CSEC CARIBBEAN HISTORY

THEME 7: THE UNITED STATES IN THE CARIBBEAN 1776-1985

TOPIC: Key Terms

Monroe Doctrine (1823): a statement issued by US President James Monroe in which he warned
that European and other imperial powers should no longer view the Caribbean as a place for
future colonization. He further warned that if the European nations did not observe this
‘doctrine’, it would be considered ‘the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the
United States’ and would attract US action.
Manifest Destiny: a belief that the United States was destined to ‘conquer’ the whole of the
Americas and even beyond. It would then incorporate territories into the Caribbean based on
democratic and federal principles.
Spanish-American-Cuban War (1898): a 110 day war between Spain, Cuba and the US which
brought an end to the Spanish-American Empire. At the end the USA became an imperial power
with respect to Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Teller Amendment (1898): a document stating that the US would not take over Cuban
sovereignty but would allow Cubans to control the country after peace was restored.
Platt Amendment (1903): an agreement exacted from the Cuban people from the US
government in 1902. According to this ‘agreement’ Cuba could not sign any treaties without US
permission, the US would moderate the Cuban debt, US jurisdiction would extend to Cuba,
Cubans lost their sovereignty, the US would approve the acts of a military government and would
provide sites for naval bases on the island.
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904):a document saying that it was
necessary for the USA to intervene in the internal affairs of countries under its sphere of
influence ( the Caribbean and Latin America) so as to maintain democracy and ward off
European powers.
Dollar Diplomacy (1909-1913): it said that diplomacy would be used to promote American
business interests and dollars would be provided to promote foreign policy goals. This policy was
interpreted as an attempt by the US government to control Caribbean countries via investments.
Gunboat Diplomacy: the interventionist method of controlling the Caribbean region. Simply
put, the territories either had to comply with the dictates of the US government of face american
‘bullyism’ via military intervention or other forms of pressure eg. economic pressure.
Big Stick Policy: a policy by which the US government used diplomacy or direct military force
to coerce Latin American and Caribbean nations. This policy had under its umbrella the
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine as well as Gunboat and Dollar Diplomacy.
Good Neighbour Policy (1933): when applied to the Caribbean and Latin America, it was taken
to mean the end of armed intervention. From a US ideological standpoint, the policy was
supposed to promote respect, goodwill and hemispheric solidarity.
TOPIC: Reasons for US interest in the Caribbean 1776-1870

● Ideological/ Expansionism
Manifest Destiny:
Monroe Doctrine:
She saw herself as the champion of democracy whose destiny it was to help the uncivilized
countries of the Western Hemisphere who were destined to ‘gravitate' towards her, the superior
and civilized nation. This became even more ‘prophetic' when in the 1820's the Latin American
territories began to claim their independence from Spain. For example: Colombia and Venezuela.

● Defense
The U.S. was interested in identifying suitable ports in the Caribbean to serve as coaling stations
for her steamships. This would also enable her to patrol the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean
Sea. Why? The Caribbean provided three gateways to her backyard, thus rendering her
‘homeland' vulnerable: The Mona Passage, (between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) The Windward
Passage (between Cuba and Hispaniola) and the Anegada Passage (between Puerto Rico and the
Lesser Antilles). In addition, Cuba was in closer proximity to the U.S. after she purchased
Louisiana (1803) and acquired Florida (1819).

● Trade and Investments

On July 4, 1776 the North American colonies declared that they were independent of Britain.
Though they were not recognized as a free and new nation by Britain until 1783, the trade
relationship that they shared with the British West Indies was immediately severed. Britain’s
attitude and response was one of hostility. By 1810 America was trading about one third of what
she would normally trade with the British West Indies. Besides from 1812 to1814 Britain
blockaded American ports because she had supported the French during the Napoleonic Wars. In
1822 Britain passed the West Indian and American Trade Act. This meant that some of the
restrictions were lifted. Direct trade in lumber, livestock and provisions was again allowed
between the U.S. and her West Indian colonies. However the trade was subjected to a 10% value
added tax.S America became tired of all the ‘ups and downs' with Britain and her colonies. The
trade was too restricted for America who believed in freedom. She was looking for new areas of
investments. It would certainly be convenient to find lucrative areas of investment in ‘her sphere
of influence'. Cuba's sugar industry was still in its establishment stage. They had fertile and virgin
lands which presented ripe opportunities for investment. Since the Cuban industry was relatively
young the quality of their sugar was better.

TOPIC: United States in Cuba (1898)

Cuba was of strategic importance to the U.S. because it lay across the mouth of the Gulf of
Mexico and blocked the United States’ access to the Caribbean. Cuba commanded the important
shipping lanes of the Yucatan Channel and the Florida Strait. Havana, the capital and main port
of Cuba was the key port in the Spanish trade system. America tried at least four times to buy
Cuba: 1848, 1852, 1854 and 1859. Each offer was refused by the mother country, Spain. If Cuba
became an independent country America could have a deeper and profitable relationship with
her.
The Cuban War of Independence or the Spanish Cuban War began in 1895. It was led by the
great patriots Jose Marti, Antonio Maceo and Maximo Gomez. Their main aim of course was to
get Spain to grant them their independence. The one lesson that they had learnt from their
previous battle for independence (Ten Years War (1868-1878) was that it would take much
"convincing" to do this. It seemed as if the nineteenth (19th) century was going to end and they
would still be ruled by Spain.
The then U.S. President maintained neutrality as the war progressed into its second year although
he was seriously pressured by both the American Public and Congress to become involved. Why
then was the decision taken to get involved in 1898?

● Economic Interests
Investments
1. By 1898 the U.S. had invested some fifty million dollars ($50M) in Cuba. 2. American
merchants, ship owners and bankers (financers) invested in the production and marketing of
Cuban sugar.
3. The U.S. invested also in: coffee, cocoa and tobacco plantations and cattle ranches, railway
construction and mining: for example Chrome Mines in Santiago were controlled by the
Pennsylvania Steel Company.

Trade
4. Eighty three per cent (83 %) of Cuba's exports went to the U.S. In return they bought
foodstuff, lumber and manufactured goods from the U.S. Annual trade figures were
estimated at one hundred million dollars ($100M) or thirty eight per cent (38%) of total
imports. This includes half of Cuba's total tobacco output.

Businesses
5. The United States not only invested in various industries and companies but they actually
bought and operated several economic enterprises. For example, the American company
Edwin and Atkins bought and operated the Soledad sugar estates while New York
investors began operating the Tuinucua estate in 1893. There were of course a number of
other commercial activities that they owned and operated.

● Defense
She desired to annex Cuba for strategic reasons. Cuba commanded the approaches to the
Windward Passage while its proximity to Florida and the Central American mainland would
certainly be of use in the near future. It would be the perfect site therefore for a naval or military
base.

● Public Pressure and Campaign

American Journalism or the "Yellow Press" played an integral part in ‘forcing' America's hand.
There was strong competition between the New York Journal owned by Randolph Hearst and the
New York World owned by Joseph Pulitzer. Each sought to outdo the other in sensationalism, the
hallmark of U.S. mass media. They presented fantastic graphics: artist's impressions of what they
had heard. Their shocking headlines of the war in Cuba, took sensational journalism to its peak
even though it meant ‘bending or twisting' the truth at times. They went for headlines that caught
one's attention and stirred one's passion. They reported endless stories of Spanish' excessive
abuse of innocent Spanish peasants who were said to be feeding and hiding rebels in the
countryside.

On hearing this, the U.S. public began to put pressure on the Government to stop the war. As the
watchdog and consummate humanitarian America felt it was her ‘duty' and Manifest Destiny to
intervene. The blowing up of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana harbour provided an excellent excuse
for America to enter into the war. The ship was docked in the harbour in February 1898 to protect
American life and property in Cuba.
American Life
1. In 1897 American Red Cross members had entered Cuba to provide essential supplies of
food and clothing for the suffering Cubans.
2. As you would imagine due to their extensive investment in Cuba, there were quite a
number of U.S. businessmen residing on that island: foremen, accountants, managers and
so on.

American Property
1. They had $50Million worth of investments that was worth defending.
2. American Steamship involved in the lucrative trade with Cuba. According to steamship
 owners the war was costing them some $100Million per year.
3. It was reported that as the war gathered momentum the rebels using guerilla tactics burnt
plantations and sugar mills throughout the island. Remember that the U.S. owned quite a
number of sugar plantations and mills in Cuba.

The ship was mysteriously blown up killing all 266 Americans reported to be on board. The
Yellow Press went into frenzy! Headlines after headlines rang out, demanding U.S. intervention.
Here is a nice example: “Remember the Maine to Hell With Spain” The U.S. pointed fingers
at Spain who looked puzzled. Could it have been the Cuban nationals eager to force the U.S.
involvement in the war so they could be assured of victory against their Spanish masters? Or
could it have been an accident? The Americans interpreted it as an act of war and immediately
took offensive measures.
-April 19, 1898
The U.S. demanded compensation for her damages. She presented an ultimatum to Spain, which
called for her (Spain) to withdraw from Cuba and declare the island free. Of course Spain
refused!

-April 25, 1898

President W. McKinley with Congress permission of course, declared war on Spain. The war
now changed from the Cuban War of Independence to The Spanish American War. The U.S.
was assured of military victory. Spain was now a weak power. She was defeated in three (3)
months. The ‘war' took place in three countries: the Philippines, Cuba and Puerto Rico.

● Results
1. Cuba gained its independence from Spain
2. The U.S. paid Spain $20Million for the loss of her territories
3. A Peace Treaty was signed in Paris December 1898 to seal the above decisions. 4. The
U.S. immediately took full control of the new nation of Cuba. She underwrote the cost of
repairing much of the damage done during the war. She also opened schools and started
other social projects.
5. The people who had been in the reconcentrados (concentration camps) were given food,
seeds, cattle and equipment to start their lives over again
6. The United States got Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. The last two territories
afforded them a foothold in the Pacific Ocean.
Cuba received the bulk of U.S. attention. By the Teller Amendment the U.S. recognized Cuba's
independence and promised not to interfere in their domestic matters. This was followed by the
military occupation of Cuba from 1898 to 1902.

General John Brooke - first military governor of Cuba 1898 to 1900

General Leonard Wood - second military governor of Cuba 1900 to 1902
● Positive Effects of Military Occupation
Both governors gave Cuba what they thought of as the blessings of American civilization which
they felt that the new nation of Cuba was so privileged to receive.

Sanitation
A refuse disposal system was instituted
A sewage system was put in place
The streets were cleaned

Health
Hospitals and asylums were built
A rigid health care program aimed at eradicating malaria and yellow fever
Education
Schools were built
The University of Havana was reopened
Textbooks were sent to various schools

Social Services
A relief program was instituted

Public Utilities and Works

The telegraph and phone system were repaired and extended
Roads and bridges were built
The Havana harbour was widened
Railways and docks were constructed

Development of the Economy through Trade and Investments

Cuban exports to the U.S. increased. In 1899 the total value of export was $34.4M. This more
than tripled by 1901 to the tune of $118M. Cuban imports from the U.S. increased. In 1899 the
total value of import was $36.8M. This almost tripled by 1901($97.5M.)

● Negative Effects of Military occupation

1. The Cuban army was disbanded in order to prevent conflict between the Cuban and
American troops
2. Cubans were relegated to few jobs and junior positions in the Public Service and
Government as more and more Americans were imported to run the government. 3. The
haughty U.S. ignored Cuban tradition and culture and experience. They refused to appreciate
that the Cubans had a lifestyle and a culture before they came. A lifestyle and a culture that
they cherished. But the U.S. did NOT understand this. It was hard for them to even conceive
that anyone would hesitate to give up their ‘backward uncivilized' culture in exchange for the
superior culture! So they doggedly forced their culture upon the people.
4. Much colour prejudice was evident in the dealings of the Americans with the Cubans. As a
result there was a colour ban in Cuban restaurants and hotels that wanted to attract and
cater exclusively to the United States and the Cuban upper class that supported this type
of behaviour.
5. The American soldiers practiced prostitution. Even young girls were involved in this
illegal activity.
6. The textbooks used in the schools were written, printed in and sent from the U.S. In many
instances, they were merely Spanish translations of American publications, painful
reminders of the displacement of Cuban culture and its subsequent replacement.
7. In the road building programmes, only American equipment was used. And of course, the
contracts for the constructions of such roads and other public works were reserved for
American engineers.
8. The military government opened and operated the National Bank of Cuba.

The U.S. would not withdraw its troops or end the military occupation unless the Cubans signed
the Platt Amendment and included it as part of their Constitution. This document gave the
Americans complete control over Cuban affairs. The Cubans were reluctant to sign it. It seemed
as if they were just changing one master (Spain) for another (America). But they had no choice, it
was to sign or continue military rule of Cuba. They signed.

● Terms of the Platt Amendment

Cuba could NOT:

 (a) Conclude treaties with foreign powers
(b) Borrow money in excess of what its normal revenues could repay
(c) Completely control its internal affairs in such matters as sanitation and health
(d) Refuse the U.S. bases and coaling stations
(e) Allow any other country to have a base in Cuba
(f) Prevent the U.S. from intervening in Cuba for the ‘protection of life, liberty and
individual property'.
The Platt Amendment governed American relations with Cuba until it was withdrawn in 1934.
The economic control of Cuba's resources and wealth still continued. Many of the Cuban
Presidents that were elected were mere puppets and ‘yes man' for the U.S. Military occupation
was enforced at least four times before 1959.

TOPIC: United States in Puerto Rico (1898)

In 1898, Spain ceded the Puerto Rican archipelago to the United States as a result of its defeat in
the Spanish-American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898. Since then Puerto
Rico has remained under United States rule.

● Why did the U.S keep control of Puerto Rico?

1. Defense
Puerto Rico was strategically located. The island commanded the eastern passage to enter the
Caribbean. By this means any enemy of the U.S. could enter the Gulf of Mexico- America's
backyard. The island was close to the American mainland. If the U.S. controlled it they would be
better able to prevent European countries from occupying it. The U.S. intended to build a canal in
the Central American mainland. The island was a perfect place to build a naval base to protect
the canal.

2. Investments
Millions of American dollars and capital were invested in agriculture, especially sugar and
tobacco. They also invested in banking, manufacturing and public utilities.

3. Trade: Market Outlet

She would become one of the sure markets for American manufactured goods while at the same
time providing her with raw materials to feed her industries.

4. Ideological
This would be another island where she could spread her superior ideology.
After the signing of the Treaty of Paris, Puerto Rico no longer belonged to Spain, she was now a
protectorate (a state) of the U.S. The island was subjected to American military rule 1898 to
1900. Thereafter an American appointed governor and a council whose members were nominated
by Americans formed the government. The island's political system and operations were however
governed by the Foraker or First Organic Act.

● Why did Puerto Rico accept U.S. rule?

1. The U.S. promised them political development such as democracy. This was viewed by
many as a better alternative to the backward colonial rule that they had known. 2. Many
hoped that the progressive labor laws of the U.S. would be applied to Puerto Rico. 3. The
masses hoped to get jobs. The island soon became a reservoir of cheap labour. 4. The
merchant class hoped to profit from an expansion in business, investments and free trade.
5. Many of them expected to become U.S. citizens. They felt that they could migrate freely to
the U.S. where they hoped to achieve a better standard of living.
6. They expected to get much of the social services that the U.S. had already begun to
introduce in those towns and areas where she had interests. Chief among these are:
 education, sanitation and health.

● How did Puerto Ricans benefit from being a U.S. state?

1. They gained religious freedom
2. Measures such as disinfecting slums and cleaning the streets were introduced.
3. Mass vaccinations were done
4. Old schools were improved while new ones were built and equipped.
5. Employment increased.
6. The legal system was simplified.
7. A forest conservation program was started.
8. Labor laws were passed introducing an eight hour workday.

TOPIC: United States in Panama (1903)

The U.S. was interested in building a canal in Panama from as early as the 1890's. During the
Spanish American War it took three times longer for the troops to sail from California to Cuba.
The Panama railroad which she constructed in 1851-1855, reinforced or highlighted the
importance and urgent need for the transoceanic route. It was the route for prospectors to the
California Gold Rush.

The Canal would connect the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean as well as:
1. Provide easy access and communication between her territories in these two areas.
2. Save time on commercial shipping between the two areas
3. It would prove to be a very profitable investment
4. She would once again prove her dominance and hegemony in the Western World. She
could more effectively carry out her role as international policeman and watchdog for the
Hemisphere.
5. It would give the US some amount of power over the other super powers.

President Theodore Roosevelt acquired the right to build the Panama Canal in 1903. How did he
accomplish this?

a. In 1850 the U.S. and Britain signed the Clayton Bulwer Treaty. They agreed to the joint
construction and use of a canal in Panama.
b. By the 1880's the French commissioned Ferdinand de Lesseps, the man responsible for the
construction of the Suez Canal to build a similar one in Panama. Based on his track record
of success, it was relatively easy for him to get the necessary funding for such a
mammoth project.

c. The venture failed however due to an epidemic of tropical diseases, technological

problems and financial mismanagement. This was the break that the U.S. was waiting for.

d. She approached Britain and requested that the 1850 treaty be annulled. Britain could not
afford a ‘showdown' at this point. She needed the U.S. if not as an ally at least to remain
neutral in European affairs.

e. In 1901, Britain signed a new treaty, the Hay Paunceforte Treaty, in which she
surrendered her rights to the construction and operation of a canal across the Isthmus of
Panama to the US as long as the U.S. allowed ships of all other nations to use it and be
charged equal tolls.

f. She still had two problems: 1. Panama still belonged to Colombia and Colombia was
 asking a high price. 2. The French still had the rights to construct the canal. The second
problem was easily solved. Given the difficulties and obstacles faced, the French
company quickly sold the rights and equipment to the U.S. for $40M. With the Hay-
Herran Treaty (1903) the U.S. offered to pay Colombia $10M for the right to dig the
canal on a ten kilometer corridor. It would be leased for 99 years at $250,000 p.a. This
treaty was not approved by Columbia, and so the US encouraged a Panamanian uprising
against Colombia.

g. On November 3, 1903 a revolutionary war broke out between Colombia and Panama. It is
said that the French company incited it because they were afraid that the U.S. might
change its mind and seek a route through Nicaragua.

h. The U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sent the USS Nashville "to protect U.S. life, liberty
and property". They seized the Panama railroad and this prevented Columbian forces
from landing within 80 kilometers (fighting distance) of Panama which then declared its
independence.

i. Three days later on November 6ththe U.S. recognized Panama's independence and a new
treaty was signed. The Hay Bunau-Varilla Treaty gave the US total control over a 16km
strip of land (the isthmus). Under this agreement, the canal zone was tax-free and the US
could take extra land for canal construction. The US also had the sole right to defend the
canal zone. In return, Panama received US$10M and an annual payment of US$250,000
beginning 9 years after the confirmation of the treaty. The U.S. promised to protect and
guarantee the independence of Panama.

j. American doctors and scientists worked feverishly and developed a cure for malaria and
yellow fever. They also sprayed the area eliminating the mosquitoes and installing
adequate drainage systems to prevent further breeding of the insects. American engineer
John Stephenson designed the master plan for the canal as well as the use of railroads to
carry away the dirt.

k. Construction lasted ten years. It started in 1904 and ended in 1914. Over 75,000 workers
were recruited from all over to include Caribbean territories such as Barbados and
Jamaica. It cost approximately $400M to construct.
l. In 1936 the Hull Alford Treaty was signed between the US and Panama ending US
protectorate status over Panama. Panama now jointly defended the canal zone with the US

● Positive effects of the Panama Canal

1. U.S. provides employment for locals
2. Defense- during WW2 U.S. had airfield and military bases in Panama 3. Financial aid
totaling $40M in addition to annual rent which was raised from 250,000 to 436,000 in 1934
(F.D. Roosevelt) and 1.930M in 1955

● Negative Effects
1. It violated the sovereignty of the Panamanian people
2. It strained relations between the U.S. and Panamanians. In 1931 there was an overthrow of
the Panamanian puppet President.
3. Panamanian laws did not apply within the zone.
4. Violence erupted in 1959 when Panamanians attempted to hoist their national flag in Canal
Zone and strongly resisted by U.S. troops
5. Locals were not allowed within several miles of the canal. An area of no man's land was
established.
 6. There was an influx of American goods. These were available from shops in the Zone.
They offered stiff competition to locally produced goods.

TOPIC: United States in Haiti (1915)

The U.S. had fewer investments in Haiti than France and Germany. But by 1910 she controlled
about 60% of Haiti's import trade and the National Railway Company. This was enough for her
to become concerned about any possible European intervention in that country. French, German
and American investors were making huge profits from investments in banking, public services
and railways. World War 1 began in 1914. The Haitians owed over $32M to Germany and other
European creditors. It was said that the Germans threatened to take over Haiti if the debt was not
paid. Germany the aggressor wanted a base from which to attack Britain and US possessions in
the Western Hemisphere.
Haiti had serious political problems as well. She had a history of unstable and corrupt
government. Between 1908 and 1915, there were seven Presidents. Matters got worse when in
July of 1915, a revolt broke out. The then President, Vilbrun Guillame Sam was widely viewed
by the Haitian people as a cruel and unjust leader. It is rumored that he imprisoned, tortured and
massacred a number of his opponents. Sam was murdered during the revolt.
The U.S. applied the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. This basically gives them the
right to intervene in any Caribbean or Latin American country which acts in such a way as to
invite European intervention in the U.S. ‘backyard'. She could not afford for Germany to capture
Haiti and become a threat to her precious canal or use the Windward Passage to attack her.
Therefore in July of 1915, she responded swiftly. American marines led by Admiral Caperton
landed at Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital to ‘protect American life, liberty and property' and to
restore law and order.

The Haitian-American treaty was signed in November 1915. It allowed the Americans to control
Haiti's finances, sanitation, law and order and public works. They remained there until 1934. ●
Negative effects of U.S. intervention in Haiti
1. The U.S. was in control of Haiti. They lost their sovereignty.
2. Martial law was declared in September 1915. The freedom of movement of Haitians was
restricted.
3. The revolt was brutally crushed. Hundreds of so-called rebels were killed without even a trial.
4. American military officers were in charge of government operations.
5. The U.S. made changes to Haiti's constitution which allowed the U.S. to own huge acres of
land.
6. Racial discrimination occurred
7. Many of the social programs were done in the towns where the Americans occupied while the
rural areas remained destitute.
8. Haiti's culture was severely affected.
9. The new Haitian council was chosen by the Americans
10. The U.S. censored Haiti's press.

● Positive effects of U.S. intervention in Haiti

1. Law and order was restored
2. A new Haitian police force was created (gendarmerie). This force was trained by the U.S.
army.
3. The U.S. paid Haiti's debts and took control of their finances, especially the Customs house. 4.
The health care system was improved. New hospitals, clinics and health centres were
constructed.
5. The sewages were drained and other sanitation measures were implemented. 6. A mosquito
eradication program along with vaccination helped to decrease the spread of diseases.
7. New roads, parks, wharves and light houses were built.
8. A number of new jobs were created

TOPIC: United States in the Dominican Republic (1916)

During the 19th century, the United States’ relationship with the Dominican Republic was
confined primarily to trading, investment in the sugar industry and providing loans for the
government. Between 1882 and 1899, the Dominican Republic experienced political stability and
economic growth under the presidency of Ulises Heureaux. However, he was assassinated in
1899 and this resulted in turmoil. In March 1903, another revolution broke out which caused
several foreign nations to send warships and land troops to protect the lives and property of their
nationals. The country was also in a deep financial crisis. It owed large sums of money to
European creditors. In 1903, the government failed to keep its promise to German, Italian, and
Spanish creditors that it would make monthly payments on its debts. As a result, the French and
Belgian Governments threatened to seize the customs house in Santo Domingo. This caused
President Roosevelt to issue his Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in December 1904.
In January 1905, an agreement was signed between the United States and the Dominican
Republic. This gave the U.S. the authority to administer the customs collection from which the
debts would be serviced. This meant that European nations would have no reason to intervene, as
the debts owed to them would be serviced by the U.S. The U.S. intervention in the Dominican
Republic was known as Dollar Diplomacy and was credited to William Howard Taft. In 1916,
President Juan Isidro Jimenez was forced to accept more American control in the Dominican
Republic. He refused and resigned, leaving the country without a government. The U.S. became
afraid that another government would be elected that might not be in favour with U.S.
intervention. Consequently, further elections did not take place and President Woodrow Wilson
landed troops in the Dominican Republic so as to prevent political instability and the intervention
of German and other foreign troops.

● Positive effects of U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic

1. Law and order was restored
2. The U.S. paid the debts and took control of their finances, especially the Customs house. 3.
The health care system was improved. New hospitals, clinics and health centres were
constructed.
4. The sewages were drained and other sanitation measures were implemented. 5. A mosquito
eradication program along with vaccination helped to decrease the spread of diseases.
6. New roads and bridges were built.
7. A number of new jobs were created
8. U.S. investment in the sugar industry led to the increased use of machinery and the
modernization of this industry.

● Negative effects of U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic

1. The U.S. was in total control of the country from 1916 to 1924. They lost their
sovereignty.
2. Martial law was declared. The freedom of movement of Haitians was restricted.
3. American military officers were in charge of government operations.
4. The rebels were tried by military court.
5. The U.S. disarmed the general public to reduce the chance of armed revolts by guerilla
groups.
6. Racial discrimination occurred
7. Many of the social programs were done in the towns where the Americans occupied while
 the rural areas remained destitute.
8. The cattle industry was adversely affected due to the importation of cheap American
leather.
9. The financial system became dominated by American and Canadian banks. 10. The U.S.
censored the press in order to quiet any opposition to their occupation and rule.

TOPIC: United States in Grenada (1983)

Eric Gairy became premier of Grenada in 1967. He was an eccentric ruler. He claimed to believe
in U.F.O.s and made public speeches about this on international television. The Grenadian people
were quite embarrassed by this. His regime was corrupt. He wasted public funds on personal
items while the one hospital on the island was poorly equipped and dilapidated. When the nurses
went on strike to protest the horrible working conditions, they were tear-gassed at Gairy's orders.
Twenty two of them were imprisoned and the ‘ringleaders' were transferred to neighboring
islands. Gairy owned 30 estates while the poor had very little land. There were 80 children in one
class in the primary schools.
He used underhand means to keep himself in power. He was suspected of rigging the elections
and using terrorists known as the Mongoose Gang to exterminate those who dared to oppose him.
In 1973, he ordered the beating of six members of the opposition group, the New Jewel
Movement. He treated Parliament as if it was his own personal property and instrument. He
favoured those who supported him by granting them concessions and monopolies. Gairy did not
allow freedom of speech in Grenada. In 1975, he passed the Newspaper Act. The deposit
required for a place in the newspaper rose from $900.00 to $20,000.00.
In March of 1979, Maurice Bishop, the leader of the opposition party: The New Jewel Movement
seized power while Gairy was off the island. The new government was known as the People's
Revolutionary government.

● Effects of the Revolution

1. Free secondary education. This resulted in a significant decrease in the level of illiteracy.
2. Unemployment decreased from 30% to 15%.
3. There was a preventative medicine campaign.
4. More health clinics were built to take the strain off the island's hospital.
5. A housing scheme was established for the masses.
6. The international airport was constructed.

● Failure of the Revolutionary Government

1. Some party members were very dishonest. They would attend to their private businesses and
charge the bill to the government.
2. A number of the citizens were discontented with the pace of reforms. Several of the projects
could not be sustained and others had to be cancelled because of lack of international
funding.
3. The government of Grenada received very little support from the other Caribbean nations. The
rest of the Caribbean was pro-American.
4. Grenada and the PRG were alienated in the international market. They had to depend on
themselves and Cuba for economic survival. This was never going to be enough given the
level of reconstruction work that they had to do.
5. There was division within the party. Members of Bishop's party felt that he was not radical
enough.
On October 19, 1983, Bishop and some of his Cabinet ministers were brutally murdered in a
coup led by some of his former friends. They were Communists who called themselves the
Revolutionary Military Council. On October 25, 1983 the United States decided to invade
Grenada. They called the move “Urgent Fury”.

● Why did the United States invade Grenada?

1. They were concerned about the safety of several hundreds of United States citizens who
were students at the St. George's Medical University in Grenada.
2. The October revolution in Grenada represented ‘chronic wrongdoing' in her backyard. As
the watchdog of the Western Hemisphere she was duty bound to protect the region. She
applied the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
3. As with Cuba, she was also concerned about the spread of Communism in her backyard.
The United States, the champion of democracy could NOT tolerate Communism so close
to her. She intervened to stop the extremists and radicals who got rid of Gairy from taking
over the country.

4. The Caribbean Commonwealth leaders appealed to the U.S. for help.

5. The U.S. wanted to restore political stability on the island.
● How did the Caribbean react to the revolution?
1. Caribbean leaders from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States met in Barbados.
The meeting was chaired by Prime Minister Eugenia Charles of Dominica. The leaders
took the decision to join the United States armed forces that would invade Grenada.
2. Other Caribbean countries such as Jamaica and Barbados sent a contingent to Grenada to
help crush the revolution.

● Effects of U.S. intervention in Grenada

1. Law and order was restored
2. Even though the bulk of the invasion force was withdrawn by December 1983, 800
soldiers stayed behind for one year to oversee the provisional government and the
elections held in December (1984)
3. Communism and social ideologies ceased on the island. The New National Party led by
Herbert Blaize was a democratic party that was in favor of American influence.
4. America used the opportunity to capture and deport 800 Cuban workers that were assigned
to help in Grenada's development program.
5. The soldiers were involved in undesirable social activities such as gambling and
prostitution.

TOPIC: The Cuban Revolution

Fulgencio Batista seized power of Cuba in 1952. This was his second term of office. He seized
this second opportunity to squeeze all he could from the Cuban coffers for his personal
aggrandizement. That meant that he had to encourage heavy American intervention in order to
ensure their continued support for his corrupt regime. The U.S. was willing to support him as
long as her backyard remained stable and the profits continued to pour in from their investments
on the island. The U.S. not only recognized his dictatorship; they sold him arms and continued to
provide military training missions. It was this band of trained soldiers that was used to silence
Batista's opponents such as Castro and his band of soldiers.

● Causes of the Revolution

1. The U.S. operated plush hotels, gambling casinos and tourist resorts, nightclubs and
racetracks all over Havana. Some argued that there was even gangster capital involved. 2.
The average Cuban could not enter these hotels or use the beaches. They were
exclusively for tourists, American tourists! The blacks- Afro-Cubans could only work at
these places.

3. The press was heavily censored

4. There was high unemployment and seasonal unemployment for those who worked in the
agricultural sector, especially sugar. In 1959 was 37.5%
5. Batista banned the meeting of any of his opponents. His rule became gangster-like. Court
martial and pre-dawn firing squads were common.
6. The mortality rate was high, especially infant mortality. The children were infected with
parasites. Malaria and Tuberculosis ruled the countryside while the urban areas received
the benefits of American eradication.
7. There was an inadequate number of hospitals and clinics. The ratio of doctors was
woefully inadequate as well.

8. American imports totaled $577M seriously competing with similar Cuban products.
9. Despite the presence of a number of millionaires the island was heavily in debt. Wealth
was unevenly distributed.
10. Not surprisingly therefore, in 1957 the sugar and bank workers went on strike. This
industry is traditionally the MAIN employment area. In 1957 there was a general all
island strike.
11. A survey in 1956 showed that the Americans owned over 90% of the telephone and
electricity services, 50% of public transport and railways and 40% of raw sugar
production. In addition she held a quarter of all Cuban bank deposits. The staff in all these
enterprises was largely American.
12. There was racial discrimination, victimization, prostitution, execution and exile of
opponents.

● Castro’s Revolution
1. 1953- Castro and his men attacked the Monocado barracks. Castro spent 2 of the 15 years
in jail along with his brother Raul and more than 100 others as the attempt to overthrow
Batista failed.
2. 1956 –Fidel Castro, Raul Castro, Che Guevara and 81 fileditas sailed from Mexico in
the Granma but only 12 survived the onslaught of Batista's soldiers. They escaped into
the Sierra Maestra mountains.
3. January 1, 1959 - Castro staged a successful revolutionary overthrow of the corrupt
regime. It was Castro's third attempt. But this time, the ‘graft rotten' dictatorship toppled
and the deposed tyrant (Batista) allegedly fled to Florida with over $200M.
Guerilla warfare, support from the peasants in the countryside who provided Castro with
information and food along the way, use of two way radios, continuous supplies of arms from
Mexico and supporters in the U.S. kept the struggle alive. Some members of the middle class also
joined the rebels.
Castro wished to have a real revolution. He did not wish to be bound by U.S. gifts and policies.
He made that clear from the very beginning. He used the radio and television to announce his
programs.

TOPIC: Policies of the Castro Revolution and United States Response

The independence of Cuba from American influence and economic domination.
1. No private property. All the factors of production would be owned and controlled by the
state.

2. Opposition press would be stifled

3. Courts would be purged of middle class judges
4. Health, education and other social services would be free. Syllabus reflecting the needs
and culture of Cuba were written and implemented.

● Castro’s Policies in Action

a. 1959 Agrarian Reform Act: land owned by major American cattle ranchers, sugar and
tobacco estates companies were seized without compensation and made the property of
the government. Castro then proceeded to redistribute it in smaller parcels to landless
locals at the rate of 27 hectares per family.
b. He installed interveners in November 1959 to oversee the operations of several large
American companies. This he said to prevent them from being tempted to falsify their
accounts: tax returns, profits made and so on. The utility companies were also asked to
cut their rates and charges.
c. Most of the senior government officials who had served during the Batista regime were
dismissed and those loyal to Castro and the policies of the revolution were hired in their
place.
d. The police, army and navy were purged of corrupt officers. Some 483 of them were found
guilty of serious crimes against the Cuban people and were consequently executed.
e. In order to show their disapproval of Castro's nationalization program the U.S. enforces a
trade embargo. They refused to sell him any weapons or lend the country any money. The
mighty one was buying approximately half a billion tons of sugar from Cuba and paid a
bonus of 2 cents above the market price. She refused to buy any more of their sugar.
Castro responded by charging that the U.S. was practicing economic aggression and
economic slavery. He was right. They hoped that without oil and parts for the numerous
pieces of American machinery on the island Castro would ‘come to his senses'.
f. February 13, 1960: Russia signs a trade agreement with Cuba to purchase 5M tons of sugar
over a five year period and to supply her with needed technicians as well as oil and arms.
Kruschev declared that the Monroe Doctrine was dead and suggested that it be buried so
that it would not poison the air. The U.S. was outraged at the violation of their Monroe
Doctrine and warned Russia.
g. The U.S. reacts by refusing to refine the crude oil bought from Russia at her refineries still
in Cuba: Texaco, Royal Dutch and Standard Oil or to allow the Cuban government to take
 them over. Castro's contempt for U.S. superiority and hegemony of the region (Western
Hemisphere) was hard for them to swallow.

h. March 1960: Castro questioned America's right to the naval base at Guantanamo i.
May 1960: Castro established formal diplomatic relations with Communist Russia
j. July 1960: He nationalized all remaining U.S. nickel plants, rice mills, cinemas and stores.
k. August 1960: the government takes over all utilities- phone and light as well as oil and
sugar mills. The U.S. responded by placing a ban on all U.S. exports to Cuba except
foodstuff. They warned their citizens not to visit Cuba thus stopping the island's income
from tourism. By November 1960, over $1B worth of US-owned enterprises had been
seized, as well as many that were mostly owned by Cubans
l. December 2, 1961: Fidel Castro declares himself to be a Marxist Leninist. He began to
implement social programs designed to improve the standard of living of the masses. For
example: new affordable housing schemes for the masses and road works were started as
early as 1960.

m. A number of Cuban middle class went into exile mainly in Florida.

n. January 1961: Castro ordered the U.S. Embassy to cut its staff from 300 to 11. President
Eisenhower (1953-1961) reacted by severing ties with Cuba on January 3, 1961. He left
office 17 days later. It was up to the new President J. F. Kennedy to determine what to do.
o. He inherited among other things a ‘plan' to overthrow Castro and put an end to the
revolution. He hoped that the CIA nicknamed the Cuba Invasion Army would have the
same success it had in Guatemala in 1954. Some 1500 Cuban refugees were secretly
trained to help in the invasion. J.F.K had two choices: adopt or abandon the plan. Public
opinion was in favor of the former. They were tired of Castro's insults.
p. April 11, 1961: Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failure and a fiasco. Castro and his army of
some 250,000 men and women were well armed and ready to meet the small invading
forces. The CIA bungled the job perfectly. They arrogantly assumed that this would be a
pushover.
q. 11,000 U.S. men were imprisoned. Castro exchanged them for a hefty ransom price of
$53M in much needed food and medicine.
r. Castro then felt the need to fortify Cuba. He thought that the U.S. would never dare to
attack the island if Cuba had nuclear missiles and the result would be the annihilation of
nearby U.S. cities
s. October 1962: Aerial photos show hundreds of Russian technicians installing 40 nuclear
missiles with estimated range of 1000 to 2000 miles in western Cuba. President Kennedy
informed the OAS of the danger the missiles posed to both the US and LAtin America.
He got their support for US ships to blockade Cuba and stop and search all Soviet ships
heading for the island. He then contacted Khrushchev and demanded the removal of the
missiles.(Cuban Missile Crisis)
t. The U.S. acted quickly and decisively. Kruschev and Kennedy met and negotiated a
settlement. On October 28, 1962 the Russian President agreed to pull his weapons out of
Cuba while Kennedy agreed to lift the quarantine on Cuba and promised not to invade the
island.
 u. By 1962, it was clear that Castro had decided that Castro had decided that Cuba should be
governed along the lines of a commuist state. A single party for all the supporters of the
revolution was created- the Party of the Socialist Revolution. In October 1965, this was
reorganized as the Communist Party of Cuba. Castro’s turn to communism brought the
Cold War to the Caribbean. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s the USA and the USSR
competed to win over the national Caribbean governments to support their positions on
world issues. The USSR funneled support and economic aid to Caribbean countries and
Latin America through Cuba. The Cold War gave Cuba an influence in the world much
greater than its size or wealth suggested but when it ended in the 1990s Cuba’s trade
benefits disappeared and so did its position in world affairs.
Policy US Response

1. Agrarian Reform- May 1959

2. Nationalization of Industries-November 1959 1. Trade Embargo on sugar, oil and weapons

3. Trade Agreement with Russia-February 1960 2. Refuse to refine the crude oil bought from
Russia

4. Establish formal diplomatic ties with

Russia May 1960

5. Nationalize all remaining US nickel plants, 3. Ban on all US exports to Cuba except
rice mills, cinemas and stores as well as takes foodstuff. Americans warned not to visit Cuba
over all utilities- July & August 1960

6. Declares Cuba Communist and implement

social programs- December 1960

7. Cut US Embassy staff from 300 to 11- 4. Severs all ties with Cuba
January 1961

5. Bay of Pigs Invasion- April 1961

8. Cuban Missile Crisis- October 1962 6. America lifts quarantine off the island

TOPIC: United States Involvement in the British West Indies 1939-1985

The United States became actively involved in the political affairs of three main Caribbean
countries during this period. They are Grenada, Jamaica and Guyana:
1. The United States considered the Caribbean to be her sphere of influence. She would only
tolerate democracy NEVER Communism.
2. She was suspicious of the close relationship that the Prime Ministers of these three
countries seemed to share with the rebel leader Fidel Castro.
3. She did not want to give them any encouragement. She felt that she had to aggressively
crush this sort of relationship before it spread to the other territories.
4. As noted above in the economic involvement, she had invested in several areas of the
 economy of these countries. She needed to protect American life, liberty and property in
these countries.

● Jamaica
Michael Manley became Prime Minister of Jamaica in 1972. He reigned for two terms (1972-
1980). He was defeated in the General elections of October 1980. His social reforms and
expressed ideologies made the United States nervous.
5. He rejected the capitalist path to development and chose instead to adopt Democratic
Socialism. The U.S. considered this very dangerous given the geographical fact that the
island is only about 90 miles away from Florida.
6. He preached self-reliance and rejected a U.S. dominated economy. He insisted that
Jamaicans should eat what they grew and import less American food items.

7. He openly admired Castro's social and economic programmes

8. He made several trips to Cuba and Castro also made a number of visits to Jamaica. During
his reign Jamaica enjoyed diplomatic relations with Cuba despite the Cold War that was
declared by the U.S.
9. At various press conferences, Manley called for the lifting of the trade embargo that the
U.S. placed on Cuba.
10. He believed in Third World Unity. He angered the U.S. with his famous "we are not for
sale" speech at a public rally.
11. The U.S. was worried that their investments in Jamaica were threatened especially after
Manley began a program of nationalization. The script was too familiar.

12. He sported a bush jacket and encouraged Jamaican men to do the same.

Reforms and Policies

1. Free secondary education. New schools were built including the Jose Marti Technical
High School near Spanish Town. This was a gift from the Cuban government. 2. An adult
literacy campaign was introduced
3. Improvement in medical care. Some (medical) students were given scholarships to study in
Cuba and Russia. Cuban doctors were assigned to different health centres and hospitals.

4. New housing schemes and development for the poor and middle class.
5. Land Reform: lands were taken from foreign investors and leased to Jamaican small
farmers at reduced rates. Their produce was collected by the AMC- Agricultural
Marketing Corporation for sale at fair prices to both consumers and wholesalers.

6. Equal pay for women as well as two months maternity leave with pay.
7. Trade with Cuba flourished. For example condensed milk was bought from Cuba and sold
to lower income Jamaicans at 50% of the cost of other condensed milk.

Reactions
The United States
1. Refused to grant Manley the U.S. $100M line of credit that they had promised him 2. In
1976 the C.I.A. entered the island secretly to support the opposition party 3. Trade
restrictions were applied to the island. Certain consumer goods were no longer
 available from the U.S. The supermarket shelves were empty. This strategy is better
known as sabotage.
4. When Manley approached the U.S. dominated International Monetary Fund (IMF) for
loans they insisted on harsh adjustment programs.
5. The propaganda of the American Yellow Press was at its best. They published various
articles describing Jamaica as one of the most dangerous places on earth. This had a
negative impact on the tourist industry.

Jamaicans
1. A number of the women supported the policies and programs of Manley, especially the
new labor and family laws.
2. Lower class support was evident as the masses experienced an improvement in their
standard of living. This was especially so during the first term before the negative
reaction of America in particular and the international community in general to Manley's
reforms.
3. Those of the Black Pride movement supported Manley. His wife during his reign was a
black woman who wore an Afro.
4. The middle and upper class felt very threatened by the ideals of democratic socialism.
They feared that their properties would be confiscated and given or sold to the poor at
cheap rates. There were five flights a day to Miami and they were all full.
5. There was a massive brain drain and flight of capital as the middle class and the rich took
off.

The rest of the Caribbean

1. They were totally afraid of U.S. reprisals. They decided to increase their economic ties
with the U.S. They provided the shortfall in the goods and services that the U.S. would
normally buy from Jamaica. That included the tourism market.
2. They decided that they would have nothing to do with Cuba or Jamaica.
3. A number of them cut off diplomatic relations with Jamaica or gave them the ‘cold
shoulder'.

4. Barbados denied left wing politicians from Jamaica entry to their island

➢ Guyana
In 1953 Constitutional Reforms were introduced to British Guiana. There is a Ministerial
government with an elected Assembly under Universal Adult Suffrage. The People's Political
Party wins the election with very little opposition. Its chairman, Cheddi Jagan became the
Premier of British Guiana six years before Fidel Castro wrenched Cuba from the control of
America.
Russia or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) became Communist (1917). She was
basically isolated after World War 2. The democratic nations did not want a relationship with
her. America was afraid that she would infiltrate the Caribbean in search of markets and allies.
The government of the United States soon became unsatisfied with his regime. They claimed that
Jagan had developed close ties with the Soviet Union. The Americans persuaded Britain, the
Mother Country, to reject the Constitution of 1953. A British military invasion followed.
The PPP was removed from power and a temporary government created in the interim. The PPP
had been shared by Jagan an Indian and Forbes Burnham a Negro. Burnham had racial issues
with Jagan and the two parted company. The U.S. influenced invasion led to a division. In 1955
Burnham formed his own party, the People's National Congress (PNC). The split became official.
The PPP won the next two elections in 1957 and 1961 respectively but each time the PNC gained
new grounds as their support got larger. The U.S. became even more concerned with the 1961
victory by Jagan and the PPP. Firstly, Cuba had already become communist. Secondly, Jagan
declared that he embraced socialism. She could not afford the two of them in her backyard
threatening her very existence.
Two years of racial violence followed. (1961-1963) In the midst of the riots, Jagan announced
proposed tax increases. Talk about bad timing! It is alleged that the U.S. backed Burnham to stir
up racial conflict between the Indians and the Negroes hoping that in the end fresh elections
would be called and Burnham would win since the blacks had a slight majority. Further
allegations were made that the U.S. sent CIA agents to British Guiana. These agents were
responsible for the overnight appearance of posters, newsletter and fliers all over the country.
The American Yellow Press once more used propaganda to help get rid of its opposition.
In 1963 there was a 78 day strike. Ten persons were killed, many more were seriously wounded.
Jagan and three of his colleagues were suspended from the Assembly. By the following year,
1964 there was another strike. This lasted from February to July. 176 persons were killed. This
was definitely ‘chronic wrongdoing' in the U.S. backyard. She could not tolerate the political
instability any longer. Once again she encouraged Britain to take strong action. Once again, a
state of emergency was declared and British troops landed in the country to maintain law and
order. In all of this, support for the PNC grew while support for Jagan and the PPP decreased.
On December 7, 1964, under the watchful supervision of British officials, elections were held. It
was close. PPP 24, PNC 22 and Peter D'Aguilar's new party the United Force (UF formed in
1961) won 7 seats. Burnham smartly forms a quick coalition with the UF. Burnham and the PNC
were now in the majority. The governor asked Burnham to form his new government.
In May 1966, Burnham declared British Guiana's independence and changed its name to Guyana.
Burnham later changed his political philosophy and also adopted social reforms. In the 1970's he
began trading with Cuba. Guyanese rice was sold to Cuba in exchange for cars and lumber. Cuba
helped to train Guyanese pilots. The two countries shared ideas on sugar industry and
technology. It is during this time too that Burnham began to nationalize foreign enterprises.
Guyana provided landing rights to Cuban military aircrafts ferrying troops to Angola in that
country's struggle for liberation. It is no wonder then that on one of his state visits to Cuba
President Burnham was presented with the Jose Marti National Award.

● Reactions
The United States
1. She refused Guyana aid and support
2. She declared that the country was not safe for travel. A number of Guyanese were refused
visas to visit America with the excuse that they were communist spies.
3. Trade restrictions and embargo were imposed on the country
4. In October of 1976, the United States bombed a Cuban airline killing its crew and passengers
which included 11 Guyanese. This was seen as part of the penalty for Guyana's close connection
with the ‘enemy'.

The Guyanese
1. A large number of Guyanese fled the country. Some of them went to neighboring territories
such as Jamaica and Trinidad. This includes a number of professionals such as teachers and
doctors. The country suffered a serious brain drain as a result.
2. A small minority benefited from Burnham's alliance with Castro and Cuba. Guyanese students
were offered scholarships to Cuba and other communist countries such as Russia and China.

Guyana's neighbours
1. Venezuela was an ally of the U.S. in the 1960's and 1970's. She feared that with communism
so close to her it might spread across the boundary lines and infiltrate her people. In 1962, she
presented a plea to the United Nations with regards to boundary dispute with Guyana. It is
alleged that she provoked incidents of rebellion in the Rupununi region of Guyana in 1966.

2. In 1958, Jagan declined to enter the Federation. A number of West Indian leaders were angry
about this. They felt that the Federation would have had a better chance of succeeding if the two
largest colonies (in terms of size) British Guiana and British Honduras had joined.

TOPIC: Effects of US Intervention in the English-speaking Caribbean

● Economic Effects
The United States involvement in the British Caribbean after 1939 had a direct effect upon the
economy of the region.
1. The naval bases provided employment for thousands of people which helped to boost the local
economies due to the influx of United States’ dollars.
2. The U.S. built military airports in Antigua and St. Lucia and later handed them over to the
governments of these islands. These have proved to be useful infrastructure which would greatly
enhance the islands’ links with international centres.
3. United States’ investments in developing Trinidadian oil, Jamaican and Guyanese bauxite
created employment for local people and provided revenue for the government.
4. After 1945, the governments of several British Caribbean territories including Jamaica,
Trinidad, and Barbados began to offer incentives like ‘’tax holidays’’, lower tariffs or customs
duties on machinery and raw material to attract foreign, mostly United States’ investments to the
territories. By the 1960s, 800 registered manufacturing businesses were established in Jamaica,
with a similar pattern in other territories. These were mainly light industries and even though they
were not labour intensive, they provided jobs in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing
occupations such as selling, distribution, repairs and maintenance. They also helped the
countries’ balance of payment.
5. Caribbean governments seized an important share of the international tourist industry by
offering hotel builders the same types of incentives as manufacturers. The British Caribbean’s
share of the American tourist market grew after Castro’s revolution in Cuba. Tourism created a
number of jobs in construction, shops, handicrafts, service trade and direct employment in the
resorts. Tourists contributed significantly to the foreign exchange earnings of many of the islands
through expenditure on gifts, food, and accommodation.
6. The United States was the most important trading partner for the British Caribbean territories
by the 1970s. For example, by 1970, the U.S. was taking 53% of Jamaica’s exports, and
contributed 43% of her imports. In 1977, Jamaica and Guyana combined, supplied 65% of the
United States’ bauxite imports, while 60% of Trinidad’s petroleum went to the United States. In
1974, all of the British Caribbean territories except Barbados, imported between 77% and 92% of
their grain products from the U.S.
7. After the Cuban revolution, American financial aid, which was provided in an attempt to
achieve economic development, so as to prevent communism, gave the British territories some
worthwhile infrastructure such as roads, airports, harbours, schools, and housing.
8. The United States Immigration Act of 1965 granted independent Caribbean nations non- quota
status, which allowed West Indians from British ex-colonies to move freely to the U.S. Over
200,000 West Indians migrated to the U.S. from 1967-1976. Emigration released the population
pressure on the territories’ economies, and the remittances sent to relatives raised standards of
living and provided foreign exchange for economies.
9. On the negative side, emigration results in a ‘’brain drain’’, thus depriving the region of skills
necessary for sustainable development. In addition, much of the investments in tourism, bauxite,
oil, light manufacturing industries came from the U.S., and so a high percentage of the earnings
were returned to the shareholders instead of being reinvested in the territories.

● Cultural Effects
Due to the interaction of trade, travel and other forms of contact, the U.S. had been able to
exercise a strong influence on the culture of the British Caribbean throughout the 20th century.
People who had extra money to spend travelled for leisure, educational advancement and
employment. As a result of travel, people became directly exposed to the United States’ culture.
They acquired a taste for the popular foods, they liked the clothes, hairstyles, music, and even the
slang.
1. Radio has been a prime medium for spreading American culture to the Caribbean via its music
such as country and western, jazz, rock and roll, jive, and gospel. After World War II, musical
instruments like the electric guitar, saxophone, gramophone, and jukeboxes were introduced from
North America. In addition, the British Caribbean islands were bombarded with religious
programmes from North America which have helped to erode some of the traditional religious
practices of the region. Radios have also helped to popularize the recording industry and this
helped to spread North American music and dance.
2. Films played a significant role in spreading American culture to the British Caribbean
throughout the 20th century. Most of the entertainment available in cinemas was imported from
the U.S. and so Caribbean people were exposed to movies depicting American social, political,
religious, and moral values. The prevalence of televisions during the 1970s, and the subsequent
introduction of the video cassette recorder (VCR), brought the movie house into the living rooms
of the region and enhanced the American cultural impact on the Caribbean people.
3. Magazines and other kinds of publications have also played a part in exposing British
Caribbean people to the U.S. culture. Since the 1960s, for example, thousands of used American
textbooks and novels were sent as gifts to Jamaica for use in schools and libraries. Textbooks
provided information on political and religious issues and influenced the attitude of people on
issues like communism. News and opinions in magazines had a similar effect. Magazines also
popularized the latest fashion in clothes and hairstyles which were useful to seamstresses and
hairdressers, as well as drinks, food, architecture, and different forms of entertainment.
4. Recreational activities of various forms such as games like dominoes, monopoly, chess,
checkers, draughts, and the use of dice and dolls infiltrated the Caribbean region. Also, the
popular game of basketball, rounders, softball, and boxing were adopted from the U.S. The
drinking of beer, sodas, fast foods like chicken and chips, hotdogs, and hamburgers were all
imported from North America.
5. Fashions of all kinds were also imported. During the early half of the century, it was
customary for Caribbean men to wear hats, particularly Panama hats, which were an American
fashion adopted in the Caribbean. Similarly, denim jeans for both men and women, sneakers,
bobby socks, etc., were all imported from North America. By the second half of the 20th century,
the adaptation of American cultural imports dominated British Caribbean culture.

● Political Effects
1. Military occupation of Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic resulted in stable democracy
for some time afterwards. However, democracy and a stable government did not last long. There
is still unrest to this day.
2. Policies were put in place to put the Caribbean a main priority of the Americans. The
following are some of these policies; The Monroe Doctrine, The Roosevelt Corollary, The Good
Neighbour Policy, and the Alliance for Progress.
3. The presence of the U.S. has helped promote the spread of democracy in the Caribbean
especially by opposing the laws set by rulers who took power by illegal means. In other words,
the U.S. Presence prevented the creation of authoritarian and militaristic leaders and groups. In
the Dominican Republic for instance, all senior officials were removed and replaced by U.S.
military officers.
4. By the 1980s, the U.S. opposition to communism and its demonstrated willingness to use force
kept the USSR from getting control of the Caribbean.