History: Topic 6

How has the world changed since the 1960s?

Since the 1960s, the world has undergone major political, economic, technological, and
social changes. Here are some key transformations:

 End of colonialism: Many African and Asian countries gained independence from
European empires.
 Civil Rights Movements: Social justice movements gained momentum – like the US
Civil Rights Movement, anti-Apartheid struggle in South Africa, and women’s rights
movements globally.
 Technological revolution: Computers, the internet, smartphones, and space travel
transformed communication, work, education and life.
 Globalisation: The world became more interconnected through trade, travel, and
communication.
 Shift in world power: The Cold War rivalry between the USA and USSR dominated
politics until 1991. After that, the USA emerged as the main superpower.
 Environmental awareness: Climate change and sustainability became major issues
from the late 20th century onward.
 Terrorism and security: The 9/11 attacks in 2001 reshaped global security policies
and priorities.

Events that led to the end of the Cold War

The Cold War (1945–1991) was a global power struggle between the USA
(capitalist/democratic) and the USSR (communist). By the 1980s, several internal and
external factors pushed the USSR toward collapse and ended the Cold War.

Challenges facing the USSR by the early 1980s

1. Weak Leadership:
o After Stalin, Soviet leaders were old and ineffective (e.g., Brezhnev,
Andropov, Chernenko).
o They failed to modernize the system or address growing problems.

 After the death of Leonid Brezhnev (who ruled from 1964–1982), the USSR had two
elderly and ill leaders in a row:
o Yuri Andropov (1982–1984): Only ruled for 15 months before dying.
o Konstantin Chernenko (1984–1985): Very ill and died after just 13 months.
 These leaders were from the same old guard and were resistant to real change.
 The leadership lacked vision, energy, and innovation to respond to the USSR's
problems.
 The government appeared out of touch with ordinary Soviet citizens.

2. Economic Failure:
o The Soviet economy was state-controlled and inefficient.
o Lack of innovation and motivation led to stagnation.
o Shortages of basic goods and declining living standards caused public
frustration.

 The Soviet economy was centrally planned, which led to:

o Inefficiency and waste.
o Little innovation or competition.
o Poor productivity.
 Focus was placed on heavy industry and military, not consumer goods.
 Basic items like food, clothes, and medicine were in short supply.
 Standard of living declined, with growing black markets and corruption.
 Agricultural production was poor, and the USSR had to import food
 By the early 1980s, the Soviet economy had stopped growing. This is known as
economic stagnation.

3. Military Demands:
o Massive spending on arms and the space race drained resources.
o The USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979, leading to a long and costly war
(called "the Soviet Vietnam").

 The USSR spent a huge portion of its budget on the military to compete with the
USA.
 The Cold War meant constant military build-up, especially during the arms race.
 The USA, under President Reagan, launched the Strategic Defence Initiative
(SDI), also called “Star Wars,” in 1983.
o This aimed to build a space-based missile shield.
o The USSR could not afford to keep up.
 The war in Afghanistan (1979–1989) became the Soviet version of America’s
Vietnam – a costly and demoralizing failure:
o Thousands of Soviet troops died.
o The economy suffered.
o Public opinion turned against the war.

4. The Cold War Pressure:

o The USA under President Reagan increased military spending and pressure
(including the “Star Wars” program).
o This forced the USSR to keep up, worsening their economic crisis.
  The USSR was isolated internationally and constantly in confrontation with the West.
 Western propaganda exposed the poor living conditions and lack of freedom in the
USSR.
 The USA provided economic and military support to anti-communist forces around
the world (e.g., in Afghanistan, Central America, and Africa).
 The ideological battle drained both superpowers, but the USSR was far less
economically equipped to handle it.

5. Rise of (Local) Nationalism:

o Many Soviet republics (like Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia) began demanding
independence.
o Ethnic minorities no longer wanted to be controlled by Moscow.

 The USSR was made up of 15 republics (e.g., Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia).
 These republics included many different ethnic and cultural groups, most of whom
were dominated by the Russian government in Moscow.
 In the 1980s, many of these groups started demanding more autonomy or complete
independence.
o Movements grew stronger in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, Georgia,
and others.
 Nationalist uprisings were a serious threat to the unity of the USSR.
 The government could no longer control these republics without using force, which
often backfired and increased resistance.

Lack of Political Freedom and Growing Public Discontent

 The Communist Party controlled every aspect of life:

o No freedom of speech, press, religion, or political opposition.
 People became tired of:
o Censorship.
o Propaganda.
o Empty promises.
 Dissident groups and underground movements began to grow.
 The younger generation, exposed to Western culture through TV, music, and fashion,
wanted more freedom and modern lifestyles.
 Gorbachev’s Reforms
Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the USSR in 1985, he inherited a country in serious
trouble:

 The economy was stagnant.

 The Cold War was draining resources.
 The Afghanistan war was going badly.
 People were disillusioned and frustrated.
 The younger generation wanted modern lifestyles and freedom.

He knew the USSR couldn’t continue on the same path. So, he introduced three key reforms
aimed at modernizing the system and saving socialism.

1. Perestroika (Economic Restructuring)

🔹 Aim:

 To restructure the economy by introducing some free market (capitalist) reforms

while keeping socialism.
 Make industries more efficient and productive.
 Encourage initiative, innovation, and competition.

🔹 Course of Events:

 Some private businesses were allowed.

 State-owned factories were told to work more independently, not rely on central
planning.
 Foreign businesses were allowed to invest (joint ventures with Soviet companies).
 Farmers could lease land and sell produce at market prices.

🔹 Consequences:

 Caused confusion – “half-communist, half-capitalist”

 Old managers resisted the reforms.
 Prices rose, but wages did not.
 Shortages continued.
 The economy got worse before it got better — but it never got better under
Gorbachev.
 Result: Public frustration & dissatisfaction grew, and people began blaming the
Communist system.
2. Glasnost (Openness)
🔹 Aim:

 To promote transparency and freedom of expression.

 Allow people to criticize the government and find solutions to problems.
 Restore trust between the people and the Communist Party.

🔹 Course of Events:

 Censorship was relaxed – newspapers could report on corruption, economic

problems, and historical truths (like Stalin’s crimes).
 People could openly discuss politics, history, and reforms.
 TV and radio debated national issues.
 Formerly banned books, films, and art were released.

🔹 Consequences:

 People spoke out — against corruption, the KGB, and the Communist Party itself.
 Old secrets came out: Stalin’s purges, famines, gulags, etc.
 Nationalist groups (e.g., in the Baltic states) used glasnost to push for independence
– gained momentum
 Result: Unrest spread, and instead of restoring faith in the system, glasnost
weakened Communist Party’s control

🗳️3. Demokratizatsiya (Democratization)

🔹 Aim:

 To allow limited democracy within the Communist Party.

 Give people a say in how they were governed, without ending socialism.

🔹 Course of Events:

 Multi-candidate elections introduced for some positions, including members of the

Congress of People’s Deputies (1989).
 Multiple candidates could run – but most were still Communist.
 Gorbachev hoped this would improve accountability and remove corrupt officials.

🔹 Consequences:

 Opposing voices grew stronger; people used elections to vote for reformers and
opposition figures.
 The Communist Party lost control in many areas.
  Independent political groups and nationalist movements gained power.
 Once the idea of democracy entered society, people demanded more than Gorbachev
intended, including a full democracy.

Unintended Consequences of Gorbachev’s Reforms

Gorbachev wanted to save socialism, but his reforms:

 Destabilized the Communist Party’s power.

 Exposed the truth about the USSR’s past crimes.
 Encouraged independence movements in Soviet republics.
 Created economic chaos (worse than before).
 Led to a loss of control, both within the USSR and over Eastern Europe.

By the end of the 1980s:

 People were angry and impatient for real change.

 The Communist Party was discredited.
 Republics began declaring independence.
 Gorbachev’s authority weakened.
 In 1991, after a failed coup and growing pressure, the USSR collapsed, and
Gorbachev resigned.

Summary:
Reform Meaning Goal Result
Economic Confusion, shortages,
Perestroika Modernize economy
restructuring economic failure
Transparency & Exposure of corruption,
Glasnost Openness
freedom of speech increased public unrest
Rise of opposition groups,
More participation in
Demokratizatsiya Democratization weakening of Communist
government
Party
 Events in Eastern Europe
As Gorbachev moved away from strict Soviet control, Eastern European countries began
breaking free from communism.

Czechoslovakia (1989 – Velvet Revolution)

 Peaceful protests led to the fall of the communist government.

 Free elections followed.

Romania (1989)

 Violent revolution led to the execution of dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu.

 Shifted to democracy afterward.

Hungary

 Reforms began in the late 1980s.

 Opened its border with Austria, which helped East Germans escape to the West.
 First free elections held in 1990.

Events in Poland
Challenges to Soviet control in the 1970s–1980s:

 Economic hardships, rising prices, and food shortages led to unrest.

 Catholic Church (led by Pope John Paul II, a Pole) supported resistance.

Growth and significance of ‘Solidarity’:

 A workers' union formed in 1980, led by Lech Wałęsa.

 Demanded better rights and conditions.
 Gained massive support – millions joined.
 Although banned by the government, it became a symbol of resistance.
 Re-legalized in 1989, and eventually helped bring down communism in Poland.

Germany: The Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)

 The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, separated communist East Berlin from democratic
West Berlin.
 By 1989, protests grew in East Germany, and Hungary's open border allowed East
Germans to flee.
  On 9 November 1989, East German government opened the wall.
 The wall's fall symbolized the collapse of communist control in Europe.
 Germany was officially reunified in 1990.

The End of the Cold War and the Collapse of the USSR (1991)

 Gorbachev’s reforms unintentionally weakened the USSR.

 Nationalist groups pushed for independence.
 A failed coup by hardline communists in 1991 weakened Gorbachev further.
 Boris Yeltsin (President of Russia) became the new leader.
 On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned.
 The USSR officially collapsed, ending the Cold War.

Impact on South Africa

 During the Cold War, the USA and Western countries tolerated apartheid because
South Africa was “anti-communist.”
 After the Cold War, there was no longer a need to support apartheid to contain
communism.
 The fall of the USSR made the West focus more on human rights and democracy.
 South Africa faced increased pressure to reform:
o Economic sanctions and diplomatic isolation increased.
o The apartheid government realized it had to negotiate.
 This contributed to the unbanning of the ANC in 1990, the release of Nelson
Mandela, and the start of negotiations for a democratic South Africa.

If you’d like this in a summary format (like for exam prep), just let me know and I can make
bullet-point study notes or a mind map-style version for you!

Definitely! Let’s dive deeper into Gorbachev’s reforms in the mid-1980s, which were key
to both changing the USSR and ending the Cold War — but also accidentally led to the
USSR’s collapse.