SPORT SOCIOLOGY
Definitions of Play, Recreation, Games, Sport
People in sport:
- Players, Officials, Spectators, Commentators and Sponsors
- Women in sport
- Disabled people in Sport
Textbooks: PE to 16 by Sally Fountain and Linda Goodwin, 2002
Fundamentals of Health and Physical Education by Joe Eshuys and others, 1990
Throughout history, people had to work long hours to provide themselves with the basic necessities needed for survival.
Most people usually did not have time to play organized sport. Therefore only the upper classes that had the time and
money would be able to enjoy sport and leisure activities. However during the 18 th and 19th centuries, people gained
shorter working hours which allowed them more free time that was used for education, entertainment and sport
purposes.
The word “sport” can be used to identify many physical activities but so can the terms “play”, “recreation” and “games”
as well. The following characteristics of each helps to distinguish particular aspects and better define sport.
Play: is any physical activity in which there are:
-no formal rules
-no pressure
-no winners or losers
-no set time
-no defined playing area
Therefore, in play people enjoy spontaneous physical activity that is done for fun and entertainment.
Recreation: is any physical activity that a person does for personal enjoyment and relaxation but that also contributes to
their development. It is more planned than play but also has no winners or losers and no highly organized rules.
Games: are more organized than recreation and play. They involve
- An agreed playing area
- An agreed time limit
- A higher level of skill than is needed for play
- Rules which can change
- Competition between persons or teams where a winner is declared
Therefore, games are more formal than play but less structured than sport.
Sport: is much more organized than play, recreation or games. It involves:
- Set rules, area and time
- Set positions for team players
- Usually vigorous physical activities
- Complex physical skills which are applied throughout the set time
- Serious training and preparation
- Competition between individuals or teams where winning is very important
- Satisfaction for players, not only from playing the sport but also from winning awards, prizes and the
public’s support.
THE PLAY-SPORT CONTINUUM
PLAY RECREATION GAMES SPORT
- Physical activity becomes less spontaneous and more controlled by rules
- Individuals put in more effort and time in learning skills, preparing tactics and playing to win
- Spectators become more evident and involved
- The rewards involve personal enjoyment but also include gaining awards, prizes and /or recognition.
PEOPLE IN SPORT
PLAYERS
Reasons for playing sport Enjoyment, socializing, health, release of stress, competition, excitement, self-expression,
self-testing, self-esteem, aesthetic awareness
Player involvement Players have to be able to train and develop the skills of the sport, learn the rules and
spend time working on tactics. They have to learn to accept advice or instruction from the
coach and captain, work with the members of their team and behave based on an
acceptable code.
Players and ethics A code of ethics is an organized set of ideas about the way to behave based on the belief
that certain things are right and other things are wrong.
Traditionally, sporting ethics included beliefs that players:
- Played sport to the best of their ability ( it was more important than winning or
losing)
- Treated all players and officials with respect
- Never cheated or tried to win by unfair methods
- Never bragged about winning, moaned about defeat or blamed defeat on others
- Accepted the umpire’s / referee/s decision, even if they felt it was wrong
Today, these ethics are not agreed by everyone. For many, the main aim is to win rather
than to “play the game”. Some players create scenes to shake the confidence of the
opponents. Some professionals believe that with so much money at stake, they must
question controversial decisions made by umpires or referees.
Players as heroes The tradition of the player as a hero dates back to Ancient Greece. Today, the mass media
has the greatest influence. Players become heroes to millions by: media coverage,
appreciation of excellence, national pride, glamour and affection.
OFFICIALS
Coaches They are responsible for the skills, tactics and ethics of their players. They:
- Encourage players to enjoy their sport
- Encourage ethical behaviour such as respect for all
- Balance the desire to win with the need to play the game in the correct spirit
- Are aware of the needs and abilities of players and try to prevent injuries
Umpires, referees, They are experts on the rules of their game and have to pass a series of practical and theoretical
line umpires examinations before they can officiate at a top-level game. In many sports, they must maintain a
high level of fitness and be concerned about the safety of the players at all times during a game.
Organizers Sport needs organization. Rules are usually structured by international bodies; the national bodies
oversee the sport at national level and state/district bodies at their respective level. The strength
of sport lies in the state/district level where young players first come into contact with the sport.
SPECTATORS
Groups There are 4 main groups of spectators in sport:
1. Enthusiasts
2. Mixers (they go to share common experiences and conversations with friends)
3. Fans
4. Parents
Role Spectators have an important role in sport. They:
- Provide funds directly through gate revenue when they attend matches
- Provide an audience for radio and TV
- Provide enthusiasm and encouragement which keep the sport going
They can make the game better by supporting their side, applauding skill and sportsmanship
and showing respect for the officials. They can increase their enjoyment by understanding the
rules, skills and performances of the sport. They can also show disappointment of foul play or
poor behaviour.
However, they can spoil sport by booing players and questioning all decisions made against their
team.
Parents can positively impact their children’s involvement in the sport or can put too much
pressure on them, that they feel they cannot meet their expectations and lose their enjoyment
of the sport.
Spectator violence Apart from individual violence, alcohol abuse has often been identified as a major cause of
spectator misbehavior and in most places, it is not allowed. Crowd violence which can and has
led to multiple deaths is of concern all around the world.
Reasons of crowd violence
- Abuse of alcohol before and at the game
- Acceptance of violence by many fans
- Noise and excitement can heighten crowd aggression
- Abnormal behaviour in a crowd setting
- Aggression towards opposing spectators
- Economic situation of fans ( expressing frustration through violence)
Effects on sport and society
- Countries gain a bad reputation
- Individuals suffer injury or even death
- Costs increase as safety fences are erected and [police have to be paid. Gate revenue
can decrease by people staying away
- Parents can keep their children away from certain sports or all sports.
COMMENTATORS
As sport has a large audience, the role of the radio and television commentators has grown in importance. Some are
internationally known, some are former sports stars and they can influence the public’s opinions about the sport or
specific athletes and matches through their comments.
SPONSORS
Sponsorship is where a business or individuals provides support (usually financial) for an event or team or athlete.
It may be for:
- A sport
- A single event
- A team
- An individual
It may not always be money. It could be free transportation, free flights, clothing, equipment and scholarships.
People might sponsor sport for the following reasons:
- Advertisement
- Tax-deductions
- It can gain the good will and support of the local public
- They can get the best seats at an event or the use of luxury executive boxes which they can use to entertain
clients.
However there may be a few disadvantages of sponsoring such as:
- The behaviour of the athlete or the team or the smooth running of the event cannot be guaranteed.
- The success of the team cannot be guaranteed as well
Some benefits of sponsorship are:
- It can make staging events possible
- It could help athletes afford to train and compete
- It could be lucrative for top athletes with short careers
Some drawbacks for sport may be that:
- It does not give a team or an athlete long-term security
- It may be bad for a sport’s image like the alcohol and tobacco companies
- It may dictate the timing of sports events to suit their own purposes and may not be the best for the athletes.
- Teams and athletes may feel exploited by sponsors. This can lower their satisfaction with sport and their
motivation to succeed.
SPORT SOCIOLOGY
Some issues in sport
- Amateur and professional athletes
- Sport and politics
- Sport and the media
- Sport and Terrorism
- Drugs and sport
Textbooks: PE to 16 by Sally Fountain and Linda Goodwin, 2002
Fundamentals of Health and Physical Education by Joe Eshuys and others, 1990
Amateur and professional athletes
The following explains the three main categories of athletes:
- Amateur athletes are those who play and compete in different sports without receiving and monetary
payment.
- Professional athletes play full time and get paid for it
- Semi-professionals are like professional athletes but they play only part time and may have another job too.
The rules concerning amateur and professional athletes are made by a sport’s international governing body.
- Many sports divide their players into professionals and amateurs and they usually don’t compete together,
except in specific events.
- In some sports like Swimming and Athletics most athletes are amateur.
- Other sports are open. Both amateurs and professionals can compete freely.
Top athletes who are in the amateur category and therefore do not receive a salary are usually assisted by:
- Scholarships: This could cover food, board, books and tuition. The athletes train with top coaches in top
facilities.
- Jobs: In many countries the athletes are given “jobs” for eg. As PE instructors in the army or police force, so
that they can train full time.
- Special training camps: Promising young athletes may be sent to sports schools and then training camps,
where they remain long past the age when most people get a job, for eg. In China.
- Tryst funds: In some sports like athletics and rugby, athletes can accept prize money but not directly. It is
paid into a trust fund in order to preserve their amateur status. Money from the fund is used to cover their
training and living expenses and they get the rest on retirement.
- Grants and sponsorships: Amateur athletes can seek grants or sponsorship from business owners. The
governing bodies must approve these.
Amateurism and the Olympic Games
The Olympic Games were meant for amateurs. There has been controversy that competitors were not truly “amateur”
and now the final decision is now left up to the International Sports federations to decide which athletes could compete.
The only prizes offered at the Olympics are the Olympic Medals.
Sport and politics
There are differing opinions where the involvement of sport in the political arena and in foreign affairs is concerned.
An example of this issue presented itself in the Olympic Games held in Moscow, Russia in 1980. In protest against
Russian military presence in Afghanistan, the British government asked their athletes not to take part in the Games but
some still chose to attend. There were different opinions on the issue with many arguing that politics had no place in
sport and others saying that it was impossible to separate sport from politics. Some countries including the U.S.A made a
government decision that their athletes should not compete in Moscow.
The same issue existed with South Africa and its governments position of denying civil rights to South Africans of African
ancestry. Due to this, pressure from around the world has been placed on nations to isolate South Africa until its
government changes its views. Many nations agreed not to send teams to South Africa, refuse South African teams the
right to tour their countries and boycott sporting events run by countries which allow sporting contact with South
Africans.
Thus sport has become a weapon of foreign policy. Other people believe that sport should not be connected with
political decisions and that if the government were really serious in its opinion against apartheid, then it should cut all
links, including trade and not only apply bans through sport.
Sport and the Media
The media are all the means by which information is delivered to the public: books, newspapers, magazines, radio, TV,
cinema, video and the use of information technology.
Some positive effects of the media are:
-It helps to promote sport
-it can increase interest in the sport
-It can create sports ‘stars’ who may inspire young athletes
-Sports that get a lot of media coverage find it easier to obtain sponsorship
-it can educate the public about sport through documentaries, coaching programmes and discussions of current issues.
-TV companies pay large sums to the governing bodies of sport for the right to broadcast events. This is used to develop
the sport.
Some drawbacks of the media are:
-Media exposure may foster the desire to win at all costs rather than play for enjoyment.
-There is more pressure on managers and team captains to get results.
-Sports stars lose privacy.
-TV may force changes on a sport.
The media presents sport by “packaging the event or the sport issue”, deciding what to put in, what to leave out and
what point of view to take. In all of the media, this depends on how much time, space and money is available. It also
depends on if the media makers intend to: entertain, inform, educate, “hype” an event, attract attention and sales,
please the sponsors and/or express a particular point of view.
Newspapers: like sport because it helps to sell them. It also helps to attract advertising.
Information technology: This is widely used by persons in the acquisition of information which includes: the theoretical
and practical aspects of sport, sporting events: details and coverage, athlete’s information, healthy lifestyles etc.
Sport and TV: Of all the media, this may have the biggest impact on sport and vice versa.
Sport benefits TV by:
- It is often shown at times when TV would have few viewers
- Sports programmes are simpler to make than drama or documentaries
- It attracts sports fans to TV
- It also attracts advertisers
TV and the professional athlete: Professional athletes get paid for playing sport. Without all the money generated for
sport by TV, many sports could not afford to pay them.
Broadcast rights: In order to show a sports event, a TV company must pay for broadcast rights. Payment is usually made
to the sport’s governing body. If the company buys exclusive rights to a live sports event, it means no one else can film
it. It can then sell footage on to other companies.
Kinds of TV companies: Terrestrial (eg. TTT, after CNC3 was launched), Satellite (eg. Direct TV, Green Dot), Cable (eg.
Flow), Digital (eg. Airlink Communications). There is a lot of competition between satellite, digital and cable companies
for the exclusive rights to popular events such as Wimbledon, with the BBC paying 50 million pounds in 2000. There is
also pay-per-view broadcasting where viewers have to book in advance and pay extra on top of their normal
subscription.
Interactive TV: This gives you more control over the information you receive. You can switch camera angles during a
sports event, access information about the players, rules of the game or scores in past matches.
Sport and Terrorism
At the Munich Olympics in 1972, some Israeli athletes and officials were murdered by terrorists. Since then, countries
hosting international events have had to increase their security measures. This means the use of police and military
forces which would increase the cost of the event, restrict freedom of movement of athletes, press and spectators,
increase the tension of organizers and lessen the friendly atmosphere.
Drugs and sport
Athletes who use drugs want to increase their performance level in a shorter time than what could be achieved normally
by training. However, many of the drugs used have not produced the desired improvement; leading to irreparable body
damage, on some occasions even death and loss of reputation by the athlete and sometimes even affects their country’s
image as well. Two examples of athletes who used stimulants to boost their performances which resulted in death are
the cases of the Danish cyclist Knut Jensen (cycling event in 1960 Olympics in Rome) and the English cyclist Tommy
Simpson who died during the 1967 Tour de France.
Authorities are concerned about this issue because of the damage that could cause to an athlete’s health and the unfair
advantage that could arise from the use of drugs. Therefore, they try to eliminate the use of drugs in sports by educating
players, coaches and officials in the dangers of its use. In major sporting events, tests are now used to identify athletes
and to disqualify them from competition.
