ETHICS030

UNIT 3: THE MORAL AGENT culture-specific such that the truth is

LESSON 3: CULTURE IN MORAL measured insofar as it is culturally logical or
BEHAVIOR consistent. Ethical thinking in cultural
relativism is the doing of good that is greatly
Keywords: dependent on the culture.In this way, an
• Culture – It is a set of beliefs, customs, individual behaves to the satisfaction of
arts, etc. of a particular society, group, place his or her culture which serves as rational
or time. ground of his or her doing.
• Contextualization – It is to think or
provide information about the situation in •Having said that, what can be true to one
which something happens. culture may notnecessarily be true to
•Relativism – It is one of the theories on another. Analogically, what is medicine for
truth that states that the truth is being one person may be a poison for another.
viewed depend on the individuals and Cultural orientation and application may be
groups holding them. valid but its validity is only within its own
culture. This goes to say that the tenable
What is Culture? position of what is right or wrong is seen
• Culture is a system of conduct that gives from what is prescribed of a certain culture.
the world meaning and shapes the behavior Its prescriptive character is clearly exclusive
of people. It also determines proper in nature, that is, excluding other cultures
behavior. This includes what we eat and which also bear their own conception of
how we prepare food, how we talk and what truth.
language we use, what we make and how
we make and utilize things, how we Given the diversity of cultures, Cultural
understand the meaning of life and death, Relativism could not serve as a solid moral
and how we recognize the ultimate meaning ground for moral decision making, however,
of life. Culture is our code of conduct that without compromising one’s cultural bias, it
shapes how we understand, what life is serves to develop open-mindedness,
worth living and what it means to be human. broadmindedness and critical fluidity and
firmness in understanding others with
Culture Influence Moral Behavior different cultural backgrounds
• The conception of good and evil, of what is
right or wrong, is shaped by culture as it is
the very basic system of conduct that UNIT 3: THE MORAL AGENT
shapes human behavior. This could be LESSON 5: KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF
dangerous in a way since not all cultures MORAL DEVELOPMENT
and their conception of the good reflect the
universal good or what ought to be. While • Maturity, decisiveness, uprightness are
culture frames our understanding of good certain qualities of an individual who has
and evil in relation to other cultures, it in turn grown through life which can neither be
leads to some potential consequences programmed nor predicted, implying that
based on that cultural orientation. one goes through a step by step process in
moral living. If moral maturity means more
There is always the possibility that one’s than just mere acceptance of norms
cultural conception of the good can lead to established by society, then it is essential to
harm and evil to another culture. Thus, the know just what it means and how one
study of Ethics is important since it provides achieves it. These were the main concerns
people with a basis upon which to discern of a study of Lawrence Kohlberg in his
their own accepted ethical systems and a Theory of Moral Development.
basis for contextualization or broadening
their own conceptions of the good. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987)
• American psychologist and educator,
What is Cultural Relativism? Harvard University
•Cultural relativism is a doctrine that asserts “Education is crucial for moral living.
the validity of culture in the process of
thinking. In ethics, cultural relativism is The Theory of Moral Development

PADAYON!
-Jhaux
ETHICS030

• Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Stage 5: Social Contract

Development emphasizes the gradual Behavior driven by the balance of social
progress experienced by the individual who order and individual rights. One will act
in turn can only realize his or her status of based on social justice and the common
personal development after passing through good.
a lower level. Kohlberg believes that the
individual moves from one level to another, Stage 6: Universal Principles
going through the varying stages of social Behavior driven by internal moral principles
orientations. All three levels, which are and associated with the development of
comprised of two stages each, cover the six one’s conscience, having a set of principles
stages of moral development. that drives one to possess moral
responsibility.

• Kohlberg maintains that the stages he has

identified are merely descriptions of moral
development. He claims that his findings are
not dependent on a specific psychological
theory but a result of his empirical analysis
of the way people develop morally. Moral
judgements, although depending on
intelligence, social status, personality and
on the age and experience of each
individual, are nonetheless distinctive.

UNIT 4: THE ACT

LESSON 2: 7 STEPS MORAL
Level 1: Preconventional Morality REASONING MODEL
The norms of morality are understood
through physical pain and pleasure • How” is associated with process. However,
orientation. there is alittle divide between the idea of
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment: “process” and “ethics” because the former is
Behavior driven by fear of avoiding transparent and clear whereas there is no
punishment. way that “ethics” can be in full operative.
Stage 2 : Individual Interest: There is no specific way where goodness
Behavior driven by self-interest and can be secured and evil can be avoided.
rewards. One is motivated to act by the Just if ever there is a connection between
benefit that one mayobtain later. process and ethics, the connection avoids
the following:
Level 2 : Conventional Morality
The norms of morality is maintained by 1. The fact that what is in principle through
expectations and values of the group where words can be automatically in principle
one belongs, for example: family, friends, through action. Sometimes, what we do
society and other social institutions. differs from what we say. We just find it
Stage 3 : Interpersonal Concordance difficult to align our deeds with our words all
Behavior driven by social approval or by the time.
what others expect in behavior – good boy, 2. The danger of looking at the question of
good girl orientation. what is ethical as if it is solved by a
Stage 4 : Authority how-to-manual. There is no specific manual
Behavior driven by obeying authority and on how to be ethical.
conforming to social order. One is motivated
to act in order to uphold law and order. However, there can still be steps necessary
in the attainment of a moral act. It’s just that
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality the steps can be actually dynamic and
The norms of morality are defined apart holistic to accommodate the reality itself.
from authority of groups, but with The following is the 7-STEP MORAL
independent attitude towards moral values
and principles.

PADAYON!
-Jhaux
ETHICS030

REASONING MODEL proposed by other person, or both of them, would it be

MICHAEL DAVIS. good for me or for the other party/ies?

1. State the Problem •before making a judgment, the following

•Acknowledge that there is a problem- there tests would be helpful:
is something to be fixed. The problem
sometimes is that one refuses to accept that • Reversibility test. “Would I also be affected
something is wrong in the first place. E.g. by it if I were in his position?” If I were in the
acknowledge that there is something wrong position of my romantic partner, would I also
with your partner’s relationship. It’s getting have the tendency to cheat in this
cold as compared to how it was before thus, relationship?
there must be really a problem. • Professional test. “How does my discipline
or field see this action?” If I would confront
2. Ascertain the facts the other person and get driven by my
•Take a careful look because not all emotions, will my actions still be seen
problems can be considered as legitimate appropriately being a professional.
problems. Just may be, you overthought on • Organization test. “How does the
things. Just maybe, your relationship with organization or my institution observe the
your partner doesn’t really have a problem following problem?”
and you were only overthinking. • Colleague test. “How does my colleague
see the same issue?” If my colleague were
3. Identify a list of options in my shoes, what would he/she possibly do
• just in case one has identified the validity about the situation?
of the problem, he has to circumnavigate • Publicity test. “How should this issue be
the variables involved in the issue. What treated publicly?”
could be the factors why your romantic • Defensibility test. “How could this issue be
partner is getting cold in your relationship? defended and where?”
Is he/she still happy? Is there someone else
which he/she is becoming more intimate 6. Consider consequences
with? Is he/she just doing something so • Filter your choices and separate the
important which you just don’t know? Have ethical from the unethical choices bearing in
you done anything wrong to him/her? Try to mind both your motives and the potential
ask yourself of the questions that would consequences of your action. Think of
lead you to some facts about the problem. long-term consequences and act in
accordance with the principles of justice and
4. Develop a list of options fairness. Consequences are historical
•the list of options developed should lead realities that bear upon the lives of others. A
the person to a focused choice. Such decision turns something in your mind into
choices should lead on the possible and reality. Make sure you do not regret the
plausible address of the problem. If ever decision you have conferred reality upon.
you identified that there is someone else
meddling in your relationship, what would 7. Make a final Decision
you possibly do? Will you confront the other •The final choice happens upon further
person? Will you just let it pass? Or will you evaluation of the steps. After confronting
make your partner choose between you and your partner and weighing on things, now
his/her “someone new?” what? After your cool off, now what? You
cannot be in a cool off forever. Should you
5. Test options continue? Or rather, should you put your
• before making a judgment, the following relationship to an end?
tests would be helpful:
• Virtue test. “If I were to ignore this, how
does this reflect my virtue?” If I would let UNIT 5: ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS
this pass, I could be seen as a martyr lover. A.​ VIRTUE ETHICS
• Harm test. “What will be the effect of the B.​ ST. THOMAS ON NATURAL LAW
possibility of nondisclosure?” If I would let
this pass, will I be emotionally settled? If I WHAT IS A MORAL AGENT?
would confront either my partner or the • Doer/ Performer/Actor of moral value.

PADAYON!
-Jhaux
ETHICS030

• Has the full accountability for his action. • It affect how we absorbed the world
One cannot point at other reasons. around us and act in the world.
• Virtuous people are not perfect, but it does
A moral agent… not affect the purity or inspirational
- Is capable of thinking what is good (or component of the virtue itself.
bad). • Virtuous actions make a person good.
- Possesses the virtues which do not • It is a good quality of the mind by which
develop overnight. one lives rightly, which no one uses badly
and which God works in us but without us
Principles on Moral Agency (St. Augustine)
• doing what is morally good (bad) is not • It is a good habit perfecting man in any of
sufficient to make the moral agent good his rational potencies and inclining him to
(bad). the right and perfect use of his potencies
• intention or motivation before the act has (St. Thomas Aquinas)
been done should be investigated.
• Considers excellence or goodness in
PRINCIPLES FOR MORAL terms of performance.
AGENCY • Any activity that is good reflects the doing
•THE AGENT POSSESSES THE of things in an excellent way.
VIRTUES.
Virtues are formed character of a person APPROACHES TO VIRTUE ETHICS
who through time has consistently exercised A. EUDAIMONISM (synonymous with virtue
these values. ethics)
• The ideal goal of human existence is
individual eudaimonia.
• This goodness is attainable by acting out
those virtues, called phronesis (prudence or
practical wisdom)
• Phronesis is a tool to achieve happiness

B. ETHICS OF CARE
●​ 20TH century
• Outgrowth of feminist theory of Annette
Baier
• Gender role influences a person’s action
and thinking
Vices • Taking care of others, patient and
• Opposite of virtues nurturing, willing to sacrifice one’s own
• The inconsistency towards values happiness for the sake of other’s happiness
• The repetition of doing bad
C. AGENT-BASED THEORY
VIRTUE ETHICS (Michael Slote)
VIRTUE • Uses the largest, most normal and most
●​ (Etymologically) Latin, vis, viris lauded virtues across time and culture (ex.
●​ manliness, i.e. strength, courage, Kindness and mercy)
power • Moves the burden of ethics to the inner life
• Disposition, ability, or habit inclining man of the agent who performs those actions.
to think andact correctly to follow what is
right and avoid what is evil. VIRTUE-BASED MORALITY
• A highly regarded personality trait or • The extent of excellence performed by an
aspect of character. individual and as to where that individual is
• Deeply held value by a person that expected to function well.
intrinsically leads him or her to behave in a
certain way. The two great thinkers espoused a
• Good universal values, all of us should virtue-based moral system:
have. Aristotle & St. Thomas Aquinas

PADAYON!
-Jhaux
ETHICS030

✓Keeps the universe (Kosmos) in proper

ARISTOTELIAN VIRTUE ETHICS working order
• Teleological and Eudaimonistic (seeking ✓It always exist, and always will within the
happiness) mind of God (Logos)
• “Telos” is a Latin term for “end” which ✓All creatures are part and participate in
mean a product which the agent seeks to this law
make or an action that is to be done or ✓E.g. sun, moon, daytime, night time, high
accomplished. tide, ebb tide, time, etc.
• Human beings have the natural inclination
to pursue an end which is happiness. ●​ NATURAL LAW
• In Aristotle’s society, students are trained ✓Aspect of eternal law knowable to man
to acquire moral knowledge and skills. and applicable to human lives.
• Teachers and social political institutions, ✓“an intellect-bit size of reality”
ensure the cultivation of moral disposition in ✓Man has participation and contribution as
their young citizens. a rational being
✓E.g. procreation of man and woman,
sustaining and defending life, protection of
• Two realms of social affair: the environment, etc.
●​ Intellectual realms (education of
young citizens) ●​ THE OLD LAW
●​ Socio-political realm (provides the ✓An aspect of the Divine law made known
education) by God thru pre-Christian revelation to the
• Reassure the honing of the two-fold virtues Jewish people.
to human excellence (intellectual virtue,
courage) ●​ THE NEW LAW
• Moral education or ethical instruction is the ✓An aspect of the Divine law made known
key in fostering good habits (virtues) and by Christ to the church.
discouraging bad habits (vices)
• Doctrine of the mean ●​ HUMAN LAW
✓An application of the general principles
“…Some identify happiness with virtue, of natural law to particular situations, by
some with practical wisdom, others with a the human minds.
kind of philosophic wisdom, others with ✓Morally-based earthly laws by which
these, or one of these, accompanied by human societies function.
pleasure or not without pleasure; while ✓E..g. constitutional law, Republic acts,
others include also external prosperity…it is Decrees, Ordinances, Ecclesiastical law,
not probable that…these should be entirely etc.
mistaken, but rather that they should be
right in at least some one respect or even in
most respects.” The NATURAL AND ITS TENETS
-Aristotle, Nichomacean Ethics, Book I, (Thomistic Thought)
Chapter 8 (excerpt from Nothingistic.org, • Natural means any innate human
2019) inclinations (physical, moral) pertaining to
one’s life.
THE ESSENCE AND VARIETIES OF LAW • Physically, we are naturally inclined to
• Law makes man concern about common promote life and continue living despite its
good (good of the community or whole odds.
people) • We do not simply settle on securing our
• Law is an ordinance of reason, made and earthly life but we deepen our relationship
promulgated by man for the common good. with God.
• St. Thomas emphasizes that it is human
DIVISION OF LAW nature to desire his/her ultimate end in God.
●​ ETERNAL LAW • This natural tendency of man seeking
✓ A norm whereby God governs the fulfilment in God finds its fulfilment through
universe and most of which are unknowable the supernatural agent who is God Himself.
to man. • Human will, as a nature
✓What God wills for creation (Voluntas ut natura)

PADAYON!
-Jhaux
ETHICS030

• Our acts of will or volition arise from our • Human beings who heed to lower
natural desire for the ultimate end. appetitive tendencies experience the same
• Natural law is instilled in us hence, it can lower pleasures as that of animals.
be known naturally. • Aristotle asserts that there can hardly be
• Synderesis- the habit of doing good and happiness without virtue.
avoiding evil.
HAPPINESS AS CONSTITUTIVE OF
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS ON NATURAL MORAL AND CARDINAL VIRTUES
LAW • Happiness (Felicitas) or Beatitudo or
• Doctor of the Roman Catholic church, peace (pax) is the ultimate end or good
theologian, philosopher pursued by human beings.
• Regarded as a pillar in theological • Total or ultimate happiness is in afterlife.
approach called Thomism as well as pillar of This is not the same with Aristotle’s
philosophical movement known as “happiness” achievable on earth.
Scholasticism • The ultimate happiness or Beautitudo
• Puts forward that there is within us a Perfecta can never be perfectly actualized
conscience directing our moral thinking. by human beings, yet achieved by the grace
• This sense of right and wrong must be of God.
informed, guided, and grounded on morality • The human activity is instrumental to
• We are called to heed the voice of the divine activity.
conscience and maintain a life of virtue. • Happiness is not only achieved through
• For Thomas Aquinas, Natural law is the natural virtues acquired by humans.
basis of ethics and the ultimate ground • Otherwise, humans would end up in the
directing our sense of what is right and illusion of imperfect happiness.
wrong. • Ultimate happiness requires the virtue
• All beings including man, came from God of FAITH, HOPE, and LOVE.
(first efficient cause), who is essentially • Thru this union with God, perfect
good. happiness could be attained.
• All beings will return to Him (final cause).
• God’s goodness is perfect, man’s is THE FOUR CARDINAL VIRTUES
imperfect. 1. PRUDENCE
• God directs man to arrive at his perfection 2. JUSTICE
and reach their proper end which is 3. FORTITUDE
returning to God. 4. TEMPERANCE

●​ PRUDENCE
✓Regulates the intellect to think of the right
thing and to avoid evil.
●​ JUSTICE
✓Regulates the will of giving what is due to
others.
●​ FORTITUDE
✓Regulates weakness of character
HAPPINESS AS A VIRTUE ●​ TEMPERANCE
• Anything good makes a human happy ✓Voluntary self-restraint
• Aristotle believes in happiness that is
pursued with pleasure. CHARITY
• Pleasure or happiness is the end goal of ✓The mover, the mother and root of all
human act. virtues and the source of good will,
• Lasting enjoyment experienced by higher kindness, mercy, and forgiveness.
beings. ✓Supernatural virtue of loving God above
• Human beings enjoy higher pleasures all things and loving one’s neighbour
guided by higher faculty (rationality) because of God.
• Lower form of animals enjoy lower ✓Gives unity and harmony to individual
pleasures directed by lower faculties moral life and to the whole humanity.
(appetites) ✓Helping the poor, the unfortunate, the
underprivileged.

PADAYON!
-Jhaux
ETHICS030

JUSTICE
• Giving what is due to others.
1. Legal
✓Binding all men to do what is for the
common good in accordance with the law.
2. Distributive (community to individuals)
✓Directs the state to share out to the
people benefits and offices according to the
merits and capabilities.
3. Commutative justice (between
individuals)
✓Duty of one individual to give what is due
to another.
4. Social Justice
✓Direct individuals to give society its due.
✓It imposes the obligation to assist those in
need so that they too can live their life
worthy of dignity as persons
5. International justice
✓Common welfare of all nations. Main
duties are preservation of world peace,
unity, and brotherhood.

ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF ST.

AUGUSTINE
• God is the focal point of St. Augustine’s
moral imperative
• God is the starting and terminal point of
existence.
• God created everything out of love.
• Love is the central basis of his ethics.
• God favoured man among His creations,
because of the freewill.
• Man’s freewill is the primordial basis of the
existence of evil.
• Man authors evil, and not God.
• Evil is the absence of good.
• Despite the capacity to do evil, man is still
capable of attaining perfection by keeping
himself good thru prudence, justice,
fortitude, temperance, charity, and love.

PADAYON!
-Jhaux