The document discusses the Kali Age as a period of significant social crisis in ancient India, characterized by instability, class tensions, and the breakdown of traditional varna (caste) structures. It highlights the degeneration of dharma and the rise of conflicts between different social strata, particularly between brahmanas and sudras, leading to widespread disorder and insecurity. The text also notes that this age is marked by foreign invasions, oppressive taxation, and a general decline in moral and social order.
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Kali Age
The document discusses the Kali Age as a period of significant social crisis in ancient India, characterized by instability, class tensions, and the breakdown of traditional varna (caste) structures. It highlights the degeneration of dharma and the rise of conflicts between different social strata, particularly between brahmanas and sudras, leading to widespread disorder and insecurity. The text also notes that this age is marked by foreign invasions, oppressive taxation, and a general decline in moral and social order.
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The Kali Age: A Period of Social Crisis
RS. SHARMA
os
LS Oy oss
Some modern protagéhiists of Indian culture lay accent on everlasting
and unchanging norms and values, They are supported by some
sociologists who emphasize the stability of the caste institution even
under the stress of industrialization.! But ancient Indian thinkers
themselvés held a changing view of their society and its values, This is
demonstrated by their speculations regarding the creation of the
world and the creation of kingship which had to be set up in order to
protect family and property? Although in post-Vedie tines dharma
based on the varna division, was the ideal to be achieved, it kept on
time and place and vice versa. However, brahmanical view of change
is syclic and not evolutionary.
Cie Puranas and the Smrtis point out that the perfect dharma
SoMSIsts of four feet and is found only ig.the kriaage. The kriaage was
an_age of perfect bliss and happiness, komparable to the state of
nature depicted by Rousseau. It was affage in which adharma did not
find place in the mind of any oe Then it suffered a slight
degeneration, giving rise to théfecond age Called the trea, when
dharmalost one foogven then,
ical of this age was the ideal reign
of Rama depicted by Valmiki and later taken over by Tulsidas: it was
painted as a phase of all-round happiness and prospexity when the
brahmanical institutions worked most satisfactorily( The treta was
“1 first touched on the problem discussed here in my
under the guidance of Professor A.L. Basham (Siidras in Ancient India, Delhi,
1958, pp. 176, 21-14). I briefly discussed it again in my Ancient India (Delhi,
1978), p. 169. Also see B.N.S. Yadava, The India Historical Review, V (1978-9), 31-
63.
Reprinted from $.N. Mukerjea, ed, India: History and Thought (Essays in Honour
of Professor A.L. Basham), Calcutta, 1982,
y doctoral thesis prepared Hf 9) conti .
4 R.S. SHARMA |, {oo
ow
followed by the duapara age, which witnessed the great Bharata,
followed by -
put even in thatage when ihanmaloseone more foot Yudhisthira,
joked upon as its embodigeny he last Eps in the progress,
t
period from the Bharata war (midglle of the tenth century.) to the
| beginning of the Gupta rule. Q) od On,
Th general concept of the Kali is more or less clea
i thef@is a deviation from the established order of things, it is
represented as the advent of the Kali or of songg traits of thatage, Kali
jenever
means the neglect of rituals, and predominance and influegce °
_ietcical sets and also of foreign non-brahmanical rulers.flt also
_ ” means the non-performance of the Functions assigned 10 diffe
ard social strata or vammasby Dharmasastras, he brahmanical view of these =
ie funcuons is not fixed and ri itd fersaccording to time and place,
i
| as for example in the case of the functiongof the sudras. Hence, the
| meaning of the sspblshed order ditfers(out each period called Kalt
by Hazra is charitterized by foreign invasions, instability, social
tensions, conflicts, and heterodox sects and teaching:
Although in Hazra’s view as many as four periods answer the
descriptions of the Kali, we would like to concentrate on the
description which is assigned by him to the third and early four ‘
century ab. We would not be concerned with kalivanjyas, which wer®
developed in medieval times.' Here we would go not only by the
descriptions of the Kali or yugdnta given in the Vayu, Brahmanda an
ys ’
yu”
The Kali Age: A Period of Social Crisis 63
Visnu Puranas but also by its descriptions in the Aranyaka and the
Santi Parva of the Mahabharata, which have much in common with
the early Purdinas and belong to the same period. We would like to
supplement and check the Kali description with the discussion of
the importance of dandain Manu and the Santi Parva, which fall in
the same time bracket. The same use can be made of the description
of ardjakain the Ayodhyakanda of the Ramayanaand also in the Santi
Pay
Gu'sasinaion of the description of the Kali in the Vayu and
prafmanda Purdnasto ¢ ap 200-75 and that in the Visnu Purdnato the
Jgst quarter of the third or the first quarter of the fourth century
coincides with the period between the decline and fall of the Kusanas
and Satavahanas on the one hand and the firm establishment of the
Guptapguer on the other." It was certainly a period of political
ts
jastabllity)In the description of the yugas in the Santi Parva, which
may be attributed.to this period, social order isinextricably linked up
with political order. This js true not only of the first three ages, but
more so of the Kali age.'fTtis stated that the king is the cause of his
mee Since in ancient In@fia it was the responsibility of the king to.
uphold the varnasramasystem, itis evident that agy weakness in polity
A OQ
und to find reflection in society. (aU J
‘Geena features of the Kali highlighted in the texts assign
the third century AD and probably to the beginning of the fourth
century ab can be enumerated as mixing of varnas or varnasamkara,
hostility betweeg stidras and brahmanas, refusal of vaisyas to pay and
sacrifice, oppression of the people with taxes, widespread theft and
robbery, insecurity of family and property, destruction of yogaksema,
growing imporjapee of wealth over ritual status, and dominance of
mleccha pri cep Al these add up to a state of widespread social
disorder. Some of these aspects can be considered to be symptoths of
social crisis: others may be treated as its causes and perhaps its
consequencés) It is stated that at the end of the yuga brahmanas,
ksatriyas and‘vaisyas, all would be reducggito one varna.'* The first
three mixing together would be relegated to the position of the
Sudras.” It ig further said that the untouchables (antyai) would
become middle rankers (madhyah), and vice versa.” It might mean
that the untouchables assumed the functions of the ksatriyas and
vaiiyas (madhya). In the description of the arajakain the Ayodhyakanda
itis stated that because of the absence of the operation of royal
Punishment (rdjadandanipiditah), the atheists (ndstika) break the
to
L| -
ods
3 46
d
64 R.S. SHARMA
limits (mand) of the vamasand dimamas+ This type of oy ‘e
described in several other texts, is usually understood in the seni
people breaking the barriers between the vamas in respect ont
and marriage and producing ‘illegitimate’ issues, ROL Sanction,
the law books. But varnasamkara involves something more. 1°"
brahmanical system varna was identical in many WAYS With cag,
ostVedic times the Dharmasitras assigned religious sy inteyecNY
functions to the brahmanas and ruling and fighting functions io
ksatriyas. To the vaigyas were assigned producing functions Comprise
agriculture, cattle rearing and trade. The stidras were Asked to sen
but they contributed to Production as slaves, artisans, A8Ticultury,
labourers, etc. Those who were engaged in Production and p,
taxes and providing surplus labour were called vaigyas and sign?
and those who were engaged in consumption and organizin,
Production and distribution and lived on taxes, tributes and gife
were called ksatriyas and brahmanas, Therefore, varnasamkarawoulg
alsgimply the refusal of the peasants and traders, called vaigyas, to pa
‘axgygnd would thus put in jeopardy the very fabric of society ang
polit Itis stated, for example, that the vaisyas would give up agricul,
ure and trade and live on the professions of artisans, thus adopting
the livelihood or occupations of the Stdr&S¥ When the application
of codrcion is ieammheracy to compel mi€mbers of different vara
‘o perform their functions, déna-danda is Prescribed in the case of
the vaisyas,* for payment was considered t, be their important duty. t
is further stated in the same context thane an element of fearis
instilled, a person neither performs sact ices nor does he willingly
sive. Therefore, the object of applying danda to the vaisya was
make him pay taxes to the king and offer sacrificial fees to the priess)
While the excuse of Yamhasamkara may have been invented fot
admitting new tribes, foreign and indigenous, to brahmanical
Society,® and also for Promoting mobility to tide over difficult
situations,” it is also without doubt that its description in various tex’
of the third century and carly fourth century ap impliesa state of clas
tension and confusion caused by clash of interests between the
organizing and managerial functions of the upper two strata and the
Producing functions of the lower two Strata,
nse hostility between the brahmanas and the éiidrasjs.a striking
ure of the description of the vama Confusion in the Kalj¥" Sever!
ts state that the éiidras would adopt the conduct of the brahman®
i
tex!
(brahmandcara), and vice verge (Sidracara).® 11 is predicted hati" (eam eee
Sew Teer ee
weer en Epes
sjespecttlly
The Kali Age: A Period of Social Crisis 65
cto bed, seat and food, relations would be established between
ie sts and untouchables (antyayoni) on the one hand andthe
pranmagas on the other.” We learn that the stidras would be greeted
and addressed as drya; on the other hand the brahmanas
Mould be addressed in terms of disrespect (dho)." Although some-
vnesitis said that the sidras would become acquirers of wealth and
conduct themselves as ksatriyas," itis repeatedly stated that the sadras
Could behave as brihmanas. The dichotomy between the two is
t out in religious terms. It is said that the brahmanas would
(the recitation of the name of the god) and the siidras
oted to this practice ( japaparayanah).” That the
and dharma to the brahmanas is also predicted.
“nthe! 's would take to asceticism (tapa).“ Probably
Prout such sidras itis stated that they would live through gifts from
‘brahmanas through the service of others What is
suiking about the sadra-brahmana conflict is the fact that in a passage
from the Aranyaka Parva the sidras are given an upper hand and
represented as oppressors of brahmanas.Itis aid, for example, that
siricken with fear and oppressed by the vrsalas the duijas would raise
ahue and cryand unable to find saviours they would wander over the
earth and take shelter in rivers, mountains and districts. The
reference adds that harassed by the dasyusand oppressed with taxes
by bad kings the best among the brahmanas would give up patience
and in despair would do unworthy things as servants of the sadras.”
The whole passage gives the impression of the capture of political
“Power by Sidra kings who tried to turn the tables on the brahmanas.
Whatever may be the interpretation of the Aranyaka verses, the general
tenor of intense hostility between the brahmanas and the Sadras
in the context of the Kali description of about the third-fourth cent-
uries ap is unmistakable. Sometimes it is expressed in religious idiom,
and at other times in social and political idiom. Butthe outburst of
the Sidra ism to the brahmanas can be explained if we bear
i inf brahmanas gave the siidras the lowest ritualistic
prought
ve up Japa
Sula become dev
n in order to make them work as slaves, hired labourers,
domestic servants, sharecroppers, etc.,of the brahmapasand others;
tich brahmana landowners are mentioned in Pali texts inthe
description of the varna conflict in the Kali age we notice two types of
Contradictions: the one between the brahmanas and kéatriyas on the
one hand and the vaigyas_on the other; and the other between the
hmanas and the sadras,
Pie
teense _.
at (
)
n.s. SHARMA
66
nsecurity and widespread lawless,
K marked by i
Gr, aa the period of anarchy are characterized jy
BOTT Tis a8 soma, which is usually translated as welfartwp"
‘rstood i 5 Oy
structions of 14% 1 as w
foga should be rnderstood in the sense of acquisition and Rena
th or property, and Generally sogaksemashould be understood ,
The sense of protection of property." Itt refore is evident thay
the Kaliage there was no secur! of propersyyT mayhave ener
mattered to people sr privileged classes with vested interests (Th
absence of security iS iterlined by the prevalence of thefts an;
and robbers would conduc,
hieve:
-obberies. We are told that t e
themselves as rulers and rulers would behave as thieves and robbers
Insecurity of property is charactgyst of both ardjaka as well as the
Kalijit is stated that jnastate of affarchy a person can neither hope to
acqjaire property nor to set uP family," two combine to seize the
roperty ofone and many ‘combine to seize the property of two. Further,
A free person is reduced to slavery, and women are forcibly abducted.*
Me the description of the Kali several references represent house.
holdersas thieves (parimasaka)* and stealers of clothings. They also
appear as thieves of crops." We learn that on account of oppressive
|v plaxes householders or peasants (grhastha) were reduced to a state of
91) =penmy, and they had no option but to take sagiealing although they
alspmasqueraded as munisand took to wade, ‘
(im didfach a situation of widespread social disorder and vara
cdftficts arise? It is attributed to natural calamities such as famine,
drought and heavy rains, but oppressive taxes appear 10 be an
important factor. Itis stated that extremely troubled with famine and
oppressive taxes the suffering people wgul igrate to countries
prosperous on account of wheat and tanga of about the sixth
century aD speaks not only of drought ar oppressive taxes, butalso
of cold, tornado, heat wave, and heavy raps in this context." It speaks
of the robber-like behaviour of the Vingaand states that faced with
the attack of such greedy and contemptible kings on their wome?
and property the subjects would take shelter in forests and moun\
and live on vegetables, roots, meat, honey, fruits and eo
references belonging to the third and fourth centuries also bring
ed sharp focus the oppressive activities of the rulers. They tell By
ne zt an a kings would cease to become protectors and ee |
iaipoab suchas cus subjects through various kinds af taxes an
and interest (opaja)gyTeseems
this statement re} i pi
ion of waders, er passage
P21
ae
w The Kali Age: A Period of Social Crisis 67
seems to speak of the oppression of peasania) We learn that at the
end of the yriga the kings would only enjay taxes (baliand bhaga), they
would give up the function of protecting the people and would be
concerned with protecting themselves." Whats said about the king
is also attributed to his agents. It is said that officials called goptrs
owl turn out to be oppressors and give up administrative functions."
‘et ation of people on account of the unbearable burden of taxes
appears to be an important characteristic of the Kali age. Thisis stated
bout people in general and brahmanasin particular Obviously this
phenomenon applies to settled and civilized areas. Butitisa recurrent
feature not confined to any particular period{References to migrations
because of royal oppression are found in the-Jatakas. It is likely that
fleeing of taxpaying peasants, artisans and traders became more
common in the third and early fourth centuries to which the Kali
references are ascribed. Migrations may have been an important
cause of the decay of urban settlements in sin and in the
Deccan in post Kusina and postSatavahana tim
(Me can speculate on the reasons for the levy of oppressive taxes by
the kingsin the third and in the beginning of the fourth centuriesap.
Itis likely that the needs of the rulers went on increasing on account
oftheir demand for foreign goods, especially Juxury articles. Because
of flourishing foreign trade they got accusto®ted toa life style which
they could not maintain for long)The king would ask the traders to
procure ieee he neéded even if they had to pay avery high
price for it%{t seems that their demands could no longer be satisfied
by the peasants, traders, artisans and labourers, in other words, by the
vaigyas and Sidras, The fertility of land in certain parts of the country
may have been exhausted)Pranaya and vistimay have been normally
levied from the peasants, for when this was not done it was esp¢cially
recorded by Rudradaman. WING A/a
Whatever may have been the reasons for the tyrannical taxation
typical of the Kali age, itirobvious that it runs counter to the principles
of taxation enunciated in the law books. The basic tenfet that taxes
Were paid in lieu of protection afforded to the people was certainly
violated in this age. Similarly, the principle that only as much taxes
should be levied as enabled the people to carry on was being clearly
transgressed. A passage from the Aranyaka Parva suggests that this
large-scale exploitation was caused by the mlecchas, whoare considered
to be foreign rulers. Itis stated that fora long time the earth would be
filled with the mlecchas, and out of fear of the burden of taxes the 68 R.S. SHARMA
brahmanas would run helter-skelter in all the ten directions. Wy
further learn that the earth would have many mleccha Kings, all addic
to falsehood, sin, and lying."* But the next passage which specifi,
| the names of the dynasties does not show all of them to be foreigner,
Thus, they are mentioned as Andhras, Sakas, Pulindas, Yavanas, si
| and Abhiras. In addition to them the Kambojas and Aurnikas fing
place.” However, in one manuscript the first is replaced by the
Bahlikas® and in another the second is replaced by the Kunikas:
Although neither the Aurnikas nor the Kunikas can be clearly
identified, it seems that some of these were foreigners while others
were improvised indigenous tribal dynasties. The Puranas dealin,
with the dynasties of the third century ap give enough indication of
the political upheaval caused by local dynasts{A Magadha (considereq
to be a mixed caste) king called Visvaphamir'is credited with the
overthrow of all the existing kingsnd with their replacementby the
Kaivartas, Madrakas, Pulindas arrd unbrahmanical peoples in various
countries. It is explicitly stated that the eunuch-like Visvaphanj
would overthrow the established ksatriya order and create another
ksatriya order. This clearly implies the substitution of the existing
chiefs, princes, nobles and warriors by a new set of improvised
adventurers. It is symptomatic of a widespread internal upheaval with
which foreign elements alone were not connected. Therefore, it would
be wrong to attribute internal lawlessness solely to foreign elements
Both foreign and indigenous peoples were eventually brahmanized.
In the case of Visvaphéni it is said that he would worship the gods
and ancestors, perform sacrifices on bank of the Ganga and would
attain the realm of Sakra.' We are not told anything about the ancesty
and antecedents of Visvaphani, as in the case of many upstart dynasties
in the third and fourth centuries ab. In other cases dynasties and
peoples are only mentioned, while in this case a Magadha individual
is mentioned.
The brahmanical ire is directed against both foreign and
indigenous dynasties because they took time to acquire legitimacy
and brahmanical ways of life. In a period of instability there certain)
arose situations when might became right. Whoever possessed horses
elephants, chariots and wealth managed to become the king.” What
ever may have been the ancestry and antecedents of kings they proved
to be tyrannical and exploitative, with the result that the chain of?
strong reaction against the upper orders, who formed the mainstay!
the government, continued for some time(Thus the-varna system
disturbed, and class tension and confusion ensu )
Liter
fi would be wrong to think that only the poor and oppressed
sections tried to upset the varna system. The early centuries of the
Christian era were marked by a great spurt in artisarval and commercial
activities. This is attested by all types of evidence—epigraphs,
archaeology, Buddhist texts and foreign accounts/The abundance of
coins, especially coppers, the presence of towns and flourishing
foreign trade all bear witness to it, [tis stated that in the sinful age, i.e.
in the Kali, all would turn traders,” who evidently are looked upon
with contempt because of theif anti-varna attitudes and activities.
The traders are represented as indulging in many tricks and selling
enormous commodities by adopting fraudulent weights and
measure. ‘fie Divyavadana of about the second-third century ap
indicates ‘oppression and harassment of traders through the
imposition of customs, ferry dues, police station dues, etc., which
they tried to escape by various means The Sgnrtis of about the same
ane ecommend advanced metho fing tolléthan are found
in the Arthasastra of Kautilya.”(In addition to customs duties,
merchants had to pay a normal tax €dlled kara,) which in the A;
jastrais seen by Ghoshal in the technical sensé of benevolence. The
Santi Parva lays down rules for assessing a general tax called
silpapratikara to be levied from artisans,” not known to earli ts
which ask artisans to serve fora day in a month for the ki ‘All thi
may have caused resentmen.among artisans and merchants against :
the existing political rena of them developed a natural grudge~ 9! =)/
against a social system which spite of their prosperity did not accord
them high status. A good number of them tried to improve their
and win social prestige by making gifts in the cause of Buddhist)
(The description of the Kali in the Visnu Puriina states that gift be
‘Wie sole means to acquire dharma.) We further learn thafthe
possession of wealth became the onlysource of acquiring high ni
status.” Further, the accumulation of gems and metals alone
conferred praiseworthiness.” It is likely that in order to express their
resentment and improve their ritualistic status artisans and traders
Joined hands with peasants and agricultural labourers and created
some kind of comnto Fere is a faint indication of linkage
between peasants and traders. At several places it is stated that
burdened with taxes the peasants would take to the vocations of
tugders.”
Creer from Buddhism, which still retained something of its old
ur, some heterodox sects such as Vaisnavism tried to improve
the position of the lower orders, The Vaignavite teachings were not
The Kali Age: A Period of Social Crisis “
Jats t
py
“é and of severe trial for the classical varna system),
70 R.S. SHARMA
meant for upsetting the varna system, but were capable of being
interpreted as such.}In Gita the declaration that even the sinfy
(papayonayah) vaisyas, didras and women can attain heaven if th,
take refuge in Krsna,” could act not only as a sop to the oppresseq
and offended sections of society but could also encourage them to
revolt against the existing order. The predominance of the pasandas
or teachers and followers of heterodox sects is underlined in the
description of the Kali.” The adoption of certain symbolsis considered
to be the only ground for entering an asrama; these symbols were
presumably prescribed by different heretical sects,*® We hear of sinfy|
Sidra ascetics taking to begging and even good people adopting the
mode of the life of the heterodox sects.*! The Vayu Purana speaks of
Sidra jatis and tapasvins® and mentions Siidras in a calm pose, clad in
brown red garments, with shaven heads and white teeth, practising
dharma. The éitdra ascetic is considered such a great anathema that
Rama is represented as having killed the sidra Sambuka for practising
asceticism. Therefore, all the references quoted above show the impact
of heterodox ideology on the Sidras, How this actually moulded their
minds we have no means of finding out. Under the influence of
dissident sects advanced sections of Sidras and vaisyas, such as artisans
and traders, may have mobilized the exploited sections and created a
situation in which the norms and values established by varna system
underwent significant changes. This state of affairs is depicted as
Kali in the Mahabharata and Puranas and as arajakain the Ramayana.
All these descriptions speak not only of removal of frontiers of food
and marriage but also, what is more significant, of exchange of
functions between social classes (This could imply that peasants and
traders namely vaisyas, refused to pay taxes to the rulers called ksatriyas;
or who were sudras, may have adopted a similar stance)Similarly, *
Staves, agricultural labourers, sharecroppers and even untouchables
ised to perform their functions, which would mean.that the supply
of labour to members of the higher varnas was stopped/The writers of
the Kali account evidently have in mind such a situation when they
present brahmanas in a pitiable plight, tortured with taxes and fleeing
in all directions for rabet (he condition of the ksatriyas is als?
/—deptcted as Tamentable. It was therefore a period of intense socit! e
pparently in order to meet this crisis strong co@fcive meastes
commended in the Manusmyti and the Santi Paryg¥The exerci
of dandaassumes an importance which it neither enjoys in any eatlie! The Kali Age: A Period of Social Cnsis 7
Lf
ok norin any other text Ane emphasis shifts from the people-
vities of the king tohis fiercer role of suppression. It is
-cive power protects dharmd, arthaand kama." By means
ofitfoodgrains and property are guar ded On account of the fear of
i from the king nobody commits sin in this world just as in
Fie other world nobody ¢ nmits sin on account of the fear of the
(hs mended for keeping
Jaw bo
teasing act!
d that coer
er of Yama." ‘Punishment is recom
fer places. It is advised that by way of
1d be admonished, the ksatriya should
ender, and the vaisya should be made to make gifts or
Tn this context the Sidra is called nirdanda,” probably
parause of his incapacity (0 Pay in comparison with the vaisya- Physical
vrnishment is prescribed for suppressing theca Jasand mlecchas,*
Prydently people ouside the brahmanical rigin all likelihood such
ynishment was meant for siidras in general ’ The use of coercion is
jared essential for maintaining the dsrama or the life-stage
cxtem, Itis stated that only out of fear of punishment members ofall
the stages stick to their stage. (1 king is called danda, and also
leader and discipliner; what js e important, he is called the
imperishable dharma, Sed of the varnasand aéramasy The point is
emphasized that the power of coercion (dandaj disciplines the
subjects, protects everybody, and activises the slothful; wise men
consider dharma to be identical with inne Qppren the
mechanism of coercion was vonsidered very effective in restoring
rocial harmony and in compelling members of various classes to carry
out the duties assigned to them. But the performance of functions
was particularly important in the case of the producing classes. Here
we may refer to an apt simile from the Santi Parva. It states that if
coercion is not applied, camels, oxen, asses and donkeys, yoked to
the cart, do not move.” This advice is appa. nily intended for those
who are in charge of making people won Nan lays down that the
vaisyas and sidras should not be allowed to deviate from their
rown into a state of
functions, otherwise the whole world would be thi
Javery for the sudra
jarnas in their pi
all the v
the brahmana shou
unishment
be made to surT
ayment.
consi
chaos. ‘eis in this context that Manu prescribes sI
cee Tough purchase or without purchase, for in Manu’s opinion
Hid taeage vi this purpose by the Creator himself." We further
enue nes to put an end to disorder (viplava) appearing in
sieeve up by the Srutis and Sm tis, at the end of Kali would
od snu in the Kalki incarnation in a brahmana family, and he
lestroy all the mlecchas, dasyus and people of mischievous
