Literature Review on

Industrialization and Rural-to-Urban Migration in India

By:

Paras Arora :2021A7PS0493P

Tejas Tuli: 2021A2PS2162P

Kriti Jakhoria :2021B3PS2052P

To:

Dr. Tanu Shukla

Professor of

Dynamics of Social Change

( February 25 ,2025)
Introduction
The theoretical framework for the study is based on the Push-Pull Theory, which describes
migration as a result of economic differences between areas. According to the theory,
unemployment, poverty, and limited opportunities in rural areas push people out of their
hometowns, while higher wages, improved living standards, and job opportunities in cities pull
them towards cities. Further, Segmented Labor Market Theory points out how labor markets are
segmented into formal and informal sectors. Migrant labor tend to find themselves in informal
employment with low wages, insecurity of employment, and deplorable working conditions,
which deny them access to secure employment opportunities.

Literature Review
1.​ Srivastava, R., & Sutradhar, R. (2016). Labour Migration to the Construction Sector in
India and its Impact on Rural Poverty. Indian Journal of Human Development, 10(1),
27-48.
○​ This research assesses rural poverty as influenced by migrant workers’ remittance
flows. It offers an analytical contribution to the impact of sent earnings on
households’ consumption, education and infrastructure spending within the
villages. The Push-Pull Theory was utilized in this study. Economic distress is
identified as a major push factor, while employment provided at urban centers
acts as a pull factor for migration.
2.​ Hirudayaraj, M., & Barhate, B. (2021). Work Conditions of Interstate Migrant Workers
in India: A Critical Realist Exploration. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 32(4),
459-479.
○​ The present study takes a poor evaluation of the working conditions of interstate
migrant workers in the construction industry of India. Low wages, lack of
protective provision in labor statutes, and unsafe working conditions are the
concerns being raised in this study. Segmented Labor Market Theory offers an
explanation as to why migrant laborers remain in informal and casual jobs, not
enjoying health protection and social security and other types of long-term
benefits.
3.​ Roy, S. N., Manish, & Naik, M. (2015). Migrants in Construction Work: Evaluating
Their Welfare Framework. Centre for Policy Research.
○​ This paper discusses in depth the welfare framework formed for migrant workers
in the construction industry, exploring the Building and Other Construction
Workers (BOCW) Act regarding its nexus of effect. The study has drugged down
the migration-related policies into three paradigms which are: Labor welfare,
Social security, and legal framework. The authors argue that the implementation
of policy has most often times appeared poorly coordinated and thus inadequate,
 so workers, along with their families, remain out of many channels of support
which they should receive.
4.​ Parida, J. K., John, M. E., & Sunny, J. (2020). Construction Labour Migrants and
Wage Inequality in Kerala. Journal of Social and Economic Development, 22, 414-442.
○​ The present study concentrates on the wage gaps between the native and migrant
populations of construction workers in Kerala. Using the Economic Disparity
Framework, the study evaluates employment discrimination, employment
conditions, wage-determining factors, and policy loopholes that deepen economic
inequality. It is found that often migrant workers are poorly paid compared to
their native counterparts, even for similar labor works.
5.​ Madan, S., & Dangi, P. (2023). Labourers Migrating to the Construction Sector in
Haryana: An Analysis of Push and Pull Factors. Space and Culture, India, 11(2), 58-72.
○​ The research focuses on the factors affecting labor migration to the construction
industry in Haryana. Using Push-Pull Theory, the authors find the reasons for
migration that might include economic hardship, lack of opportunities, or social
networks. In addition, the study also identifies the challenges faced by migrant
workers with regard to their integration into Gurgaon.
6.​ Sengupta, S., & Jha, M. K. (2023). Interstate Migration: The Need for Integrated Policy
and Governance. Strategic Policy Research Foundation.
○​ This paper focuses on the disjointedness of India's labor policies and calls for an
integrated approach to the governance of interstate migration. The authors
categorize migration governance on the regulatory, economic, and welfare
dimensions. They argue that divergence between state and central governments
results in ineffective policy execution and inadequate worker protection.
7.​ Deshingkar, P., & Zeitlyn, B. (2014). Internal and Regional Migration for Construction
Work: A Research Agenda. Migrating out of Poverty Working Paper 14.
○​ This research provides a comprehensive review of labor migration trends,
focusing on economic, legal, and infrastructural constraints that affect migrant
workers. The authors highlight systemic gaps in legal protections and argue for an
improved policy framework that ensures fair wages, access to healthcare, and
housing support for migrant laborers
8.​ Chandrashekhar, S., & Sharma, A. (2022). Interstate Labour Migration in India:
Economic Impact & Policy Challenges. NITI Tantra.
○​ This research examines the impact of interstate migration on economic mobility
and human capital formation. Applying the Human Capital Theory, the authors
examine how employment outcomes and skill acquisition influence migration
trends. The results indicate that although migration improves economic mobility,
the absence of training programs and social support systems inhibits long-term
development.
9.​ International Labour Organization. (2021). Migrant Worker Rights and Recruitment:
COVID-19 Has Made Life Even More Precarious for Migrant Workers. ILO Report.
○​ This report analyzes how the COVID-19 pandemic worsened vulnerabilities
among migrant construction workers. Using Crisis Response Theory, the research
explains emergency policy responses and the imperative need for more robust
labor protections. It also brings to light the disproportionate economic effect of
lockdowns on migrant laborers.
10.​Bhagat, R. B., Reshmi, R. S., Sahoo, H., Roy, A. K., & Govil, D. (2020). The
COVID-19, Migration and Livelihood in India: Challenges and Policy Issues. Migration
Letters, 17(5), 705-718.
○​ This research examines how the disruption introduced by COVID-19 impacted
Indian migration trends. It classifies migration reactions along the lines of
economic survival, policy adjustment, and reliance on the informal sector. The
outcomes identify that there was widespread economic uncertainty faced by
migrant labor due to ineffective policy interventions and unavailability of access
to social security mechanisms.
11.​Rana, G., Bijalwan, P., Gupta, N., & Gupta, A. (2024). Unarticulated Challenges
Encountered by Inter-State Immigrant Workforce: A Case Study in Context to Indian
Construction Industry. Migration Letters, 21(S4), 1862-1878.
○​ It centres on the complex grievances of interstate migrant workers in
Uttarakhand's construction industry. It recognizes irregular payment of wages,
absence of formal contract, and employment hazards as common problems. With
the Labour Exploitation Model, the authors depict how structural disparities
recreate vulnerabilities among the migrant workforce.
12.​Gopinathan, R., Shah, F. F., & Joshi, D. P. P. (2023). Do Long-Term Migrants Earn
Higher Wages Than Short-Term Migrants in the Informal Sector? Evidence from Jammu
& Kashmir, India. Habitat International.
○​ This article evaluates salary gaps between short-term and long-term migrants in
Jammu & Kashmir based on Human Capital Theory. According to the findings,
long-term migrants enjoy higher job stability and salaries since they have
accumulated skills and experience in the job market.
13.​Nag, A., & Sarkar, S. (2023). Crisis in Motion: Unraveling the Impact of COVID-19 on
Migration and Sustainable Survivability in Chandil, Jharkhand. In Migration and
Sustainable Development (pp. 123-145).
○​ The research analyzes the financial disturbance induced by COVID-19 on
migration trends in Jharkhand. Under the framework of Resilience Theory,
authors elaborate survival mechanisms like remittance dependence, informal job
adjustments, and group adjustment in times of crisis.
14.​Aliu, I. R. (2023). Social Policy, Public Housing, and Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria. In
Housing and Society in Nigeria (pp. 89-110).
 ○​ This study presents a comparative study of the effects of insufficient public
housing among migrant workers, relating them to India's housing crisis in cities.
The Social Stratification Framework is applied to illustrate how economic
disparities determine access to housing among migrant workers.
15.​Pandey, B., Brelsford, C., & Seto, K. C. (2022). Infrastructure Inequality is a
Characteristic of Urbanization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(3),
e2119890119.
○​ The research assesses urban infrastructure inequalities and their disproportionate
effects on migrant workers. Employing Urban Planning Theory, the authors
contend that cities such as Gurgaon do not have inclusive policies for informal
settlers and their presence widens socio-economic inequalities.
16.​Lall, S. V., & Chakravorty, S. (2005). Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality:
Theory and Evidence from India. Review of Development Economics, 9(1), 47-68.
○​ This paper discusses the influence of industrial growth in determining patterns of
migration and urban inequality. The New Economic Geography Model is applied
to determine how industrial centers such as Gurgaon recruit workers but do not
distribute equally economic gains.
17.​Ottaviano, G. I. P., & Thisse, J.-F. (2004). Agglomeration and economic geography.
Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, 4, 2563-2608
○​ In their classic book, the authors explore the determinants of spatial concentration
of industries and labor. They explain how transportation costs, economies of
scale, and factor mobility cause agglomeration. The paper also explores the
equilibrium between centripetal forces, which attract economic activities towards
each other, and centrifugal forces, which repel them from each other, giving a rich
understanding of regional economic imbalances.
18.​Sharma, A., & Das, M. (2021). Urban Informal Economy and Migrant Labour in Indian
Cities: A Case Study of Construction Workers in Delhi. Economic and Political Weekly,
56(35), 57-65.
○​ The research studies the Delhi construction industry's informal labor economy
comparatively with Gurgaon. It uses Dual Labour Market Theory to illustrate how
the migrants are segregated into low-risk, low-reward jobs and have limited social
mobility.
19.​Desai, S., & Vanneman, R. (2015). Social Mobility and Economic Security Among
Migrant Workers in Urban India. World Development, 78, 321-335.
○​ This research investigates the effects of migration in economic terms, with a
particular focus on an analysis of intergenerational mobility from the perspective
of Social Mobility Theory.
20.​Kumar, R. (2020). Migration and Labour Exploitation in the Construction Sector of
India: A Human Rights Perspective. Journal of Human Rights, 18(2), 123-142.
 ○​ This research highlights systemic labor exploitation in India's construction
industry using the Labour Rights Framework. The study calls for stronger
enforcement of labor laws to protect migrant workers.
21.​Mehta, A., & Gupta, R. (2022). The Impact of Migration on Urban Development: A
Case Study of Gurgaon. Journal of Urban Studies, 34(3), 145-162.
○​ This article discusses the ways in which migration affects urban growth and
infrastructure needs in Gurgaon. Based on Urban Systems Theory, it identifies
migrants' contributions to urban economies and the policy lacunae that cannot
meet their demands.
22.​Patel, S., & Joshi, V. (2023). Labor Market Discrimination and Migrant Workers in
India's Construction Sector. Economic Review, 48(2), 98-115.
○​ The research investigates discrimination within the labor market of migrant
workers using Labor Market Segmentation Theory. The results indicate that
migrant workers are usually confined to low-paying jobs with little room for
upward mobility as a result of institutionalized prejudices in employment patterns.
23.​Sharma, R., & Desai, K. (2021). Housing Inequality Among Migrant Construction
Workers: Insights from Delhi-NCR. International Journal of Housing Policy, 15(4),
312-330.
○​ This essay examines the housing problems of migrant workers in Delhi-NCR
through the lens of Social Exclusion Theory to understand their segregation into
slums and restricted access to affordable housing.
24.​Yadav, M., & Rajan, K. (2022). The Role of Remittances in Economic Mobility:
Evidence from Migrant Households in India. Development Economics Review, 29(1),
56-78.
○​ The research examines the effects of remittances from migrant workers on the
economies of their home countries using Dependency Theory to demonstrate how
migration can reinforce financial dependence instead of fostering long-term
development.
25.​Kumar, P., & Singh, A. (2023). Government Policies and Migrant Worker Welfare: A
Critical Review. Public Policy Journal, 41(2), 201-223.
○​ This paper critically examines India's labor policies influencing migrant workers,
especially the BOCW Act and the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act. The Policy
Implementation Theory is employed in examining the disparity between policy
design and implementation.
Research Gaps

Despite extensive research on rural-to-urban migration, several gaps remain in the literature that
are particularly relevant to the study of industrialization and migration in Gurgaon:

1.​ Lack of City-Specific Studies on Migrant Welfare in Gurgaon – While studies have
examined migration trends at the national and state levels, there is limited research
focusing specifically on how Gurgaon’s industrialization uniquely affects migrant
workers. Further investigation is needed into the specific living conditions, employment
challenges, and socio-economic status of migrant laborers in Gurgaon’s construction
sector.​

2.​ Ineffectiveness of Government Policies – Many studies discuss the existence of policies
such as the Building and Other Construction Workers (BOCW) Act and the Inter-State
Migrant Workmen Act, but there is limited empirical research on their actual
implementation and effectiveness. A deeper analysis is required to understand the gaps
between policy formulation and execution at the municipal and state levels.​

3.​ Impact of Migration on Urban Infrastructure – While studies discuss urban expansion
due to migration, limited research has been conducted on how Gurgaon’s rapid
population growth affects infrastructure planning, transportation systems, and housing
affordability for migrant workers. Research needs to focus on how policymakers can
integrate migrant labor into urban planning strategies.​

4.​ Social Exclusion and Informal Settlements – Studies have acknowledged that migrant
workers often live in informal settlements with inadequate infrastructure, but there is a
gap in research concerning how social exclusion mechanisms (such as legal barriers,
discrimination, and lack of access to resources) affect migrant workers’ long-term
well-being and integration into the city.​

5.​ Economic Mobility and Wage Disparities – Although several papers analyze wage
disparities in the construction sector, there is little research on how wage progression
occurs for migrant workers in Gurgaon. Future research should explore whether these
workers experience economic mobility over time or remain stuck in low-wage cycles.​

6.​ Health and Occupational Hazards – Many existing studies focus on economic factors
driving migration, but fewer papers explore the occupational health risks faced by
migrant construction workers. Research is needed on workplace safety regulations,
healthcare accessibility, and the long-term health outcomes of these workers.​
7.​ Gender Aspects of Migration – Most studies focus on male migrant workers, but there
is a lack of research on female migrants involved in construction or related informal
work. Research should address the unique challenges faced by women, including
gender-based wage disparities, safety concerns, and childcare responsibilities.
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Mehta, A., & Gupta, R. (2022). The impact of migration on urban development: A case study of
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Nag, A., & Sarkar, S. (2023). Crisis in motion: Unraveling the impact of COVID-19 on
migration and sustainable survivability in Chandil, Jharkhand. In Migration and Sustainable
Development (pp. 123-145).

Ottaviano, G. I. P., & Thisse, J.-F. (2004). Agglomeration and economic geography. Handbook of
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urbanization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(3), e2119890119.

Parida, J. K., John, M. E., & Sunny, J. (2020). Construction labour migrants and wage inequality
in Kerala. Journal of Social and Economic Development, 22, 414-442.

Patel, S., & Joshi, V. (2023). Labor market discrimination and migrant workers in India's
construction sector. Economic Review, 48(2), 98-115.

Rana, G., Bijalwan, P., Gupta, N., & Gupta, A. (2024). Unarticulated challenges encountered by
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Rajan, K. (2022). The role of remittances in economic mobility: Evidence from migrant
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Roy, S. N., Manish, & Naik, M. (2015). Migrants in construction work: Evaluating their welfare
framework. Centre for Policy Research.
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governance. Strategic Policy Research Foundation.

Sharma, A., & Das, M. (2021). Urban informal economy and migrant labour in Indian cities: A
case study of construction workers in Delhi. Economic and Political Weekly, 56(35), 57-65.

Sharma, R., & Desai, K. (2021). Housing inequality among migrant construction workers:
Insights from Delhi-NCR. International Journal of Housing Policy, 15(4), 312-330.
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f

Srivastava, R., & Sutradhar, R. (2016). Labour migration to the construction sector in India and
its impact on rural poverty. Indian Journal of Human Development, 10(1), 27-48.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0973703016648028