Identifying and Enhancing Character Strengths
Aim- To identify character strengths and conduct a character strengths intervention for
enhancing self-awareness and flourishing.
I. Self
Introduction
The term "self" is used so naturally because its concept is deeply rooted in a common human
experience. Initially, our understanding of the self is closely linked to our physical bodies.
This basic view of self starts universally with our physical existence.As we grow, our view of
the self expands beyond just our bodies to include our psychological functioning.
The concept of self is built on three universal human experiences.
The first is reflexive consciousness, the ability to think about our own thoughts and develop
self-awareness. We come to understand ourselves through our actions and how we fit into
social contexts. The second is social nature, where our self is shaped through relationships
and social roles. From childhood, interactions with family and community teach us about
belonging and individuality. The third is executive function, the capacity to make decisions
and control our actions. Though less studied, this aspect is crucial in allowing us to actively
shape our lives rather than merely exist within them. Together, these elements create a fluid
and evolving sense of self.
Evolution of the Concept of Self
The notion of self has evolved over time. In the Middle Ages, identity was rigidly tied to
social roles, limiting personal exploration. The Renaissance emphasized individuality,
inspired by classical philosophy. The Enlightenment furthered this shift, with thinkers like
Rousseau and Locke highlighting reason, autonomy, and self-awareness.
With secularization and industrialization, identity became more fluid, focusing on present
fulfillment rather than the afterlife. Psychoanalysis, led by Freud, introduced the unconscious
as a key force in shaping the self, while Erikson framed identity as a lifelong, socially
influenced process.
Early Theories
Freud introduced the idea of an unconscious self driven by instinct and childhood
experiences. Erikson expanded this view, arguing that identity takes shape across a lifetime
through social and cultural influences.
Freud
Freud maintained that the “self” is a multiplicity of forces and that other people are inherently
a part of understanding one's self.
He described the self as a battle between three forces: the id (instincts), ego (reason), and
superego (morality). The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate
gratification of desires; the ego, governed by the reality principle, mediates between the id’s
impulses and societal expectations; and the superego represents internalized moral values,
often in conflict with the id’s instincts.
These elements clash through five psychosexual stages, each tied to biological drives. Freud
argued that unresolved conflicts during these stages shape adult behavior.
Oral Stage (0–1 year): Babies seek comfort through sucking. Lack of nurturing can lead to
dependence or aggression.
Anal Stage (1–3 years): Toddlers learn control. Strict toilet training may cause obsessive
behavior or defiance.
Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Children form attachments to their opposite-sex parent, shaping
gender identity and morality.
Latency Stage (6–12 years): Sexual impulses fade as children focus on friendships and
learning.
Genital Stage (12+ years): Sexual maturity directs energy toward relationships and personal
growth.
Freud saw childhood experiences as the foundation of personality. Critics argued that he
ignored social factors and overemphasized sexual drives, prompting later revisions by
thinkers like Erikson.
Erik Erikson
Erikson built on Freud’s ideas but focused on social influences rather than biological urges.
He outlined eight stages of development, each defined by a key conflict that shapes identity.
1.Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year): Babies develop trust when caregivers provide stability.
Neglect breeds insecurity.
2.Autonomy vs. Shame (1–3 years): Toddlers assert independence. Overcontrol fosters
self-doubt.
3.Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years): Children experiment with roles through play. Criticism
stifles curiosity.
4.Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years): Success in school and hobbies builds confidence.
Struggles create feelings of inadequacy.
5.Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years): Teenagers explore values and goals. Uncertainty
leads to confusion.
6.Intimacy vs. Isolation (18–40 years): Young adults seek close relationships. Fear of
rejection fuels loneliness.
7.Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years): Midlife adults contribute through work or
family. Self-absorption causes stagnation.
8.Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Older adults reflect on life. Regret leads to despair.
Erikson saw identity as flexible, shaped by relationships and cultural shifts. Unlike Freud, he
viewed the self as an active agent rather than a product of unconscious forces.
Self concept
Self-concept refers to the overall perception or understanding we have of ourselves.It
encompasses our thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and values associated with our sense of "I" and
"me."
While circumstances and people around us may change, our self-concept assures us that we
remain fundamentally the same person we were in the past. In other words, there is coherence
and consistency in our thoughts and actions (Nail, Misak, & Davis, 2004).
By age five, children's self-perception aligns more with their parents' views, reflecting early
self-awareness. As they grow, social comparison shapes their self-concept, which evolves
through adolescence and adulthood, integrating traits like friendliness and cooperation.This
development is influenced by:
Cognitive Factors: How individuals perceive, evaluate, and compare themselves.
Social Factors: Feedback from family, friends, and peers, shaping self-perception.
Cultural Factors: Values and norms that define which traits are emphasized.
Carl Rogers viewed the self as a personal narrative shaped by experience and social
feedback. He identified three key elements: Self-Image: How a person sees themselves.Ideal
Self: Who they want to become. Self-Worth: How they evaluate their own value.
When self-image aligns with the ideal self, people feel secure and fulfilled. When gaps
appear, anxiety and self-doubt arise. Rogers argued that unconditional support allows people
to grow into their authentic selves.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the overall attitude people hold towards themselves. It affects motivation,
resilience, and mental health. Three main factors shape self-esteem:
Personal Achievements: Success in work, school, or hobbies builds confidence.
Social Relationships: Support from family and friends reinforces self-worth.
Cultural Standards: Societal values influence how people judge themselves.
Self-esteem fluctuates daily but remains relatively stable over time. High self-esteem fosters
confidence, while low self-esteem often leads to anxiety and underperformance.
While self-esteem is often thought of as, and measured like a stable trait, it can and does
change in response to life events. Research by Chung et al. 2014 has shown that over the
four years of college, students' self-esteem tends to drop in the first year before rising steadily
through graduation.
Migration affects self-esteem as well. Studies on students who relocate for university show
an initial decline in well-being, followed by improvement due to social support and increased
self-efficacy. Gender differences in self-esteem are influenced by societal expectations.
Mead in 1934 suggested that self-esteem is shaped by how others perceive and treat us.
Research by William and Pest in 1990 found that women in countries with rigid gender roles
tend to have lower self-esteem, whereas women in societies with greater workforce
participation are perceived more equally.
People tend to maintain a positive self-view through automatic egotism. This optimistic bias
leads individuals to overestimate their abilities and control over events. Social identity is also
a major influence. Individual differences in self-esteem exist across cultures. Some studies
indicate that Japanese students report lower self-esteem than Western counterparts. Contrary
to earlier beliefs, low self-esteem is not a major cause of social issues.
Self-Efficacy
Albert Bandura (1997) described self-efficacy as the belief in one’s ability to succeed in
specific situations. People with high self-efficacy set challenging goals, persist through
obstacles, and adapt strategies when needed. They attribute success to effort rather than luck,
reinforcing motivation. In contrast, those with low self-efficacy often avoid difficult tasks,
give up easily, and see failure as a reflection of their lack of ability (Bandura, 1986). A
student confident in their math skills, for example, approaches complex problems with
determination, while another with low self-efficacy hesitates, assuming they will fail.
Four factors that strengthen self-efficacy: Mastery experiences provide direct success,
strengthening belief in personal competence (Bandura, 1997). Vicarious learning, or watching
others succeed, reinforces the idea that success is possible. Social persuasion, such as
encouragement from mentors, further builds confidence. Lastly, managing stress and
emotions prevents self-doubt from interfering with performance (Schunk & DiBenedetto,
2021).
While self-efficacy shapes motivation and behavior, self-awareness allows people to
recognize their emotions, thoughts, and actions in real-time. Goleman (1995) defined it as a
key element of emotional intelligence, influencing decision-making and relationships.
Internal self-awareness involves understanding personal strengths, weaknesses, values, and
emotions. External self-awareness refers to recognizing how others perceive one’s behavior
(Eurich, 2018).
Self Knowledge
Self knowledge means recognizing personal thoughts, emotions, values, strengths, and
weaknesses. Unlike momentary self-awareness, it builds over time through reflection and
experience. Carl Rogers argued that self-knowledge grows when personal traits align with
deeper goals, creating a sense of stability and confidence.
“It encompasses the ability to recognise one’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,and
challenges leading to comprehension of oneself.” (Goleman,1995)
Self knowledge can be gained through introspection or from an Observer’s Standpoint.
Observers differ in their focus of attention and are less likely to be swayed by knowing our
intentions, potentially gaining greater insight into how we behave based on our past
behaviors.
Sources of self knowledge:
Socialisation: Through interaction and norms within society.
Reflected appraisal (looking glass self): seeing ourselves through the perceived eyes and
reactions of others.
Feedback from others: Gaining insights into our own character and abilities through other
people’s comments and evaluation.
Self Perception: Our own observations and internal assessments.
Labelling arousal states: Interpreting our physical responses and emotions to understand our
traits and feelings.
Social comparison: Evaluating ourselves in relation to others in order to define our self
concept.
Upward social comparison: Comparing ourselves with someone we perceive to be superior to
ourselves.
Downward social comparison: Comparing ourselves with someone we perceive to be inferior
to ourselves.Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory suggests that we compare ourselves
to others because for many domains and attributes, there is no objective yardstick to evaluate
ourselves against; other people are therefore highly informative.
Aspects
Self Schemas
Cognitive structures derived from past experiences that help us organise and interpret
information about ourselves, influencing how we perceive, remember, and evaluate personal
information.
Self Discrepancies
The differences we perceive between our actual self (how we see ourselves currently), and
our ideal self (how we wish to be). It can lead to emotions of dissatisfaction, anxiety, or
discomfort when the discrepancy is negative.
However, it can also motivate positive change and foster personal growth when someone is
driven to reduce the gap between their actual and ideal self.
Self motives
Humans have a powerful motivation to seek knowledge of themselves, with entire industries
built around their attempts at self discovery, including personality tests and less scientifically
founded practices.
People seek self knowledge for mainly 3 purposes- Self assessment, Self verification, Self
enhancement.
Self Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to understand one's own emotions, thoughts, behaviors, and their
underlying causes (Duval & Wicklund).
There are two types of self-awareness as described by Charles and Szeier (1981):
1. Private self awareness: This involves our private thoughts, feelings, and attitudes.
2. Public self awareness: This pertains to how other people see us and our public image.
Importance
Self-awareness can enhance introspection, intensify emotions, and help us understand our
work accurately. However, sometimes being self-aware can be uncomfortable. People may
seek to escape from self-awareness when it feels overwhelming. This escape can manifest in
various behaviors, such as consuming alcohol or, in extreme cases, considering suicide
(Baumeister,1991).
Accurate self-assessment using SWOC and seeking feedback from others is crucial for
gaining a more objective perspective on oneself, which enhances self-understanding.
Strategies to Enhance Self Awareness
Enhancing self-awareness can be achieved through the deliberate practice of mindfulness,
reflective journaling, and structured self-reflection. Mindfulness meditation helps individuals
cultivate a nonjudgmental awareness of their thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations.
Integrating daily journaling into one’s routine further reinforces this process by providing a
structured way to document and analyze emotional patterns and triggers. Such reflective
practices not only help in identifying recurring themes and emotional responses but also pave
the way for improved emotional regulation and a clearer understanding of one’s personal
values (Brownell, Zerwas, & Ramani, 2007; Duval & Wicklund, 1972).
Another effective strategy involves actively seeking external feedback and engaging in
perspective-taking exercises. Tools such as the Johari Window enable individuals to gain
insights into their blind spots by comparing self-assessments with the perceptions of others.
In addition, cognitive-behavioral techniques that focus on challenging and reframing
self-defeating beliefs can lead to a more accurate self-concept and enhance interpersonal
communication.
II. Character Strengths and Virtues
Positive psychology
“Positive psychology is “the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the
flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups and institutions.” (Gable & Haidt, 2005)
“Positive psychology is “nothing more than the scientific study of ordinary human strengths
and virtues”(Sheldon & King, 2001)
According to Seligman (2003), positive psychology is built on the study of
(1)positive subjective experiences (such as joy, happiness, contentment, optimism, and
hope);
(2)positive individual characteristics (such as personal strengths and human virtues that
promote mental health);
(3)positive social institutions and communities
Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS)
The VIA (Values in Action) Classification of Strengths, developed by Peterson and Seligman
(2004), provides a positive framework for understanding human strengths, in contrast to the
DSM's focus on mental disorders. It was created to answer two main questions: (1) How to
define strength and highest potential, and (2) How to measure success in positive youth
development programs.
The VIA system identifies 24 character strengths, grouped under 6 virtues (wisdom, courage,
humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence), which are seen as universally valued
across cultures and time. Strengths are defined as morally valued qualities that contribute to
personal fulfillment and enhance others without diminishing them. The VIA-IS (Inventory of
Strengths) assesses these strengths along continua, not as distinct categories, and is linked to
higher life satisfaction.
Key criteria for character strengths include their contribution to personal fulfillment, moral
value, positive impact on others, and cultural recognition. Some strengths, like intelligence or
athletic ability, may be valued but don't meet the VIA criteria. While most strengths align
with the proposed virtues, factor analysis suggests a five-factor model rather than six.
Additionally, strengths like fairness, kindness, and gratitude are most commonly endorsed
globally, while prudence and self-regulation are less frequently recognized.
VIA Classification of Strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004)
I. Wisdom and Knowledge:
Wisdom involves practical intelligence and good judgment, often gained through life’s
lessons, not necessarily formal education or a high IQ.
These cognitive strengths involve acquiring and using knowledge:
1. Creativity - Thinking of novel, productive ways to do things
2. Curiosity - Taking an interest in all ongoing experiences
3. Open-mindedness - Considering all sides of an issue
4. Love of learning - Mastering new topics and skills
5. Perspective - Offering wise counsel to others
II. Courage:
Courage is the ability to confront fear, whether facing physical challenges, illness, or
standing by one’s convictions.
Emotional strengths to exercise will in the face of adversity:
6. Authenticity - Speaking truthfully and being genuine
7. Bravery - Facing challenges or pain without shrinking back
8. Persistence - Finishing what one starts despite obstacles
9. Zest - Approaching life with excitement and energy
III. Humanity:
Humanity is about empathy, compassion, and nurturing relationships, focused on others'
needs. Interpersonal strengths that involve connecting with others:
10. Kindness - Doing good deeds for others
11. Love - Valuing close relationships
12. Social intelligence - Understanding the motives and feelings of others
IV. Justice
Justice ensures fairness and promotes community well-being through cooperation and
leadership. Civic strengths for healthy community life:
13. Fairness - Treating everyone equally
14. Leadership - Organizing and guiding group activities
15. Teamwork - Working well in a group
V. Temperance: Strengths that protect against excess:
Temperance involves restraint and the ability to control impulses that could harm oneself or
others.
16. Forgiveness - Letting go of wrongs done to you
17. Modesty - Letting one’s achievements speak for themselves
18. Prudence - Making careful decisions
19. Self-regulation - Managing one’s emotions and actions
VI. Transcendence:
Transcendence lifts us above ordinary concerns, helping us connect with the greater
universe. Strengths that connect us to something larger and provide meaning:
20.Appreciation of beauty and excellence - Noticing beauty and skill in all aspects of
life
21. Gratitude - Being thankful for positive things in life
22. Hope - Expecting and working toward a good future
23. Humor - Enjoying laughter and bringing joy to others
24. Spirituality - Believing in a higher purpose and meaning in life
Measuring Strengths of Character
The VIA project developed a 240-item self-report questionnaire to measure these 24
strengths. Respondents rate themselves on a scale from 1 (very unlike me) to 5 (very much
like me). The resulting profile indicates an individual’s strengths and is linked to life
satisfaction. The VIA-IS has good reliability, and factor analysis suggests five overarching
factors: restraint, intellectual strengths, interpersonal strengths, emotional strengths, and
theological strengths.
Evidence of Validity:
Friends and family nominations correlate strongly with VIA-IS scores.
Scores are positively correlated with life satisfaction.
Factor analysis supports the existence of 5 key factors.
Flourishing
Flourishing is a state of optimal human functioning that is at the opposite end of the
continuum from mental illness. (Baumgardner, 2014). In other words, flourishing is complete
mental health.
Well-being is crucial for human flourishing. People who have support from close friendships,
family, and support groups have higher well-being, and are found to be less vulnerable to
sickness and premature death, while loneliness as a risk factor for poor health outcomes and
functional decline (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010; Perissinotto, Cenzer, & Covinsky, 2012).
Seligman and his colleagues proposed that happiness as a central focus of positive
psychology can be broken down into three components: the pleasant life, the engaged life,
and the meaningful life (Seligman, 2003, Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006). The pleasant
life reflects the emphasis in positive psychology on understanding the determinants of
happiness as a desired state—what some might call the “good life.” It explores the life
circumstances and personal qualities that make people happy, content, and fulfilled. The
engaged life focuses on active involvement in activities (e.g., work and leisure) and
relationships that express talents and strengths, giving meaning and purpose to life. Such
involvements promote a zestful and healthy existence. Lastly, the meaningful life arises from
transcending self-interest and connecting to something greater, referred to as “positive
institutions” (Seligman et al., 2006). These might include a religious community, a personal
philosophy, family, charitable organizations, or social causes. A life well-lived, therefore, is
one that is connected to something “larger than the self” (Seligman et al., 2006
These three aspects of happiness capture the two major themes in positive psychology,
namely that positive psychology is the scientific study of optimal mental functioning and
happiness.
National well-being has traditionally been measured by economic indicators like GDP and
GNP (Boarini et al., 2006). However, these fail to capture well-being fully (Helliwell &
Barrington-Leigh, 2010; Kahneman & Krueger, 2006). Subjective well-being (SWB) has
emerged as a more comprehensive measure.
Diener (1984) defines SWB by three key aspects: subjectivity, inclusion of positive measures,
and a holistic life assessment. SWB is valuable for understanding consumer preferences and
social welfare (Kahneman & Krueger, 2006) and is increasingly used in policy (Dolan &
Metcalfe, 2012). Bhutan, for instance, has prioritized Gross National Happiness (GNH) over
GDP since 1971, emphasizing spiritual, social, and environmental well-being (Thimphu,
2012; UN, 2013).
Subjective well-being is an important prerequisite for flourishing. Its measures have three
hallmarks. (Deiner,1984)
1. The measure is subjective,residing with the experience of the individual.
2. It includes positive measures.
3. It includes a global assessment of all aspects of a person’s life.
PERMA model
Seligman’s (2011) PERMA theory of well-being explains a multi-dimensional approach for
defining what it means to flourish in life.
The PERMA theory has gained traction in psychology, though its empirical validation,
especially across cultures, remains a work in progress (Butler & Kern, 2014; Kern et al.,
2014). Seligman (2011) argues that each element of well-being must:
1. Contribute to well-being.
2. Be pursued for its own sake, not as a means to another end.
3. Be independently defined and measured (i.e., not overlapping with other elements).
The five constructs of Well-Being:
Positive Emotions – Hedonic feelings like happiness, pleasure, and comfort. While often
viewed as a result of flourishing, Frederickson (2001) argues that positive emotions actively
drive it, broadening cognitive scope and building long-term personal resources (Frederickson,
1998).
Engagement – A deep psychological absorption in an activity, leading to a flow state
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997). In this state, focus is singular, time perception fades, and
external rewards become irrelevant.
Relationships – A strong social network correlates with reduced mental health issues, better
physical health, and lower mortality (Cohen, 2004; Perissinotto et al., 2012). Social ties also
influence behaviors like chronic illness management and suicide prevention (Tay et al.,
2013).
Meaning – A sense of purpose that connects an individual to something greater. While often
linked to life satisfaction, meaning and happiness are not always aligned (Baumeister et al.,
2013).
Accomplishment – Progress toward goals, shaped by personal ambition and context. What
constitutes success varies—one person may define it through career milestones, another
through family (Butler & Kern, 2014). Some pursue achievement purely for its intrinsic value
(Seligman, 2011).
Method
Design
The present study employed an ABA design, beginning with a pre-intervention
administration of self-awareness and flourishing questionnaires. Participants identified their
character strengths by ranking the 24 strengths in descending order. Additionally, they
obtained insights about their top five strengths from others, including a parent, best friend,
sibling, cousin, or roommate, as well as a classmate with whom they had minimal interaction.
This was followed by a 10-day intervention aimed at enhancing a selected character strength.
Subsequently, the same self-awareness and flourishing questionnaires were administered
post-intervention. The pre- and post-intervention scores on these measures were then
compared.
Sample
The participants were 2nd year female psychology students.
Measures
The Flourishing Scale
The Flourishing Scale, developed by Diener and Biswas-Diener (2009), is an 8-item
psychological well-being measure that assesses perceived success in key life domains,
including relationships, self-esteem, purpose, and optimism. Participants respond to each
item using a Likert scale, with higher scores indicating greater flourishing. This scale
provides a single composite score representing overall well-being.
Self-Awareness Questionnaire
The self-awareness questionnaire was designed by the researcher and aimed at assessing
participants' ability to reflect on their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. It consisted of 10
open-ended questions prompting self-reflection and four items rated on a 10-point Likert
scale. Each response was analyzed independently to gain a comprehensive understanding of
self-awareness levels.
Data Collection
The data collection process followed a structured, multi-phase approach to ensure a thorough
assessment of self-awareness and psychological flourishing before and after the intervention.
The process began with an initial assessment, during which participants were provided with
detailed instructions before completing the Flourishing Scale and the self-awareness
questionnaire. These measures established baseline levels of psychological well-being and
self-awareness.
Following the initial assessment, participants engaged in a character strength ranking task.
They were asked to rank all 24 character strengths in descending order based on their own
perceptions. Additionally, they identified their top five strengths as perceived by four
individuals: a parent, a best friend, a cousin, and a classmate with whom they had minimal
interaction. This step allowed for a comparison between self-perceived strengths and external
perceptions.
After completing these initial measures, participants took part in an intervention designed to
enhance a selected character strength. Over the course of ten days, they engaged in reflective
and experiential exercises aimed at fostering the development of the chosen strength.
Participants were encouraged to apply the strength in daily life and had the option to maintain
a journal to document their thoughts and experiences throughout the process.
Upon completion of the intervention, the Flourishing Scale and the self-awareness
questionnaire were re-administered. The pre- and post-intervention scores were compared to
examine potential changes in self-awareness and well-being. This structured approach
provided both quantitative and qualitative insights into the relationship between intentional
character strength development and psychological flourishing.
