by a principal and,
depending on the school, may also include assistant principals, instructional coordinators, athletic directors, and other
support staff. School administrators could also be superintendents, who help oversee multiple schools in a district.

Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources that
are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an educational institution.

The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a number
of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The same
situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in case
of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill.

In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans carefully various programmes
and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a school, college or university. The head of the
school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and
students. He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over
them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.

He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the school or college
or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of
the school/college/university is called educational administration.

Nature of Educational Administration:

The Educational Administration has the following nature:

1. Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather different processes or aspects constitute
administration. These are planning, organizing, directing, Coordinating and evaluation.

2. Educational administration is a non-profit making task.

3. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with human resources than with
material resources.

4. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that human relationship prevailed here can’t be
maintained by any set of formulae.

5. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is also dissimilar to general
administration in many more ways.

6. Educational administration is a complex affair.

Objectives of Educational Administration:

As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration and co-ordination of all the physical and
human resources and educational elements. Besides this it requires a great efficiency with it based on human sympathy,
understanding, knowledge and skill. The physical resources mainly contribute building equipment’s and instructional
materials.

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The human resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators and parents. The additional elements comprise
the various aspects of educational theory and practice including philosophy of education, objectives of education,
curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, role of the teacher, rules and regulations etc.

These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are components brought into harmonious relationship. So the purpose
of doing such vital task is to fulfill different purposes which are known as the objectives of educational administration.

These are:

1. To provide proper education to students:

This objective seeks to mention the fact that good education doesn’t mean education at a very high cost as is practiced in
modern public schools. Rather it means the right type of education from the right type of teachers within reasonable cost.
This objective also implies quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education.

2. To Ensure Adequate Utilization Of All Resources:

For adequate realization of the various purposes of educational programme there is the need of ensuring adequate
utilization of all available resources-human, material and financial.

3. To Ensure Professional Ethics And Professional Development Among Teachers:

As teachers are the senior and mature human elements to accelerate the programme in time their role is highly felt in this
regard. They are to be encouraged and given the facility to devise and try out innovative ideas on instruction and to
participate in service education programmes. In this context, it can be visualized that educational administration should
aim at developing a desire for hard work, dedication and commitment for their job among teachers.

4. To organize educational programmes for acquainting students with the art of democratic living and giving them
excellent training in democratic citizenship.

5. To mobilize the community:

Like general administration, educational administration seeks to maintain and improve the relations with the community.
For this it should seek community support and co-operation for quantitative expansion, qualitative improvements, smooth
and fair examination in the educational system.

6. To organize co-curricular activities effectively for developing talents of students and work efficiency of educational
teachers.

7. To get the work done:

The most important objective of administration is to get the work done effectively, efficiently and with satisfaction to the
individuals and benefits to the society.

8. To prepare students for taking their places in various vocations and avenues of life.

9. To train the students in developing scientific attitude and objective outlook among them towards all aspects and
activities of life.

10. To ensure qualitative improvement of education:

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Good education can be provided to students by bringing qualitative improvement in instruction. Regular supervision of
teaching and guidance of teachers help to ensure quality teaching in schools.

Question:2
Write note on educational administrative structures.
The concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organization

which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill. Educational Administration means the capacity of

an individual or organization to manage all the activities of that educational institute. It is also

defined as, the activity of a government or state in the exercise of its powers and duties. It is

concerned with formulating general plans and policies for education. It is a discipline within

the study of education that examines the administrative theory and practice of education

in general and educational institutions and educators in particular. Therefore, Educational

Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material

resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a

programmer of an educational institution.

2. Learning Outcomes

After discussing this topic, the students will be able to:

●Explain the meaning of the term Educational Administration

●Describe the structure of educational administration at the district and sub-district level

●Understand the functions of various educational administrative agencies at the district and sub-district level

●Elucidate the processes involved in efficient educational administration at the district and sub-district level

3. Nature of Educational Administration

Nature of Educational Administration can be understood in following manner:

●Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather includes different processes or aspects
which constitute administration.

●Educational administration is a non-profit making task.

●Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with human resources than with
material resources.

●Educational administration is more an art than a Science. The reason is that human relationships prevailed here can’t be
maintained by any set of formulae.

●Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is also dissimilar to general
administration in many more ways.

●Educational administration is a complex affair.

4. Objectives of Educational Administration

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As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration and coordination of

all the physical and human resources and educational elements. Besides this, it requires a

great efficiency as it is based on human sympathy, understanding, knowledge and skill. The

physical resources mainly contribute building equipment’s and instructional materials. The human

resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators and parents. The additional

elements comprise the various aspects of educational theory and practice including philosophy

of education, objectives of education, curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, role of the

teacher, rules and regulations etc. These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are

components brought into harmonious.

Question:3

How performance appraisal is useful in evaluation? Discuss its techniques.

A performance appraisal is the periodic assessment of an employee’s job performance as measured by the competency
expectations set out by the organization.

The performance assessment often includes both the core competencies required by the organization and also the
competencies specific to the employee’s job.

The appraiser, often a supervisor or manager, will provide the employee with constructive, actionable feedback based on
the assessment. This in turn provides the employee with the direction needed to improve and develop in their job.

Based on the type of feedback, a performance appraisal is also an opportunity for the organization to recognize employee
achievements and future potential.

The purpose of a performance appraisal

The purpose of a performance appraisal is two-fold: It helps the organization to determine the value and productivity that
employees contribute, and it also helps employees to develop in their own roles.

Benefit for organization

Employee assessments can make a difference in the performance of an organization. They provide insight into how
employees are contributing and enable organizations to:

• Identify where management can improve working conditions in order to increase productivity and work quality.

• Address behavioral issues before they impact departmental productivity.

• Encourage employees to contribute more by recognizing their talents and skills

• Support employees in skill and career development

• Improve strategic decision-making in situations that require layoffs, succession planning, or filling open roles
internally

Benefit for employee

Performance appraisals are meant to provide a positive outcome for employees. The insights gained from assessing and
discussing an employee’s performance can help:

• Recognize and acknowledge the achievements and contributions made by an employee.

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• Recognize the opportunity for promotion or bonus.

• Identify and support the need for additional training or education to continue career development.

• Determine the specific areas where skills can be improved.

• Motivate an employee and help them feel involved and invested in their career development.

• Open discussion to an employee’s long-term goals.

How to organize a performance appraisal process

Conducting a performance review with an employee requires skill and training on the part of the appraiser. The negative
perception that is often associated with the performance appraisal is due in part to a feeling of being criticized during the
process.

A performance appraisal is meant to be the complete opposite. Often, the culprit is in the way the appraisal is conducted
via the use of language.

The way the sender of a message uses language determines how the other person interprets the message once received.
This can include tone of voice, choice of words, or even body language.

Because a performance appraisal is meant to provide constructive feedback, it is crucial that appropriate language and
behavior are used in the process.

Human Resources (HR) are the support system for managers and supervisors to be trained in tactfully handling the
appraisal process.

Performance Appraisal Methods

There are many ways an organization can conduct a performance appraisal, owing to the countless different
methods and strategies available.

In addition, each organization may have their own unique philosophy making an impact on the way the
performance assessment is designed and conducted.

A performance review is often done annually or semi-annually at the minimum, but some organizations do them
more often.

5 Modern method of performance appraisal

There are some common and modern appraisal methods that many organizations gravitate towards, including:

1. Self-evaluation

In a self-evaluation assessment, employees first conduct their performance assessment on their own against a set
list of criteria.

The pro is that the method helps employees prepare for their own performance assessment and it creates more
dialogue in the official performance interview.

The con is that the process is subjective, and employees may struggle with either rating themselves too high or
too low.

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2. Behavioral checklist

A Yes or No checklist is provided against a series of traits. If the supervisor believes the employee has exhibited
a trait, a YES is ticked.

If they feel the employee has not exhibited the trait, a NO is ticked off. If they are unsure, it can be left blank.

The pro is the simplicity of the format and its focus on actual work-relate tasks and behaviors (ie. no
generalizing).

The con is that there is no detailed analysis or detail on how the employee is actually doing, nor does it discuss
goals.

3. 360-degree feedback

This type of review includes not just the direct feedback from the manager and employee, but also from other
team members and sources.

The review also includes character and leadership capabilities.

The pro is that it provides a bigger picture of an employee’s performance.

The con is that it runs the risk of taking in broad generalizations from outside sources who many not know how
to provide constructive feedback.

4. Ratings scale

A ratings scale is a common method of appraisal. It uses a set of pre-determined criteria that a manager uses to
evaluate an employee against.

Each set of criteria is weighted so that a measured score can be calculated at the end of the review.

The pro is that the method can consider a wide variety of criteria, from specific job tasks to behavioral traits. The
results can also be balanced thanks to the weighting system. This means that if an employee is not strong in a
particularly minor area, it will not negatively impact the overall score.

The con of this method is the possible misunderstanding of what is a good result and what is a poor result;
managers need to be clear in explaining the rating system.

5. Management by objectives

This type of assessment is a newer method that is gaining in popularity. It involves the employee and manager
agreeing to a set of attainable performance goals that the employee will strive to achieve over a given period of
time.

At the next review period, the goals and how they have been met are reviewed, whilst new goals are created.

The pro of this method is that it creates dialogue between the employee and employer and is empowering in
terms of personal career development.

The con is that it risks overlooking organizational performance competencies that should be considered.

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Question:4

Briefly explain the developmental approach and synergistic supervision.

The objective of students as to get a good academic record while the faculty aims to get a good feedback. Students believe
that the institution is a mere place for getting acertificate In many cases, they believe that the certificate is a passport for
getting employed and is obtainable a s soon as the fees are paid. All the information that is required is available on the
Internet and can be easily digested by reading casually before the exams. They also believe conveniently what they hear
from the industry personnel that the syllabus is outdated and the gap between what is taught and what is actually
practised is huge quality of learningOne of the tools available to measure the adequacy of this academic input is ‘Academic
Audit’.

The academic audit provides an opportunity for a regular strategic overview of a college’s teaching-learning process.

It is the process by which the authorities assure themselves of the quality of the learning process. The academic audit is
normally carried out once in five years.

If has four distinct features:

It is college-based and is normally reviewed independently. it is based on a process of self-evaluation carried out by the
college itself, the use of an external evaluator helps in objectivity, and the audit evaluates the full range of college activities
so as to ensure a balanced recommendation by the audit p An audit takes into account the following:

Whether the activities and programmes being implement I have been authorized by the concerned authorities (in the case
of a university s have the programmes been approved by the university, academic council, the board of management, and
so on). Whether the activities and programmes are being conducted in a manner get accomplish the objectives intended
by the Whether the activities and programmes are effacer purpose intended by the authorities Whether the activities and
programmes being conduct compliance with the applicable laws and are adequate operating administrative procedures
and practices systems, etc. in place? Are the needs of the various stakeholders such as students, parents, employers,
statutory the advantages of an academic and it are manifold. Some of these are given below is in eliminating unnecessary
workload and dwells mainly on those It help and responsibilities and thus avoids for the society. It ensures effective use
for employers. It ensures availability of well-rounded students who can contribute from day one itself.

The process of academic audit involves three stages self-study involving understanding the teaching-learning process, peer
review and evaluating the self-study and the peer review. Discussions with persons in higher educational institutions
reveal that it is herculean task to get the students to listen to a guest lecture. These discussions also revealed that students
prefer to sit in the canteen and discuss some social problems rather than listening to lectures. The students need to be
coaxed or sometimes even incentivized with means such as additional marks to attend to the guest lectures. In many
cases, the parents of the students strongly believe that the failure of the student implies that the faculty does not
understand the subject or does not communicate well. Students demand a good placement, both in terms of companies
as well as packages. Yet, basic etiquettes are not followed. Dressing casually and being late for interviews is the norm.

This dissatisfaction can perhaps be reduced by controlling the input side of the institution by reducing the intake of
students, limiting the number higher education institutions and by continuously monitoring the academic progress of the
student.

New professionals leave the field of student affairs administration every year. One common reason for this attrition is job
dissatisfaction. Job dissatisfaction can result from role ambiguity, role conflict, role orientation, role stress, job burnout,
work overload, and perceived opportunities for goal attainment, professional development, and career advancement
(Berwick, 1992; Conley, 2001). Brown (1987) stated that high attrition indicated low morale and this "demands constant
training of new professionals" (p. 14). Creamer and Winston (2002a) stated that one of the principal factors for attrition

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is the quality of supervision received in the first one or two jobs. Effective supervision of new professionals is one way that
the profession can reduce the propensity of new professionals to leave.

The culture of an organization, particularly in higher education, has the potential to influence a new professional's
retention in the job setting. New professionals encounter a host of issues with entry into the profession (Ellis, 2002;
Hamrick & Hemphill, 2002; Marsh ,2001) and need orientation and socialization both to their field of work and to their
employing institution (Amy, 1990, 2002; Katz & Tushman, 1983). An effective model of supervision that provides the
necessary orientation and socialization to student affairs and higher education is one way to reduce the attrition of new
professionals.

Question:5
What is the difference between the administrative structure of public/government and
private schools?

FACILITIES
Many public-school facilities are impressive; others are mediocre. The same is true of private schools. Private
school facilities reflect the success of the school’s development team and that of the school to continue to generate
financial support from parents and alumni. Some private K-12 schools have facilities and amenities which surpass
those found at many colleges and universities. Hotchkiss and Andover, for example, have libraries and athletic
facilities on a par with those at Brown and Cornell. They also offer academic and sports programs which make
full use of all those resources. It is hard to find comparable facilities in the public sector. They are few and far
between.

Public schools also reflect the economic realities of their location. Wealthy suburban schools will have more
amenities than inner-city schools as a rule. Think Greenwich, Connecticut versus Detroit, Michigan, for example.
The most important factor to consider is, what does your child need to succeed? If your son is an aspiring football
player, than a school with great athletic facilities and coaching staffs will be a top priority.

CLASS SIZE
According to the NCES report, Private Schools: A Brief Portrait, private schools win out on this issue. Why?
Most private schools have smaller class sizes. One of the key points of private education is individual attention.
You need student/teacher ratios of 15:1 or better to achieve that goal of individual attention. Many private schools
boast class sizes of 10-15 students with 7:1 student-teacher ratios. On the other hand, a public system is a challenge
that private schools don’t: they have to enroll almost anyone who lives within its boundaries. In public schools
you will generally find much larger class sizes, sometimes exceeding 35-40 students in some inner-city schools.
If the teacher is a strong teacher with a well-behaved class, this can be a suitable learning environment. But a
student who is easily distracted may need something different.

QUALITY OF TEACHERS
Teacher salaries can make a difference in the quality of teachers, as can the methods for hiring. Public sector
teachers are generally better paid and have superior pension programs. Naturally, compensation varies widely
depending on the local economic situation. Put another way, it’s cheaper living in Duluth, Minnesota than it is in
San Francisco. Unfortunately, low starting salaries and small annual salary increases result in low teacher

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retention in many public school districts. Public sector benefits have historically been excellent; however, health
and pension costs have risen so dramatically since 2000 that public educators will be forced to pay or pay more
for their benefits.

Private school compensation tends to be somewhat lower than public.

Again, much depends on the school and its financial resources. One private school benefit found especially in
boarding schools is housing and meals, which accounts for the lower salary. Private school pension schemes vary
widely. Many schools use major pension providers such as TIAA-CREF
Both public and private schools require their teachers to be credentialed. This usually means a degree and /or a
teaching certificate. Private schools tend to hire teachers with advanced degrees in their subject over teachers who
have an education degree. Put another way, a private school hiring a Spanish teacher will want that teacher to
have a degree in Spanish language and literature as opposed to an education degree with a minor in Spanish.

Budgets
Since local property taxes support the bulk of public education, the annual school budget exercise is a serious
fiscal and political business. In poor communities or communities which have many voters living on fixed
incomes, there is precious little room to respond to budget requests within the framework of projected tax revenue.
Grants from foundations and the business community are essential to creative funding.

Private schools, on the other hand, can raise tuition, and they also can raise significant amounts of money from a
variety of development activities, including annual appeals, cultivation of alumni and alumnae, and solicitation
of grants from foundations and corporations. The strong allegiance to private schools by their alumni makes the
chances of fund-raising success a real possibility in most cases.

ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT

The bigger the bureaucracy, the harder it is to get decisions made at all, much less get them made quickly. The
public education system is notorious for having antiquated work rules and bloated bureaucracies. This is as a
result of union contracts and host of political considerations.

Private schools on the other hand generally have a lean management structure. Every dollar spent has to come
from operating income and endowment income. Those resources are finite. The other difference is that private
schools rarely have teacher unions to deal with.

COST
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A major factor in determining what’s right for your family is the cost. Not just of tuition, but in terms of time and
commitment. Most private schools require students be driven to and from school and there are significant
obligations for students to participate in activities outside of normal school hours. This means a lot of hours and
miles for families every week to make it happen. A family needs to weigh the financial costs, time investment
and other factories so, who comes out on top? Public schools or private schools? As you can see, there are no
clear-cut answers or conclusions. Public schools have their advantages and disadvantages. Private schools offer
an alternative. Which works best for you? That’s a question you’ll have to answer for your own family.

Functions of an educational administrative office

Education administrators often work within the central administrative (academic registrars) department and for
individual faculties, departments and sections of universities and colleges of further and higher education.
Opportunities also arise within private, tertiary and specialist training colleges. There is no? typical’ job profile:
administrators may have student recruitment, funding, quality assurance, marketing, or public relations roles, or
they may be responsible for budgetary/financial administration, project management or human resources
management. Many works in a general capacity? Undertaking tasks from all of these areas.

Typical responsibilities of the job include:

• Handling correspondence
• Organizing and servicing committee and academic board meetings (producing agendas, taking minutes
etc.)
• Researching and writing reports
• Preparing statistics and handling data, such as attendance figures
• Processing invoices
• Purchasing equipment/other goods
• Liaising with potential students, other institutions, government departments and external organizations
• Helping with course approval and evaluation activities
• Formulating and implementing regulations/policies
• Timetabling and planning events

Administering and coordinating student recruitment, examinations and assessment activities

The job can be busy at key times in the academic year, when some long hours may be necessary. There are good
opportunities for career progression via promotion into senior administrative, managerial and project management
roles, or transfer/secondment between departments.

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