Print culture

03 December 2024 04:01

The First Printed Books

The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From 594 AD onwards,
books were printed in China by rubbing paper against the inked surface of woodblocks. The
traditional Chinese ‘Accordion Book’ was folded and stitched at the side because both sides of
the thin, porous sheet could not be printed.
For a very long time, the imperial state of China was the major producer of printed material. The
Chinese bureaucratic system recruited its personnel through civil services examinations. The
imperial state sponsored the large scale printing of textbooks for this examination. The number
of candidates for the examinations increased from the sixteenth century, and this increased the
volume of print.

By the seventeenth century, the use of print diversified in China because of a blooming urban
culture. Print was no longer limited to scholar-officials. Merchants used print in day-to-day life
because they collected trade related information. Fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies,
anthologies of literary masterpieces and romantic play became the staple for the reading public.
Reading acquired the status of a preferred leisure activity. Rich women began to read and many
of them began publishing their poetry and plays.
Print in Japan
The Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan around
768 – 770 AD. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra which was printed in 868 AD was the oldest Japanese
book. Libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed materials of various types. These
included books on women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower
arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.
Print Comes to Europe
Marco Polo was a great explorer from Italy. He returned from China in 1295 and brought the
knowledge of woodblock printing along with him. Thus, printing began in Italy and travelled to
other parts of Europe. Vellum was still the preferred material for printing the luxury editions
because printed books were considered as cheap vulgarities. Vellum is a parchment made from
the skin of animals.
By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were widely used in Europe to print various materials.
It almost replaced the books made by calligraphy.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
Gutenberg was the son of a merchant. Since his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses.
He also learnt the art of polishing stones, and became a master goldsmith and also became an
expert in creating lead moulds. Such moulds were used for making trinkets.
Gutenberg used his knowledge to bring innovation to the print technology. He used the olive
press as the model for the printing press and used the moulds for casting the metal types for the
letters. Gutenberg perfected the system by 1448. The first book printed by him was the Bible.
Initially, the printed books resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout. In the
hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most parts of Europe. The
growth of the print industry was so good that about 20 million books appeared in the European
markets in the second half of the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, this number went
up to about 200 million copies.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
A New Reading Public:

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A New Reading Public:
With the print technology, a new reading public emerged. Books became cheaper because of
printing. Numerous copies could now be produced with much ease. This helped in catering to an
ever growing readership.
Access to books increased for the public. This helped in creating a new culture of reading.
Literacy level was very low till the twentieth century in Europe. Printers kept in mind the wider
reach of the printed work. Popular ballads and folk tales were published which could be listened
by even the illiterates. Literate people read out stories and ballads to those who could not read.
Religious Debates and Fear of Print
Print created an opportunity of a new debate and discussion. People began questioning some
established notions of religion. For the orthodox people, it was like a challenge as they feared
the disturbance in old order. In fact, the Protestant Revolution in Christianity began because of
print culture. The Roman Church felt troubled by new ideas which raised questions about the
existing norms of faith. It even started to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
The Reading Mania
The literacy levels improved through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe. By the
end of the eighteenth century, literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 percent in some parts of
Europe. The growth in literacy level created a reading mania among people. Booksellers
employed pedlars who roamed around villages to sell books. Periodicals, novels, almanac, etc.
formed the staple for the reading mania.
Ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. New ideas
could be debated and shared with a wider target audience.
Print Culture and the French Revolution
Many historians are of the view that print culture created the conditions which led to French
Revolution. Some of such conditions are as follows:
- Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers. These thinkers gave critical
commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. Voltaire and Rousseau were among the
prominent Enlightenment thinkers.
- Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. General public began to discuss the
values, norms and institutions and tried to re-evaluate the established notions.
- By the 1780s, there was a surge in literature which mocked the royalty and criticized their
morality. Print helped in creating an image of the royalty that they indulged in their own
pleasure at the expense of the common public.
The Nineteenth Century
There was vast leap in mass literacy in Europe in the nineteenth century. This brought a large
numbers of new readers among children, women and workers. Many books were written and
printed keeping in mind the sense and sensibilities of children. Many folk tales were rephrased
to suit the children. Many women became important as readers as well as writers. The lending
libraries which had been in existence from the seventeenth century became the hub of activity
for white-collar workers, artisans and lower middle class people.
Further Innovations
Richard M. Hoe of New York perfected the power-driven cylindrical press by the mid-nineteenth
century. This could print 8,000 sheets per hour. Offset press was developed in the late
nineteenth century. This could print up to six colours at a time. Electrically operated presses
came in use from the turn of the twentieth century. This helped in accelerating the printing
process. Many other innovations took place during this period. All the innovations had a
cumulative effect which improved the appearance of printed texts.
New Strategies to sell books:
- Many periodicals serialized important novels in the nineteenth century.
- In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
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- In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
- The dust cover or book jacket is a twentieth century innovation.
- Cheap paperback editions were brought to counter the effect of the Great Depression in the
1930s.
India and the World of Print
The Portuguese missionaries were the first to bring printing press to Goa in the mid-sixteenth
century. The first books were printed in Konkani language. By 1674, about 50 books had been
printed in Konkani and Kanara Languages. Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at
Cochin. They printed the first Malayalam book in 1713.
From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette. It was a weekly magazine.
Hickey also published a lot of gossip about the senior officials of the Company. Governor General
Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey. Warren Hastings encouraged the publication of officially
sanctioned newspapers to protect the image of the colonial government.
The first Indian newspaper was the weekly Bengal Gazette which was brought out by Gangadhar
Bhattacharya.
Print culture helped in initiating new debate on religious, social and political issues in India.
Many existing religious practices were criticized. Rammohun Roy published Sambad Kaumudi
from 1821 to criticize the orthodox views in the Hinduism. The Hindu orthodoxy commissioned
the Samachar Chandrika to counter his opinions. In 1822, publication of two Persian newspapers
began, viz. Jam – i- Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. Bombay Samachar; a Gujarati newspaper
appeared in the same year.
In north India, the ulama began to publish cheap lithographic prints which contained Persian and
Urdu translations of holy scriptures. They also published religious newspapers and tracts. The
Deoband Seminary was founded in 1867. It published thousands upon thousands fatwas about
proper conduct in the life of Muslims.
Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas was printed from Calcutta in 1810. From the 1880s, the Naval
Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published many religious
texts in vernaculars.
Print helped in bringing the religious texts within reach of the common masses. It also helped in
shaping the new political debate. It also helped in connecting the people from various parts of
India; by carrying news of one part to another.
New forms of Publication
Initially, people got to read the novels which were written by European writers. But people could
not relate to those novels because they were written in the European context. Many writers
emerged who began to write in the Indian context. People could correlate with the theme and
characters of such novels in a better way. Many other new forms of writing also came into origin;
like lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters, etc.
A new visual culture was taking shape by the end of the nineteenth century. Many printing
presses started to produce visual images in large numbers. Works of painters; like Raja Ravi
Varma were produced for mass circulation through printing.
By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers. They
commented on various social and political issues.
Women and Print
Many writers wrote about the lives and feelings of women. Due to this, readership among
middle-class women increased substantially. There were many liberal husbands and fathers who
stressed on women’s education. While some women got education at home, some others went
to schools as well. This was the time, when many women writers also began to express their
views through their writings.
Conservative Hindus and Muslims were still against women’s education. They thought that a
girl’s mind would be polluted by education. People wanted their daughters to read religious texts
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girl’s mind would be polluted by education. People wanted their daughters to read religious texts
but did not want them to read anything else.
While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed early, Hindi printing began
seriously only from the 1870s.
Print and the Poor People
Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century Madras towns. These
books were sold at crossroads so that poor people could buy them. Public libraries were set up
from the early twentieth century which helped in increasing the access to books. Many rich
people set up library in order to assert their prestige in their area.
Print and Censorship
Before 1798, the colonial rulers were not too concerned with censorship. Initially, the control
measures were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule.
After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. The Vernacular Press Act
was passed in 1878. The Act provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports
and editorials in the vernacular press. In case of a seditious report, the newspaper was warned. If
the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery
confiscated.
NCERT Solution
1. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.
Answer: Print culture helped in developing a culture of dialogue among people. Ideas of social
reform could be spread in a better way. Gandhiji spread his ideas of swadeshi in powerful way
through newspapers. Many vernacular newspapers came up in India. These helped in spreading
the message of nationalism to majority of the Indian masses. Even in spite of repressive
measures print culture was a revolution which could not be stopped.
2. Give reasons for the following:
a. Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
Answer: Marco Polo returned to Italy from China in 1295 and brought with him the knowledge of
woodblock printing.
b. Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
Answer: Martin Luther’s criticism of Roman Catholic church reached a large section of masses
because of print. Hence he was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
c. The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-
sixteenth century.
Answer: Because of print new interpretation of Bible reached to people and they started
questioning the authority of church. Due to this the Roman Catholic Church began keeping and
index of Prohibited books from the mid – sixteenth century.
d. Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and
freedom of association.
Answer: The power of the printed word is most often seen in the way governments seek to
regulate and suppress print. The colonial government kept continuous track of all books and
newspapers published in India and passed numerous laws to control the press. Because of this
Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom
of association.
3. Write short notes on following:
A. The Gutenberg Press
Answer: Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large agricultural estate. From
his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses. Subsequently, he learnt the art of polishing
stones, became a master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used
for making trinkets. Drawing on this knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology to
design his innovation. The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds
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design his innovation. The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds
were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet. By 1448, Gutenberg
perfected the system. The first book he printed was the Bible. About 180 copies were printed
and it took three years to produce them. By the standards of the time this was fast production.
B. Erasmus’s idea of the printed book
Answer: Erasmus thought that books were not good for sanctity of scholastic knowledge. He was
of the opinion that printed books would glut the market with contents which will do more harm
than good to society. Because of this the value of good content would be lost in the din.
C. The Vernacular Press Act
Answer: In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It
provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular
press. From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published
in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if
the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery
confiscated.
4. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
a. Women
Answer: Because of printing technique books became cheaper. Many hawkers started selling
books from door to door. This created easy availability of books for majority of women. Apart
from this many liberal males encouraged women from their families to read. Novels contained
interesting descriptions of women’s lives. This created interest among women readers. Women,
who were earlier cocooned inside their homes could now know about the outside world thanks
to the print technology. This created a spurt of many women writers in India. It can be said that
print culture not only created readers among women but also writers among them.
b. The poor
Answer: Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth-century Madras towns
and sold at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them. Public libraries
were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books.
From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to be written about in
many printed tracts and essays. This helped in bringing these issues to the forefront of public
consciousness.
Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to write much about their
experiences. But some workers took initiative to write stories about their conditions. These
narratives contained issues related to class oppression. So worker’s problems also came to the
fore.
Extra Questions
1. How did print culture affect women in the 19th century India?
Answer: Because of printing technique books became cheaper. Many hawkers started selling
books from door to door. This created easy availability of books for majority of women. Apart
from this many liberal males encouraged women from their families to read. Novels contained
interesting descriptions of women’s lives. This created interest among women readers. Women,
who were earlier cocooned inside their homes could now know about the outside world thanks
to the print technology. This created a spurt of many women writers in India. It can be said that
print culture not only created readers among women but also writers among them.
2. Describe the role of nationalist newspaper in spreading nationalistic feelings among the
people in the early 20th century.
Answer: Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of
India. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to
throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed cycle of
persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar
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persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar
Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908,
provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. Thus nationalist newspaper played
important role in spreading nationalistic feelings among people in the early 20th century.
3. How did the print culture help scientist and philosopher?
Answer: The ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more accessible to the common
people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, and maps and
scientific diagrams were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac Newton began to publish their
discoveries, they could influence a much wider circle of scientifically minded readers. The
writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely
printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality found their way into
popular literature.
4. Print did not only stimulate publication of conflicting opinions among different communities
but also connected them in the 19th century India. Support this statement with examples.
Answer: From the early nineteenth century, as you know, there were intense debates around
religious issues. Different groups confronted the changes happening within colonial society in
different ways, and offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different religions.
Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered the
arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and
newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate. A wider
public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas
emerged through these clashes of opinions.
Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions amongst communities, but it
also connected communities and people in different parts of India. Newspapers conveyed news
from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.
5. What do you understand by print revolution?
Answer: With the printing press, a new reading public emerged. Printing reduced the cost of
books. The time and labour required to produce each book came down, and multiple copies
could be produced with greater ease. Books flooded the market, reaching out to an ever-growing
readership.
Access to books created a new culture of reading. Earlier, reading was restricted to the elites.
Common people lived in a world of oral culture. They heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited,
and folk tales narrated. Knowledge was transferred orally. People collectively heard a story, or
saw a performance. Before the age of print, books were not only expensive but they could not
be produced in sufficient numbers. Now books could reach out to wider sections of people. If
earlier there was a hearing public, now a reading public came into being.
6. How were ideas and information written before the age of print in India? How did the
printing technique begin in India? Explain.
Answer: Age of Manuscripts: India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts –
in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages. Manuscripts were copied
on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They
would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after the introduction of print, down to the late
nineteenth century.
Beginning of Printing Technique in India: The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese
missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts.
By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic
priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was
printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of
them translations of older works.
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them translations of older works.
7. Give a brief description of the first form of print technology.
Solution : The first form of print technology used wooden blocks which were carved with words
or designs . The carvings were in relief . These wooden blocks were inked. Then paper was
rubbed against it. The markings now made an impression on the paper. The paper was thin and
so printing was done only on one side . The papers were folded and stitched .
8. How did the urban population use the print media?
Solution : Merchants used print in their daily life , to update trade information. People stated
reading fiction , poetry , biographies , autobiographies , and romantic plays during their leisure
time. Rich women began to read, and many women began publishing their poetry and plays .
Wives of scholar - officials published their works and courtesans wrote about their lives .
9. When was print technology introduced in Japan?
Solution : Print technology was introduced in Japan around AD 768 - 770 . Buddhist missionaries
from China introduced hand - printing technology into Japan . The oldest Japanese book, the
Buddhist Diamond Sutra was printed in AD 868 . It contained six sheets of text and woodcut
illustrations
10. Who was Marco Polo ?
Solution : Marco Polo was a great explorer. He was in China for many years and he learnt the
printing technology from the Chinese during his years of exploration . He returned to Italy in 1295
and introduced this new technology .
11. Why did the demand for hand written books diminish ?
Solution : The demand for hand - written books slowly diminished . Copying by hand was
expensive , laborious and time-consuming . These hand written manuscripts were fragile,
awkward to handle , and could not be carried around or read easily . Woodblock printing
gradually became more and more popular as the demand for books increased .
12. How did the print revolution influence the reading habit of the people of Europe ?
Solution : Due to the print revolution the reading habit of the public increased, as books were
now less costly . This was because the time and labour required to produce a book came down ,
and multiple copies could be produced with greater ease .
Books flooded the market, and were easily available for the public. Before printed books flooded
the markets the common people used to gather in Public places and books were read out to
them. They heard sacred texts read out , ballads recited , and folk tales narrated .
This listening culture turned to reading culture when books became cheaper.
13. Write a brief note on Martin Luther .
Solution : Martin Luther was a religious reformer . In 1517 he wrote the ‘ Ninety Five Theses’
criticising many of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church . A printed copy of this
was pasted on a church door in Wittenberg . The Church was prompted to discuss his ideas .
Soon Martin Luther ’ s Ninety Five Theses’ was printed in vast numbers and read widely . This
lead to a division within the Church and was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation .
Martin Luther ’ s translation of the New Testament sold 5 , 000 copies within a few weeks and a
second edition appeared within three months .
Several scholars felt print brought about a new intellectual atmosphere and helped spread the
new ideas that led to the Reformation .
Manuscripts were expensive and fragile and had to be handled carefully . It was difficult to read
manuscripts as they were written in different styles .
14. Mass literacy increased many fold in the nineteenth century , in Europe. Women children
and workers started reading books. Discuss.
Solution : Primary education was compulsory in the late nineteenth century . Children became
an important category of readers . The printing industry now had its hands full by printing school
books. A Children ’ s press was set up in France in 1857 which catered solely to books for children.
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books. A Children ’ s press was set up in France in 1857 which catered solely to books for children.
This press published new stories as well as old fairy tales and folk tales .
The Grimm Brothers in Germany compiled traditional folk tales gathered from peasants and the
book was published in a collection in 1812 . Rural folk tales now had a new form.
Women became important as readers as well as writers . Penny magazines were published
exclusively for women. They contained articles on proper behaviour and housekeeping . Novels
became popular as women started reading them.
Jane Austen , the Bronte sisters , and George Eliot were well known authors . Their writings
became important in defining a new type of woman, who had will –power, strength of
personality , determination and the power to think.
Lending libraries became popular in the seventeenth century as the literacy rate increased and
many took to reading . Books became instruments for educating white- collar workers , artisans
and lower- middle - class people .
Books themselves in a way increased literacy . Working class people wrote for themselves and
used books for self education .
After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid - nineteenth century , workers had
time for self-improvement and self- expression. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies
in large numbers .
15. How did the print media affect the women in India?
Solution : Lives and feelings of women were written with intensity. This increased the number of
women who took to reading . Liberal husbands and fathers started educating their womenfolk at
home and some sent them to schools . Many journals began carrying writings by women, and
explained why women should be educated. They also carried a syllabus and attached suitable
reading matter which could be used for home-based schooling .
Superstition was a reason for illiteracy among a large population of women.
• Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed.
• Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances .
Social reforms and novels created a great interest in women’ s lives and emotions . Women’ s
opinions and views were slowly considered and respected . Stories were written about how
about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance , forced to do hard domestic
labour and treated unjustly by the very people they served. Stories about the miserable lives of
upper - caste Hindu women, especially widows also appeared in print . These stories paved the
way for the liberation of the suppressed Indian woman.
Other kinds of literature solely for women soon flooded the markets.
• Article on household and fashion lessons for women.
• Articles on issues like women’ s education , widowhood, widow remarriage and the national
movement .
• Short stories and serialised novels.
• Folk literature.
In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta – the Battala – was devoted to the printing of
popular books . These books were being profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured
lithographs . Peddlers took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in
their leisure time.
16. What is calligraphy ?
Solution : Calligraphy is the art of writing beautiful letters by hand .
17. What medium was used for writing ancient Indian scriptures ?
Solution : Palm leaves ( Bhoj patra) was used to write ancient scriptures .
18. Who invented the letter press ?
Solution : Letter Press was invented by Johann Gutenberg in Germany .
19. Who brought out the first Indian newspaper published in English?
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19. Who brought out the first Indian newspaper published in English?
Solution : Gangadhar Bhattacharya brought out the first English newspaper in India.
20. How was sale of books promoted in small towns ?
Solution : Peddlers carried illustrated books to homes in small towns.
11. Name any three novels by Premchand.
Solution: Godan , Sevasadan and Rangbhoomi are the novels written by Premchand .
12. What is meant by vernacular as a language?
Solution: It is the normal form of spoken language as different from the literary form.
13. Write about the early Bengali novels.
Solution: The early Bengali novels lived in two worlds
Novels based on historical events. Novels based on domestic life in contemporary settings.
Domestic novels dealt with the social problems and romantic relationships between men and
women.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was a famous Bengali novelist. His novels had ingenious
twists and turns of the plot. There was suspense and the language was relished. The prose
style of his novels became a new object of enjoyment. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay ’ s first
novel was Durgeshnan
14. What was the reason for the popularity of the novel?
Solution: There were several reasons for the popularity of the novel. The worlds created by
novels were absorbing and believable. The reader was transported to another world he
enjoyed. The reader began looking at life as it was experienced by the characters of the novel.
Novels allowed individuals the pleasure of reading in private and they enjoyed discussing
stories they had read with friends or relatives.

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