Psychopathology

Psychopathology is the study of abnormal cognition, behavior and experiences which differs
according to social norms and rests upon a number of constructs that are deemed to be the social
norm at any particular era. Psychopathology is the study of mental illness. It includes the signs
and symptoms of all mental disorders. The field includes abnormal cognition, maladaptive
behavior, and experiences which differ according to social norms. This discipline is an in-depth
look into symptoms, behaviors, causes, course, development, categorization, treatments,
strategies, and more.

This study of mental illness can include a long list of elements: symptoms, behaviors, causes
(genetics, biology, social, psychological), course, development, categorization, treatments,
strategies, and more

Biological psychopathology is the study of the biological etiology of abnormal cognitions,

behavior and experiences. Child psychopathology is a specialization applied to children and
adolescents. Animal psychopathology is a specialization applied to non-human animals. This
concept is linked to the philosophical ideas first outlined by Galton (1869) and is linked to the
appliance of eugenically ideations around what constitutes the human.

What is Mental Health?

Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we
think, feel, and act, and helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make
choices.

Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through
adulthood. Over the course of your life, if you experience mental health problems, your thinking,
mood, and behavior could be affected.

Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing

cognition, perception, and behavior. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), it is a
"state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her abilities, can cope with the normal
stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute to his or her
community". It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships,
and decision-making. Mental health includes subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy,
autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual
and emotional potential, among others.

According to WHO “Mental health is a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope
with the stresses of life, realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their
community. It has intrinsic and instrumental value and is integral to our well-being”.

The 5 Cs of mental health that Competence, Connection, Contribution, Control, Coping, and
Confidence are like tools that can help you builds a strong and happy mind. The 5 C’s of mental
health, namely competence, caring, confidence, connection, and character, are powerful tools
that can be utilized in daily life to promote mental well-being. By incorporating these strategies
into our routines, we can enhance our emotional well-being, build resilience, and enjoy a
balanced and fulfilling life

The role of Competence in mental Health

The role of competence in mental health:

1. Enhances self-esteem and self-confidence

2. Improves problem-solving and decision-making skills
3. Facilitates effective communication and healthy relationships
4. Builds emotional resilience and coping mechanisms
5. Promotes a positive outlook and overall well-being

The role of Connection in Mental Health

Connection is a vital factor in maintaining good mental health. It encompasses positive mutual
ties with others, including family, friends, and the community. Having strong connections
provides emotional support, social interaction, and a sense of security. It contributes to overall
well-being and helps protect against the risk of anxiety and other mental health issues.

The Role of Caring in Mental Health

Caring is a fundamental aspect of promoting mental health and well-being. It involves having a
sense of sympathy and empathy for others, as well as establishing positive relationships and
connections. When we care for others and receive care in return, it contributes to our emotional
well-being and fosters a sense of belonging

The role of Confidence in Mental Health

Confidence plays a crucial role in promoting mental health and overall well-being. It
encompasses a positive belief in one’s own worth and self-efficacy, which refers to the ability to
navigate challenges with self-belief. When individuals have confidence, they are empowered to
take control of their lives, make positive choices, and overcome obstacles

The role of Character in Mental Health

In the realm of mental health, character plays a significant role in promoting positive social
functioning and contributing to a sense of purpose and meaning in life. Character is the
embodiment of moral values and ethical behavior, encompassing the standards for correct
conduct in relation to social and cultural norms. Nurturing and developing character strengths
can have a profound impact on emotional well-being and overall mental wellness.

Mental Health Conditions

Mental illnesses are disorders, ranging from mild to severe, that affect a person’s thinking, mood,
and/or behavior. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, nearly one-in-five adults
live with a mental illness.

Many factors contribute to mental health conditions, including:

 Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry

 Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse
 Family history of mental health problems
History

Early explanations for mental illnesses were influenced by religious belief and superstition.
Psychological conditions that are now classified as mental disorders were initially attributed to
possessions by evil spirits, demons, and the devil. This idea was widely accepted up until the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Individuals who suffered from these so-called "possessions"
were tortured as treatment or as Foucault outlines in the History of Madness: viewed as seers
(Joan of Arc).[citation needed] Religious practitioners used this technique in hoping to bring
their patients back to sanity but increasingly there was the shift to the great confinement.

The Greek physician Hippocrates was one of the first to reject the idea that mental disorders
were caused by possession of demons or the devil. He firmly believed the symptoms of mental
disorders were due to diseases originating in the brain. Hippocrates suspected that these states of
insanity were due to imbalances of fluids in the body. He identified these fluids to be four in
particular: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. This later became the basis of the chemical
imbalance theory used widely within the present.

Furthermore, not far from Hippocrates, the philosopher Plato would come to argue the mind,
body, and spirit worked as a unit. Any imbalance brought to these compositions of the individual
could bring distress or lack of harmony within the individual. This philosophical idea would
remain in perspective[vague] until the seventeenth century.It was later challenged by Laing
(1960) along with Laing and Esterson (1964) who noted that it was the family environment that
led to the formation of adaptive strategies.

In the eighteenth century's Romantic Movement, the idea that healthy parent-child relationships
provided sanity became a prominent idea. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau introduced the
notion that trauma in childhood could have negative implications later in adulthood. The
scientific discipline of psychopathology was founded by Karl Jaspers in 1913. It was referred to
as "static understanding" and its purpose was to graphically recreate the "mental phenomenon"
experienced by the client.

In the nineteenth century, greatly influenced by Rousseau's ideas and philosophy, Austrian
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud would bring about psychotherapy and become the father of
psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a
patient and a psychoanalyst. Talking therapy would originate from his ideas on the individual's
experiences and the natural human efforts to make sense of the world and life. In the Wednesday
meetings at Vienna, Adler took another perspective and stated it was rooted in the social life of
the individual as outlined in his collected works (Adler, 1999).

As the study of psychiatric disorders

The study of psychopathology is interdisciplinary, with contributions coming from clinical

psychology, abnormal psychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology, as well as
neuropsychology and other psychology sub disciplines. Other related fields include psychiatry,
neuroscience, criminology, social work, sociology, epidemiology, and statistics.

Psychopathology can be broadly separated into descriptive and explanatory. Descriptive

psychopathology involves categorizing, defining and understanding symptoms as reported by
people and observed through their behaviors which are then assessed according to a social norm.
Explanatory psychopathology looks to find explanations for certain kinds of symptoms
according to theoretical models such as psychodynamics, cognitive behavioral therapy or
through understanding how they have been constructed by drawing upon Constructivist
Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2016) or Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith,
Flowers & Larkin, 2013).

There are several ways to characterize the presence of psychopathology in an individual as a

whole. One strategy is to assess a person along four dimensions: deviance, distress, dysfunction,
and danger, known collectively as the four Ds. Another conceptualization, the p factor, sees
psychopathology as a general, overarching construct that influences psychiatric symptoms.

The four Ds

A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality:

Deviance: this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are
considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must,
however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just because they may
not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual's actions as
deviant or abnormal when their behavior is deemed unacceptable by the culture they belong to.
However, many disorders have a relation between patterns of deviance and therefore need to be
evaluated in a differential diagnostic model.

Distress: this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. They may
feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness. Behaviors and feelings that cause distress to the
individual or to others around him or her are considered abnormal, if the condition is upsetting to
the person experiencing it. Distress is related to dysfunction by being a useful asset in accurately
perceiving dysfunction in an individual's life. These two are not always related because an
individual can be highly dysfunctional and at the same time experiencing minimal stress. The
important characteristic of distress is not dysfunction, but rather the limit to which an individual
is stressed by an issue.

Dysfunction: this term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual's ability to
perform normal daily functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning, or driving a car.
This maladaptive behavior has to be a problem large enough to be considered a diagnosis. It's
highly noted to look for dysfunction across an individual's life experience because there is a
chance the dysfunction may appear in clear observable view and in places where it is less likely
to appear. Such maladaptive behaviors prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy
lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behavior is not always caused by a disorder; it may be
voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike.

Danger: this term involves dangerous or violent behavior directed at the individual, or others in
the environment. The two important characteristics of danger is, danger to self and danger to
others. When diagnosing, there is a large vulnerability of danger in which there is some danger in
each diagnosis and within these diagnoses there is a continuum of severity. An example of
dangerous behavior that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity.
Behaviors and feelings that are potentially harmful to an individual or the individuals around
them are seen as abnormal.

The p factor

Benjamin Lahey and colleagues first proposed a general "psychopathology factor" in 2012, or
simply "p factor". This construct shares its conceptual similarity with the g factor of general
intelligence. Instead of conceptualizing psychopathology as consisting of several discrete
categories of mental disorders, the p factor is dimensional and influences whether psychiatric
symptoms in general are present or absent. The symptoms that are present then combine to form
several distinct diagnoses. The p factor is modeled in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of
Psychopathology. Although researchers initially conceived a three factor explanation for
psychopathology generally, subsequent study provided more evidence for a single factor that is
sequentially co morbid, recurrent/chronic, and exists on a continuum of severity and chronicity.

Higher scores on the p factor dimension have been found to be correlated with higher levels of
functional impairment, greater incidence of problems in developmental history, and more
diminished early-life brain function. In addition, those with higher levels of the p factor are more
likely to have inherited a genetic predisposition to mental illness. The existence of the p factor
may explain why it has been "challenging to find causes, consequences, biomarkers, and
treatments with specificity to individual mental disorders.

A 2020 review of the p factor found that many studies support its validity and that it is generally
stable throughout one's life. A high p factor is associated with many adverse effects, including
poor academic performance, impulsivity, criminality, suicidality, reduced foetal growth, lower
executive functioning, and a greater number of psychiatric diagnoses. A partial genetic basis for
the p factor has also been supported.

Alternatively, the p factor has also been interpreted as an index of general impairment rather than
being a specific index that causes psychopathology.

As mental symptoms

The term psychopathology may also be used to denote behaviors or experiences which are
indicative of mental illness, even if they do not constitute a formal diagnosis. For example, the
presence of hallucinations may be considered as a psychopathological sign, even if there are not
enough symptoms present to fulfill the criteria for one of the disorders listed in the DSM or ICD.

In a more general sense, any behavior or experience which causes impairment, distress or
disability, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive
or neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology. It remains unclear
how strong the distinction between maladaptive traits and mental disorders actually is, e.g.
neuroticism is often described as the personal level of minor psychiatric symptoms.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a guideline for the
diagnosis and understanding of mental disorders. It serves as reference for a range of
professionals in medicine and mental What is abnormal behavior? Abnormal behavior can be
difficult to define, but it is often easy to notice when it happens. Abnormal behavior is a
psychological term for actions that fall outside of the realm of what is considered normative in a
particular society or culture. This abnormal behavior definition is functional and useful for many
purposes. However, most definitions of abnormal behavior also take into account that from a
psychological point of view, mental illness, pain, and stress often play a major role in behavioral
patterns.

What is Abnormal Behavior?

Abnormal Behavior: History

What a given society considers to be abnormal behavior is something that changes over time,
sometimes dramatically. This is because cultural norms and mores also change, meaning that the
realm of acceptable behavior shifts over the decades and centuries. Psychologists, psychiatrists,
anthropologists, and philosophers have been studying abnormal behavior for many years:

 Trepanning, or the practice of cutting holes in a person's skull, is thought to have been
practiced as a rudimentary form of surgery to treat mental illness or neurological
problems. The practice dates back at least 7,000 years.
 Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412 BCE–323 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher who
questioned the normative behavior of his society, electing to live in a barrel and eat in
public, which was considered highly abnormal at the time. He was labeled mad by
several of his contemporaries.
  In the 1800s, psychologists like Benjamin Rush and Philippe Pinel postulated that
abnormal behavior and mental illness were likely caused by and exacerbated by states of
stress.
 In the 1900s, theories of the causes of abnormal behavior were expanded upon by
psychologists and psychiatrists like Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner, who went into
detail about the causes and impacts of such behaviors.

Today, abnormal behaviors are still being studied and explored using several psychological and
anthropological theories to explain them.

Development of psychopathology

Developmental psychopathology (DP) is a conceptual approach to the study of the origins and
course of individual patterns in the development of psychopathology across the lifespan. The
Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) aim to study dimensions of neurobiology and behavior to
construct a new classification of psychopathology that will advance the understanding and
treatment of mental disorders. In this commentary, we describe aspects of overall convergence
and divergence between these two approaches. Developmental psychopathology and the RDoC
overlap, in that they both (a) study the full range of variation from normality to psychopathology,
(b) aim to understand the origins and mechanisms underlying psychopathology, (c) use multiple
units of analysis to study salient domains of functioning, and (d) emphasize the importance of
using reliable and valid measurement. There are also several differences between these
perspectives. For example, RDoC is exclusively dimensional, whereas DP studies both
continuities and discontinuities. According to RDoC, mental disorders are brain disorders and
neurocircuitry is primary, whereas DP asserts that the development of psychopathology results
from dynamic transactions among neurobiology, psychology, and social contexts. We conclude
by identifying ways to leverage the DP and RDoC perspectives to advance progress in both,
particularly regarding research and intervention for children and adolescents.

The four main models to explain psychological abnormality are the biological, behavioural,
cognitive, and psychodynamic models. They all attempt to explain the causes and treatments for
all psychological illnesses, and all from a different approach.
Abnormal Behavior in Psychology

When it comes to abnormal behavior, psychology is often considered the discipline of greatest
relevance. There are four main models used to understand and describe abnormal behavior in
psychology: the biological, behavioral, cognitive, and psychodynamic models. Many
contemporary psychologists consider the root cause of abnormal behavior to be a combination of
many factors described by these models.

The Biological Model

The biological or medical model of abnormal behavior attributes these behaviors to a physical
root cause, usually in the brain. Genetics, lesions, and chemical imbalances are often considered
the sources of abnormal behaviors for those who follow the biological model. Under this model,
abnormal behaviors are most commonly treated using psychiatric medication, electroconvulsive
therapy, or even brain surgery.

The Behavioral Model

The behavioral model is a psychological theory developed primarily by B.F. Skinner (1904–
1990). He believed that human behavior is shaped primarily by outside influence, with those
behaviors that are rewarded becoming more common and behaviors that are punished becoming
less common. The behavioral model asserts that conditioning, or encouraging some behaviors
over others, is the best way to correct abnormal behavior.

The Cognitive Model

The cognitive model of abnormality asserts that abnormal behaviors arise from disruptive or
negative thought patterns that impact how individuals see themselves and the world around them.
This is the basis for much of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which is an important kind of
therapy for many people today. CBT is based on helping people change their thought patterns
and thereby change their behaviors.

The Psychodynamic Model

The psychodynamic model of abnormal behavior was famously popularized by Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939). Freud posited that abnormal behaviors arise when there is a conflict between
someone's conscious desires and their unconscious desires or fears. He believed that these fears
were often developed in childhood and that they can strongly influence adult behavior.
Identifying and demystifying these childhood experiences is the main form of therapy proposed
by the psychodynamic model.

What is Normality?

Normality is behavior that is consistent in a person’s usual way of behaving. It is conformity to

societal standards as well as thinking and behaving similarly to the majority, and as such is
generally seen as good in this context. Normality is also behavior that is expected and/or
appropriate to the situation. It may also be just being average, as is the case in psychological
statistics. It involves being able to adjust to the surroundings, manage or control emotions, being
able to work satisfactorily as well as build relationships that are fulfilling or at least acceptable

What is Abnormality?
Abnormality is any impairment in an individual’s functioning or maladaptation to changes in life
or the surroundings. It is behavior that is unusual, bizarre, atypical or out of the ordinary. It is
maladjustment to one’s society and culture, exaggeration, perversion or violation of a society’s
prevailing standards, and is generally viewed as bad. It can be a lack or a deficit in a particular
trait, like in limited intelligence, or just being a statistical rarity as in being above genius. It can
also be a disorganization in personality or emotional instability. In abnormal psychology,
abnormality is defined as behavior that is deviant from societal norms, distressing to the
individual or to close relations, dysfunctional to everyday living, or dangerous to self or others.

Difference between Normality and Abnormality

OR
 Criteria for Abnormal Behavior
What are the criteria for abnormal behavior? What makes a behavior abnormal, and how much
leeway is there in deciding this? There are four major criteria for identifying abnormal behavior
in individuals, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth
Edition (DSM-V), which is the most important text used by mental health professionals in the
United States today. These four criteria are:

 Violation of social norms

 Statistical rarity
 Daily Functioning

 Mental Health
 Personal distress
 Maladaptive behaviors
 Effect on Others

None of these criteria is sufficient on its own; abnormal behavior is usually identified when it
falls into several of these categories.

Violation of Social Norms

Behavior that is in violation of social norms is often considered psychologically and culturally
abnormal. There are many reasons why a person might perform such behaviors. They might be
suffering from a mental illness, but they may also be responding rationally to unusual
circumstances. They might be acting in an abnormal way as part of a performance or because of
cultural ignorance if they are a traveller. Violation of social norms alone is not sufficient to
diagnose abnormal behavior.

Normality is conformity to the accepted or most common behavior within a group or even a
subgroup. This includes following situational or contextual norms as well as reacting
appropriately to situations and events. On the other hand, abnormality is deviance or violation of
those norms.
Statistical Rarity

Behavior can be abnormal because it is statistically rare. Someone who is acting in a way that is
very uncommon may be demonstrating abnormal behavior. However, cultural context is again
important to take into consideration: some very rare behaviors are nonetheless considered normal
within a given society, provided those witnessing the behavior can understand the rationale
behind it. However, statistical rarity can be a helpful thing to consider when analyzing behavior.
People with uncommon neuro developmental disorders may also behave in ways that are
abnormal primarily because they are statistically rare.

In any given behavior or trait, normality is being average or close to average. Scores falling
within one standard deviation above or below the mean, the most average 68.3% of the
population, is considered normal. Normality may extend up to two standard deviations away
above or below the average for a total of 95.7% of the population. Meanwhile, abnormality is the
statistical rarity, falling in between two and three standard deviations away above or below the
average, which is 4.3% of the population.

Daily Functioning

Normality is being able to cope with and having appropriate coping mechanisms with the
stresses of everyday life, being able to work, to interact with other people and to establish and
maintain relationships. Abnormality, on the other hand is being dysfunctional in these areas;
being overly susceptible or inappropriate coping to stress, being unable to be productive, to
interact or to form relationships as well as moving from one relationship to another too often or
having relationships that are too short

Mental Health

Normality usually allows for a healthy state of mind for an acceptably lengthy period of time. A
disorganized personality and unstable emotions as well as prolonged mental or emotional distress
are considered abnormal.

Personal Distress
An important thing to consider when determining whether a behavior is abnormal is whether it
causes personal distress either to the person performing the behavior or to those around them.
Personal distress alone is certainly not a sufficient marker of abnormality, as people behave in a
wide variety of ways that distress them without stepping out of the bounds of normal behavior.
But if an unusual behavior is causing or caused by personal distress, it is likely something that
could and should be treated as, if not necessarily abnormal, at least potentially pathological.

Maladaptive Behaviors

Maladaptive behaviors are defined as actions that inhibit appropriate personal growth. They are
created to deal with challenging life circumstances and are usually a kind of survival mechanism.
However, when carried outside of a particular context, maladaptive behaviors can become
abnormal and can be harmful to an individual. Understanding the causes of behaviors and seeing
if they are maladaptive in nature can help determine whether a behavior is abnormal.

Effect on Others

Normal behavior ranges from having a positive effect on others to being so usual that it is barely
noticed. Abnormal behavior on the other hand, ranges from being slightly amusing or irritating to
outright dangerous to others.

Examples of Abnormal Behavior

There are many examples of behavior that might be considered abnormal for one or more of the
above reasons:

Type of Behavior Examples

Violation of social Public nudity, loudly interrupting an event, refusal to respond when
norms spoken to
Hoarding behaviors, holding very uncommon beliefs, hypersensitivity to
Statistical rarity
sensory experiences
Self-destructive behaviors, aggressive behavior toward others, obsessive-
Personal distress
compulsive behaviors
Maladaptive
Self-isolation, substance abuse, attention-seeking behaviors
behaviors
It is always important to note the context of these behaviors. For instance, some forms of public
nudity may not be in violation of social norms depending on the society. People who are
engaging in aggressive behaviors may be doing so out of self-defense. Attention-seeking
behaviors are not always considered abnormal and are sometimes expected. A behavior that is in
violation of social norms, is maladaptive, and causes personal distress, however, is likely to be
an abnormal behavior.