Peru

Capital
(and largest city) Lima
12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W
Official languages Spanish1
Demonym Peruvian
Government Presidential republic
- President Alan García
- Vice President Luis Giampietri
- Prime Minister Yehude Simon
- President of CongressJavier Velásquez
Independence from Spain
- Declared July 28, 1821
- Recognized December 9, 1824
Area
- Total 1,285,220 km² (20th)
496,222 sq mi
- Water (%) 8.80
Population
- 2007 census 28,220,764
- Density 22/km² (193rd)
57/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2007 estimate
- Total $219.196 billion[1]
- Per capita $7,809[1]
GDP (nominal) 2007 estimate
- Total $107.399 billion[1]
- Per capita $3,826[1]
Gini (2002) 54.6 (high)
HDI (2005) ▲0.773 (medium) (87th)
Currency Nuevo Sol (PEN)
Time zone PET (UTC-5)
Internet TLD .pe
Calling code +51
1

Peru (Spanish: Perú, Quechua: Piruw, Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of
Peru (Spanish: República del Perú?·i, IPA: [reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu]), is a country in
western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the
east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by
the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the
world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The
Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a
Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving
independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis
as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.
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Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography
varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains
and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a
medium Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 40%. Its main
economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of
products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is multiethnic, including

Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish,
although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages.
This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in
fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay
of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.[2] When his possessions were
visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New
World yet known to Europeans.[3] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions
farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.[4] The Spanish Crown gave the
name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly
encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[5]
Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the
denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became
Republic of Peru after independence.

History

The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian

territory has been dated to approximately 11,000
years BCE.[6] The oldest known complex society in
Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along
the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and
1800 BCE.[7] These early developments were
followed by archaeological cultures such as Chavin,
Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimu. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as
a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-
Columbian America.[8] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques
such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important.
Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no
notion of market or money.[9]

In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by

Francisco Pizarro defeated Inca Emperor
Atahualpa and imposed Spanish rule. Ten years
2
later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of
Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.
[10]
Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in
the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity
and Indian forced labor as its primary workforce.[11]
Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown
and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as
Europe and the Philippines.[12] However, by the 18th
century, declining silver production and economic
diversification greatly diminished royal income.[13] In
response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series
of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the
Viceroyalty of Peru.[14] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other
revolts, all of which were defeated.[15]

Government
Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru

Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the
current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five
years and may not immediately be re-elected.[29] The President designates the Prime Minister and,
with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[30] There is a unicameral Congress with 120
members elected for a five-year term.[31] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the
legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the
President.[32] The judiciary is nominally independent,[33] though political intervention into judicial
matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[34]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to
70.[35] General elections held in 2006 ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate
Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala of Union for
Peru (47.4%).[36] Congress is currently composed of the Peruvian Aprista Party (36 seats), Peruvian
Nationalist Party (23 seats), Union for Peru (19 seats), National Unity (15 seats), the Fujimorista
Alliance for the Future (13 seats), the Parliamentary Alliance (9 seats) and the Democratic Special
Parliamentary Group (5 seats).[37]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries,
most of which were settled during the 20th century.[38] There is still an ongoing dispute with Chile
over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.[39] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and
one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international
organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian
military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the
independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[40] The armed forces are
subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription
was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[41]

Regions

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Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government
composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.[42] These governments
plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and
manage public property.[43] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[44]

Regions:

 Amazonas  Lambayeque
 Ancash  Lima
 Apurímac  Loreto
 Arequipa  Madre de Dios
 Ayacucho  Moquegua
 Cajamarca  Pasco
 Callao  Piura
 Cusco  Puno
 Huancavelica  San Martín
 Huánuco  Tacna
 Ica  Tumbes
 Junín
 Ucayali
 La Libertad

Geography

Topographic map of Peru

Peru covers 1,285,220 km² (496,193 sq mi), making it

approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors
Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east,
Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific
Ocean to the west.

The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean,

dividing the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain,
largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the
Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m
(22,205 ft) Huascarán.[45] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain
covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located
within this region.[46]

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain
toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the
Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra.
Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[47] Peru's longest
rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the
Mantaro, and the Amazon.[48]

The peaks of the Andes are the source of many Peruvian rivers.

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence
of the Andes and the Humboldt Current causes great climatic diversity within the country. The

4
costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer,
wetter northern reaches.[49] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and
humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[50] The selva is characterized by
heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and
seasonal rainfall.[51] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity;
21,462 species of plants and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic.[52] The
Peruvian government has established several protected areas for their preservation.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Peru

The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.

Peru is a developing country with a 2005 Human

Development Index score of 0.773.[53] Its 2006 per capita
income was US$3,374;[54] 39.3% of its total population is
poor, including 13.7% that is extremely poor.[55] Historically,
the country's economic performance has been tied to exports,
which provide hard currency to finance imports and external
debt payments.[56] Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a
more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[57]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of
Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the
expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the
creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income
redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.[58] Despite these adverse
results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of
Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and
most state ownership of companies.[59] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since
1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[60]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%),
extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[61] Recent economic growth has been fueled by
macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[62] Trade
is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United
States, which was signed on April 12, 2006.[63] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles,
and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States,
China, Brazil, and Chile.[64]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Peru

Peruvian woman and child of Amerindian ancestry

With about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most

populous country in South America as of 2007.[65] Its
demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between
1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[66] As of 2007,
75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[67] Major cities include Lima, Arequipa,
Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than
250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[68]
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Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries.
Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th
century; their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in
1620 mainly due to infectious diseases.[69] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under
colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence,
there has been a gradual European immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.
[70]
Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major
influence in Peruvian society.[71] Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese.

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians age 5 and older in 2007, is the primary language
of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is
Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at
that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.[72] In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the
population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of
other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.[73] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this
rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[74] Primary and secondary education
are compulsory and free in public schools.[75]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Peru

Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish

traditions,[76] though it has also been influenced by various African,
Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date
back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-
Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural
achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque
dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[77] During this period, most art focused
on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are
representative.[78] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early
20th century.[79] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and
local art currents.[80]

Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-

Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the
16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles
and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism
and Romanticism became the most common literary genres,
as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[81] In the early
20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such
writers as Ciro Alegría,[82] José María Arguedas,[83] and César
Vallejo.[84] During the second half of the century, Peruvian
literature became more widely known because of authors
such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin
American Boom.[85]

Ceviche is a citrus marinated seafood dish.

Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African,
Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.[86] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche,

6
humitas, and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants
and animals are available for cooking.[87] Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its
diversity of ingredients and techniques.[88]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots.[89] In pre-Hispanic times, musical
expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common
instruments.[90] Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and
the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[91] African
contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.[92]
Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, danza de tijeras and huayno.[93]