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 New to this Edition

Key revisions to the 9th edition include:

● The General Data Protection Regulation and the Data Protection Act 2018
● The rise of online fraud and the Computer Misuse Act
● Discussion of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 and the Directive (EU) 2016/680 on the pro-
tection of personal data
● Discussion of the unprecedented loss of personal data by Yahoo
● Commentary on the misuse of personal information and the European Commission’s
regulation of digital operators, such as Google and Facebook
● New legislation addressing unwarranted dissemination of sexual images and revenge
pornography
● Revised and updated chapters on patent law
● Updated coverage of copy protection and digital rights management
● Discussion of developments in the field of software liability in the light of the
Consumer Rights Act 2015 in relation to digital products and content
● Coverage of governance and regulation of the Internet
● Consideration of the nature and regulation of cryptocurrencies
 Outline Contents

List of Tables and Figures xxiii

Late Developments xxv
Table of Cases xxvii
Table of Legislation xxxi

PART I Privacy, Anonymity, and Data Protection

1 The death of privacy and the growth of surveillance 3

2 The beginnings of data protection 27

3 The scope of data protection 39

4 Supervisory agencies 56

5 The data protection principles 71

6 Individual rights and remedies 92

7 Sectoral aspects of data protection 114

8 Transborder data flows 138

PART II Computer-Related Crime

9 National and international responses to computer-related crime 161

10 Substantive criminal law provisions 173

11 Virtual criminality 189

12 Detecting and prosecuting computer crime 203

PART III Intellectual Property Issues

13 The emergence and forms of intellectual property law 223

14 Key elements of the patent system 230

15 Software patents 246

16 Copyright protection 271

17 Enforcement issues 321

18 Protection of databases 337

19 Design rights 356

x OUTLINE CONTENTS

20 Trade mark issues 364

21 Internet domain names 377

PART IV E-Commerce

22 International and European initiatives in e-commerce 393

23 Electronic money 407

24 Contractual issues 425

Index 467
 Detailed Contents

List of Tables and Figures xxiii

Late Developments xxv
Table of Cases xxvii
Table of Legislation xxxi

PART I Privacy, Anonymity, and Data Protection

1 The death of privacy and the growth of surveillance 3

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The development of surveillance technology 4
1.3 Communications data 7
1.3.1 Alexa is listening 8
1.4 Surveillance legislation 8
1.5 Scope of the legislation 9
1.6 Forms of surveillance 11
1.7 Surveillance and the law 14
1.8 The emergence of data protection 18
1.9 Personality profiling and social media 19
1.10 Personality tests 19
1.11 Political profiling 21
1.12 Data protection implications 21
1.13 The (voice assistant) doctor will see you now 22
1.14 Medicine and the Internet 23
1.15 Do privacy policies help? 25
1.16 Conclusions 25

2 The beginnings of data protection 27

2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 The development of data protection laws 28
2.2.1 International data protection initiatives 28
2.2.2 The Council of Europe 29
2.2.3 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 31
2.2.4 The Asia-Pacific Privacy Charter initiative 32
2.2.5 The United Nations 33
2.3 The development of data protection legislation in
the United Kingdom and the European Union 34
2.3.1 The European Data Protection Directive and the Data Protection Act 1998 35
2.3.2 The General Data Protection Regulation and Data Protection Act 2018 36
2.4 Conclusions 37
xii DETAILED CONTENTS

3 The scope of data protection 39

3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 The concept of personal data 39
3.3 Sensitive personal data 41
3.4 Personal data relating to the data subject 42
3.5 Issues of identification—anonymity and pseudonymity 49
3.6 The concept of processing 51
3.7 Data protection actors 52
3.7.1 Data controllers 52
3.7.2 Data processors 53
3.7.3 Data subjects 54
3.8 Jurisdictional issues 54
3.9 Conclusions 54

4 Supervisory agencies 56
4.1 Introduction 56
4.2 National supervisory agencies and the role of the UK’s Information
Commissioner 57
4.3 Structures of supervisory agencies 58
4.4 Key functions of supervisory agencies 60
4.5 Functions of the supervisory agency 60
4.6 Accreditation and certification 62
4.7 Enforcement of the legislation 63
4.7.1 Powers of entry and inspection 63
4.7.2 Information notices 63
4.7.3 Enforcement notices 64
4.7.4 Undertakings 65
4.7.5 Audits 65
4.7.6 Monetary penalties 66
4.8 General duties of the Information Commissioner 67
4.8.1 Disseminating information 67
4.8.2 Codes of practice 67
4.8.3 International cooperation 68
4.8.4 Professional secrecy 68
4.9 Appellate bodies 69
4.10 Other supervisory agencies 69
4.11 Conclusions 70

5 The data protection principles 71

5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Fair and lawful processing 72
5.3 Information obtained from the data subject 74
5.3.1 Information not obtained from the data subject 74
5.4 The nature of consent 75
5.4.1 Duration of consent 76
5.5 Other factors legitimising processing 77
 DETAILED CONTENTS xiii

5.6 Factors legitimising the processing of sensitive data 78

5.6.1 Explicit subject consent 79
5.6.2 Other grounds legitimising processing 79
5.6.3 Vital interests 80
5.6.4 Processing by specified bodies 80
5.6.5 Information in the public domain 81
5.6.6 Legal proceedings and the administration of justice 81
5.6.7 Processing for medical purposes 81
5.6.8 Ethnic monitoring 81
5.6.9 Political data 82
5.7 Exceptions to the application of the data protection principles
for law enforcement and revenue-gathering purposes 82
5.8 The second data protection principle—purpose limitation 83
5.9 The third data protect principle—relevance 84
5.10 The fourth data protection principle—adequacy and timeousness 88
5.11 The fifth data protection principle—duration of record-keeping 89
5.12 The seventh data protection principle—data security 89
5.13 Codes of practice 90
5.14 Conclusions 91

6 Individual rights and remedies 92

6.1 Introduction 92
6.2 Subject access and information rights 92
6.3 Exceptions to the subject access provisions 93
6.3.1 Third-party data 93
6.3.2 National security 97
6.3.3 Data held for policing and revenue-gathering purposes 100
6.3.4 Health data 101
6.3.5 Social work data 102
6.3.6 Educational records 103
6.3.7 Regulatory activity 103
6.3.8 Research, history, and statistics 104
6.3.9 Information required to be made available to the public 104
6.3.10 Confidential references 104
6.3.11 Judicial appointments, judicial independence, and judicial
proceedings104
6.3.12 Crown honours, dignities, and appointments 104
6.3.13 Management forecasts and corporate finance 105
6.3.14 Negotiations 105
6.3.15 Legal professional privilege 105
6.3.16 Self-incrimination 105
6.4 Other subject rights 105
6.4.1 Right to resist enforced subject access 106
6.5 Right to object to data processing 106
6.5.1 Direct marketing 106
6.5.2 Other forms of processing 107
6.5.3 Automated decision-making 108
6.6 The right to be forgotten 108
xiv DETAILED CONTENTS

6.7 Data portability 110

6.8 Denial of access requests 110
6.9 Rectification of inaccurate data 110
6.10 Compensation 111
6.11 Criminal offences associated with access 111
6.11.1 Unlawful obtaining of personal data 111
6.11.2 Re-identification of de-identified personal data 112
6.11.3 Alteration of personal data to prevent disclosure 112
6.12 Conclusions 113

7 Sectoral aspects of data protection 114

7.1 Introduction 114
7.2 Data protection and the media 114
7.3 Scope of the media provisions 115
7.4 Key elements of the provisions 116
7.4.1 Grant of assistance 116
7.5 Procedural aspects 117
7.6 Guidance about how to seek redress against media organisations
and related matters 117
7.7 Data protection in the electronic communications sector 118
7.8 The development of communications-specific legislation 120
7.9 The Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive and Regulations 121
7.10 Obligations imposed on network and service providers 122
7.10.1 Security and confidentiality 122
7.10.2 Breach notification 123
7.10.3 Cookies 124
7.11 Traffic and location data 126
7.12 Data retention 128
7.13 Itemised billing 130
7.14 Directory information 131
7.15 Calling and connected line identification 133
7.16 Unsolicited communications 134
7.17 Conclusions 136

8 Transborder data flows 138

8.1 Introduction 138
8.2 Regulating transborder data flows 139
8.3 Procedures for determining adequacy 140
8.3.1 Defining adequacy 141
8.4 The ‘Safe Harbor’ agreement and the Privacy Shield 142
8.5 Consequences of a finding of adequacy 146
8.6 The SWIFT case 147
8.7 Air passenger data 149
 DETAILED CONTENTS xv

8.8 Transfers when an adequate level of protection is not provided

by national law 151
8.8.1 National approvals of contractual provisions 152
8.9 Standard contractual terms 153
8.10 Binding corporate rules 155
8.11 Conclusions 157

PART II Computer-Related Crime

9 National and international responses to computer-related crime 161

9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 Computer fraud 161
9.3 Computer hacking 163
9.4 From cybercrime to cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism 165
9.5 National and international responses to computer-related crime 168
9.5.1 The Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention 169
9.5.2 OECD Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems 169
9.5.3 EU initiatives 170
9.6 Conclusions 172

10 Substantive criminal law provisions 173

10.1 Introduction 173
10.2 Offences against the confidentiality, integrity, and availability
of computer data and systems 173
10.3 Illegal access 174
10.4 Obtaining or enabling access to computers or data 175
10.5 When is access unauthorised? 177
10.6 Unauthorised use by authorised users 178
10.7 Interception of communications 181
10.8 Data and system interference 181
10.9 Damage to data 182
10.10 Denial-of-service attacks 185
10.11 Misuse of devices 187
10.12 Conclusions 188

11 Virtual criminality 189

11.1 Introduction 189
11.2 Internet pornography 190
11.2.1 Age verification 192
11.3 The Internet and child pornography 193
11.4 Photographs and pseudo-photographs 194
11.5 Revenge pornography 196
11.6 Jurisdictional issues 199
11.7 Conclusions 201
xvi DETAILED CONTENTS

12 Detecting and prosecuting computer crime 203

12.1 Introduction 203
12.2 Interception of communications 204
12.2.1 Scope of the legislation 206
12.2.2 Interception of content 206
12.2.3 Financing interception 207
12.3 Bulk interception and acquisition orders 208
12.4 Data retention issues 208
12.5 The future of data retention 212
12.6 Interference with communications 213
12.7 Search warrants 213
12.8 Encryption 215
12.9 Computer evidence 216
12.10 Jurisdictional issues 217
12.11 Extradition 219

PART III Intellectual Property Issues

13 The emergence and forms of intellectual property law 223

13.1 Introduction 223
13.2 Patents 223
13.3 Copyright 225
13.4 Other forms of intellectual property right 227
13.5 Conclusions 228

14 Key elements of the patent system 230

14.1 Introduction 230
14.2 Patents in the international arena 231
14.3 The Patent Co-operation Treaty 231
14.4 The European Patent Convention 232
14.5 The unitary patent 233
14.6 Intellectual property in the GATS and WTO 234
14.7 Requirements for patentability 235
14.7.1 Novelty 235
14.7.2 Inventive step 236
14.7.3 Capacity for industrial application 237
14.7.4 Matters excluded from patent protection 238
14.8 Patenting software 239
14.9 The process of obtaining and enforcing a patent 240
14.9.1 The application 240
14.9.2 Specification and statement of claim 240
14.9.3 Preliminary examination 241
14.9.4 Substantive examination 241
14.9.5 Award of a patent 242
 DETAILED CONTENTS xvii

14.10 Infringement of patents 242

14.11 Remedies for infringement of a patent 243
14.12 Revocation of a patent 243
14.13 Conclusions 244

15 Software patents 246

15.1 Introduction 246
15.2 The quest for a technical contribution 246
15.3 Patents and the Internet 254
15.4 Who gets patents? 255
15.5 The software patent wars 255
15.6 Patent trolls 256
15.7 Standard essential patents 256
15.8 Standard Essential Patents (SEPs) and intellectual property 259
15.9 FRAND terms 261
15.10 SEPs before the courts 263
15.11 Where next for Standard Essential Patents? 268
15.12 Conclusions 270

16 Copyright protection 271

16.1 Introduction 271
16.2 Copyright basics 271
16.3 Forms of protected work 273
16.3.1 The requirement of originality 274
16.4 Ownership of copyright 275
16.4.1 Employee-created works 275
16.4.2 Computer-generated works 275
16.5 Duration of copyright 276
16.6 Infringement of copyright 277
16.6.1 The nature of reproduction 277
16.6.2 Temporary reproduction 278
16.7 Communication to the public 281
16.8 The legitimacy of private copying 284
16.9 Fair and unfair use of an earlier work 286
16.10 Other rights belonging to the copyright owner 288
16.10.1 Communication to the public 288
16.10.2 To perform, show, or play the work in public 289
16.10.3 To broadcast the work or include it in a cable programme service 289
16.10.4 To make an adaptation of the work 289
16.11 The development of software copyright 290
16.12 Applying copyright principles to software 291
16.13 Software piracy 292
16.14 User rights in respect of software 293
xviii DETAILED CONTENTS

16.15 Fair dealing 293

16.16 A use right for software? 294
16.17 Error correction 296
16.18 Back-up copies 296
16.19 Caching 297
16.20 Copy protection and digital rights management 298
16.21 Reverse engineering and decompilation 299
16.22 Reverse engineering and computer programs 303
16.23 Literal and non-literal copying 305
16.24 The rise and fall of look-and-feel protection 306
16.25 The computerised pharmacist 307
16.26 Agricultural software 309
16.27 Financial markets 310
16.28 Arm’s length reproduction 312
16.29 Computer programs as visual works 315
16.30 New directions in UK copyright law 317
16.31 Orphan works 317
16.32 Harvesting the Internet 318
16.33 Conclusions 319

17 Enforcement issues 321

17.1 Introduction 321
17.2 The Directive on Copyright in the Information Society 321
17.3 Enforcement of copyright 323
17.4 Accounting of profits 324
17.5 Delivery up 324
17.6 Follow the money 325
17.7 Blocking orders 325
17.7.1 Twentieth Century Fox v Sky UK and BT (and Ors) 327
17.8 Blocking orders and trade marks 329
17.8.1 Legal basis 331
17.9 Duration of injunctions 331
17.10 Cost issues 332
17.11 Norwich Pharmacal orders and threats of litigation 333
17.12 Conclusions 334

18 Protection of databases 337

18.1 Introduction 337
18.2 What is a database? 338
18.2.1 Examples of databases 338
18.3 Databases and new technology 339
18.4 Traditional forms of protection for databases 340
 DETAILED CONTENTS xix

18.5 The ‘sweat of the brow’ doctrine 341

18.6 The database regime 344
18.6.1 Copyright and databases 344
18.6.2 Licensing and databases 345
18.6.3 Other copyright changes 346
18.7 The database right 346
18.7.1 Duration of the right 347
18.8 The database right in the courts 348
18.8.1 Football fixture lists 351
18.9 How much is too much? 352
18.10 Conclusions 354

19 Design rights 356

19.1 Introduction 356
19.2 The development of design right and key legislative instruments 356
19.3 Registered design right protection 358
19.4 Unregistered design right 359
19.5 Design rights in tablet computers 359
19.6 Conclusions 363

20 Trade mark issues 364

20.1 Introduction 364
20.2 Effect of trade marks 365
20.3 Passing off 366
20.4 Internet market places and trade marks 366
20.5 Interflora v Marks and Spencer and Google 369
20.6 Cartier and Others v British Sky Broadcasting and Others 373
20.7 Conclusions 376

21 Internet domain names 377

21.1 Introduction 377
21.2 Names and numbers 377
21.3 Internet addresses and URLs 378
21.4 The nature of domain names 378
21.5 Top-level (global or generic) domain names 379
21.6 A brief history of Internet governance 379
21.7 The future of ICANN and Internet governance 381
21.8 Second (country) level domains 382
21.9 The revised domain name structure 384
21.10 The top-level domain application process 385
21.11 The Uniform Dispute Resolution Rules 386
21.12 Arbitration decisions 387
21.13 Conclusions 388
xx DETAILED CONTENTS

PART IV E-Commerce

22 International and European initiatives in e-commerce 393

22.1 Introduction 393
22.2 International initiatives 394
22.3 Key legal instruments 395
22.3.1 The Distance Selling Directive 395
22.3.2 The Electronic Commerce Directive and Regulations 397
22.3.3 Defences provided to Information Service Providers 399
22.4 Substantive provisions in the Directive 401
22.4.1 When and where is a contract made? 401
22.4.2 Choice-of-law issues 404
22.5 Alternative dispute resolution 405
22.6 Conclusions 406

23 Electronic money 407

23.1 Introduction 407
23.2 The nature of money 408
23.3 Legal tender and the cashless society 410
23.4 The emergence of cryptocurrency 411
23.5 Issues with cryptocurrency 413
23.6 Blockchain 413
23.7 The future of cryptocurrency 414
23.8 Regulation of the e-money sector 416
23.9 The nature of e-money 417
23.10 E-money issuers and small e-money issuers 417
23.11 Criteria for admission to the register 418
23.11.1 Safeguarding arrangements 418
23.11.2 Passport rights 418
23.12 Peer-to-peer lending 418
23.13 Crowdfunding 420
23.14 Conclusions 424

24 Contractual issues 425

24.1 Introduction 425
24.2 Liability and software 425
24.3 Forms of software 426
24.4 The legal status of software and software contracts 426
24.5 Implied terms in software contracts 429
24.5.1 Title in software 430
24.5.2 Description 430
24.5.3 Quality 431
 DETAILED CONTENTS xxi

24.6 Remedies for breach of the implied terms 433

24.7 Software quality and the courts 435
24.7.1 Questions of time 435
24.7.2 Problems with the Community Charge 437
24.7.3 Water privatisation 439
24.7.4 The Monday software package 440
24.7.5 The dog with an MBA 443
24.8 Exclusion or limitation of liability 445
24.8.1 Enforceability of shrink-wrap licences 446
24.9 Consumer contracts 447
24.10 Non-consumer contracts 448
24.10.1 The requirement of reasonableness 450
24.11 Towards fair dealing obligations in contractual relationships? 453
24.12 The Consumer Rights Act 2015 456
24.13 Questions of time 458
24.14 Exclusion of liability 461
24.15 Conclusions 462

Index 467
 List of Tables and Figures

Table 3.1 Attitudes towards sensitivity of types of data 42

Table 9.1 Crime Survey for England and Wales computer misuse—numbers
of incidents for year ending March 2018 and year ending
March 2019 with percentage change 162

Figure 1.1 UK Finance–UK Payments Markets 2019 6

Figure 1.2 Items of data by public authority type 16
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