ACTUATOR

An actuator is a component of a machine that produces force, torque,

or displacement, when an electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic input is
supplied to it in a system (called an actuating system). The effect is
usually produced in a controlled way.[1] An actuator translates such an
input signal into the required form of mechanical energy. It is a type
of transducer.[2] In simple terms, it is a "mover".
An actuator requires a control device (which provides control signal)
and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low in energy
and may be voltage, electric current, pneumatic, or hydraulic
fluid pressure, or even human power[clarification needed].[3] In the electric,
hydraulic, and pneumatic sense, it is a form of automation or
automatic control.
The displacement achieved is commonly linear or rotational, as
exemplified by linear motors and rotary motors, respectively. Rotary
motion is more natural for small machines making large
displacements. By means of a leadscrew, rotary motion can be
adapted to function as a linear actuator (which produces a linear
motion, but is not a linear motor).
Another broad classification of actuators separates them into two
types: incremental-drive actuators and continuous-drive
actuators. Stepper motors are one type of incremental-drive actuators.
Examples of continuous-drive actuators include DC torque
motors, induction motors, hydraulic and pneumatic motors, and
piston-cylinder drives (rams).[4]
Types of actuators
Mechanical

An actuator can be just a mechanism that is directly driven by the

motions or forces of other parts of the system. An example is
the camshafts that drive the intake and exhaust valves in internal
combustion engines, driven by the engine itself. Another example is
the mechanism that strikes the hours in a traditional grandfather
clock or cuckoo clock.
Hydraulic
A hydraulic actuator typically uses the pressure of a liquid (usually
oil) to cause a piston to slide inside a hollow cylindrical tube linear,
rotatory or oscillatory motion. In a single acting actuator the fluid
pressure is applied to just one side of the piston, so that it applies
useful force in only one direction. The opposite motion may be
affected by a spring, by gravity, or by other forces present in the
system. In a double acting actuator, the return stroke is driven by fluid
pressure applied to the opposite side of the piston.[5]
Since liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator
can exert a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited
acceleration. They respond quickly to input changes, have little
inertia, can operate continuously over a relatively large working
range, and can hold their position without any significant energy
input.
A hydraulic actuator can be used to displace the rack of a rack and
pinion mechanism, causing the pinion to turn. This arrangement is
used, for example, to operate valves in pipelines and other industrial
fluid transport installations.[6]
Pneumatic

Pneumatic actuator operating a valve through a rack-and-pinion

mechanism.[7]
A pneumatic actuator is similar to a hydraulic one but uses a gas
(usually air) instead of a liquid.[8][9] Compared to hydraulic actuators,
pneumatic ones are less complicated because they do not need pipes
for the return and recycling of the working fluid. On the other hand,
they still need external infrastructure such as compressors, reservoirs,
filters, and air treatment subsystems, which often makes them less
convenient that electrical and electromechanical actuators.
In the first steam engines and in all steam locomotives, steam pressure
is used to drive pneumatic actuators to produce a reciprocating
motion, which is converted to rotary motion by some sort
of crankshaft mechanism.
Electric

Electric valve actuator controlling a ½ needle valve.

Since 1960, several actuator technologies have been developed.
Electric actuators can be classified in the following groups:
Electromechanical
An electromechanical actuator (EMA) uses mechanical means to
convert the rotational force of an ordinary (rotary) electric motor into
a linear movement. The mechanism may be a toothed belt or
a screw (either a ball or a lead screw or planetary roller screw).
The main advantages of electromechanical actuators are their
relatively good level of accuracy with respect to pneumatics, their
possible long lifecycle and the little maintenance effort required
(might require grease). It is possible to reach relatively high force, on
the order of 100 kN.
The main limitation of these actuators are the reachable speed, the
important dimensions and weight they require. The main application
of such actuators is mainly seen in health care devices and factory
automation.
Electrohydraulic
Another approach is an electrohydraulic actuator, where the electric
motor remains the prime mover but provides torque to operate
a hydraulic accumulator that is then used to transmit actuation force in
much the same way that diesel engine/hydraulics are typically used in
heavy equipment.
Electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn
valves, or electric-powered construction and excavation equipment.
When used to control the flow of fluid through a valve, a brake is
typically installed above the motor to prevent the fluid pressure from
forcing open the valve. If no brake is installed, the actuator gets
activated to reclose the valve, which is slowly forced open again. This
sets up an oscillation (open, close, open ...) and the motor and actuator
will eventually become damaged.[10]
Rotary
Electric rotary actuators use a rotary motor to turn the target part over
a certain angle.[11] Rotary actuators can have up to a rotation of 360
degrees. This allows it to differ from a linear motor as the linear is
bound to a set distance compared to the rotary motor. Rotary motors
have the ability to be set at any given degree in a field making the
device easier to set up still with durability and a set torque.
Rotary motors can be powered by 3 different techniques such as
Electric, Fluid, or Manual.[citation needed] However, Fluid powered rotary
actuators have 5 sub-sections of actuators such as Scotch Yoke, Vane,
Rack-and-Pinion, Helical, and Electrohydraulic. All forms have their
own specific design and use allowing the ability to choose multiple
angles of degree.
Applications for the rotary actuators are just about endless but, will
more than likely be found dealing with mostly hydraulic pressured
devices and industries. Rotary actuators are even used in the robotics
field when seeing robotic arms in industry lines. Anything you see
that deals with motion control systems to perform a task in technology
is a good chance to be a rotary actuator.[citation needed]
Linear
A linear electric actuator uses a linear motor, which can be thought as
a rotary electric motor which has been cut and unrolled. Thus, instead
of producing a rotational movement, it produces a linear force along
their length. Because it generally has lower friction losses than the
alternatives, a linear electric actuator can last over a hundred million
cycles.
Linear motors are divided in 3 basic categories: flat linear motor
(classic), U-Channel linear motors and Tubular linear motors.
Linear motor technology is the best solution in the context of a low
load (up to 30Kgs) because it provides the highest level of speed,
control and accuracy.
In fact, it represents the most desired and versatile technology. Due to
the limitations of pneumatics, the current electric actuator technology
is a viable solution for specific industry applications and it has been
successfully introduced in market segments such as the watchmaking,
semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries (as high as 60% of the
applications. The growing interest for this technology, can be
explained by the following characteristics:

 High precision (equal or less than 0,1 mm);

 High cycling rate (greater than 100 cycles/min);
 Possible usage in clean and highly-regulated environments (no
leakages of air, humidity or lubricants allowed);
 Need for programmable motion in the situation of complex
operations
The main disadvantages of linear motors are:

 They are expensive respect to pneumatics and other electric

technologies.
 They are not easy to integrate in standard machineries due to their
important size and high weight.
 They have a low force density respect to pneumatic and
electromechanical actuators.
Thermal
An actuator may be driven by heat through the expansion that most
solid material exhibit when the temperature increases. This principle
is commonly used, for example, to operate
electric switches in thermostats. Typically, a (non-electronic)
thermostat contains a strip with two layers of different metals, that
will bend when heated.
Thermal actuators may also exploit the properties of shape-memory
alloys.[12]
Magnetic
Some actuators are driven by externally applied magnetic fields. They
typically contain parts made of ferromagnetic materials that are
strongly attracted to each other when they are magnetized by the
external field. An example are the reed switches that may be used as
door opening sensors in a building security system.
Alternatively, magnetic actuators can use magnetic shape-memory
alloys.
Thermal actuators
Soft actuators
A soft actuator is made of a flexible material that changes its shape in
response to stimuli including mechanical, thermal, magnetic, and
electrical. Soft actuators mainly deal with the robotics of humans
rather than industry which is what most of the actuators are used for.
For most actuators they are mechanically durable yet do not have an
ability to adapt compared to soft actuators. The soft actuators apply to
mainly safety and healthcare for humans which is why they are able
to adapt to environments by disassembling their parts. [13] This is why
the driven energy behind soft actuators deal with flexible materials
like certain polymers and liquids that are harmless
The majority of the existing soft actuators are fabricated using
multistep low yield processes such as micro-moulding, [14] solid
freeform fabrication,[15] and mask lithography.[16] However, these
methods require manual fabrication of devices, post
processing/assembly, and lengthy iterations until maturity in the
fabrication is achieved. To avoid the tedious and time-consuming
aspects of the current fabrication processes, researchers are exploring
an appropriate manufacturing approach for effective fabrication of
soft actuators. Therefore, special soft systems that can be fabricated in
a single step by rapid prototyping methods, such as 3D printing, are
utilized to narrow the gap between the design and implementation of
soft actuators, making the process faster, less expensive, and simpler.
They also enable incorporation of all actuator components into a
single structure eliminating the need to use external joints, adhesives,
and fasteners.
Shape memory polymer (SMP) actuators are the most similar to our
muscles, providing a response to a range of stimuli such as light,
electrical, magnetic, heat, pH, and moisture changes. They have some
deficiencies including fatigue and high response time that have been
improved through the introduction of smart materials and
combination of different materials by means of advanced fabrication
technology. The advent of 3D printers has made a new pathway for
fabricating low-cost and fast response SMP actuators. The process of
receiving external stimuli like heat, moisture, electrical input, light or
magnetic field by SMP is referred to as shape memory effect (SME).
SMP exhibits some rewarding features such a low density, high strain
recovery, biocompatibility, and biodegradability.
Photopolymers or light activated polymers (LAP) are another type of
SMP that are activated by light stimuli. The LAP actuators can be
controlled remotely with instant response and, without any physical
contact, only with the variation of light frequency or intensity.
A need for soft, lightweight and biocompatible soft actuators in soft
robotics has influenced researchers for devising pneumatic soft
actuators because of their intrinsic compliance nature and ability to
produce muscle tension.
Polymers such as dielectric elastomers (DE), ionic polymer–metal
composites (IPMC), ionic electroactive
polymers, polyelectrolyte gels, and gel-metal composites are common
materials to form 3D layered structures that can be tailored to work as
soft actuators. EAP actuators are categorized as 3D printed soft
actuators that respond to electrical excitation as deformation in their
shape.
Examples and applications
In engineering, actuators are frequently used as mechanisms to
introduce motion, or to clamp an object so as to prevent motion.[17] In
electronic engineering, actuators are a subdivision of transducers.
They are devices which transform an input signal (mainly an electrical
signal) into some form of motion.
Examples of actuators

 Comb drive
 Digital micromirror device
 Electric motor
 Electroactive polymer
 Hydraulic cylinder
 Piezoelectric actuator
 Plasma actuator
 Pneumatic actuator
 Screw jack
 Servomechanism
 Solenoid
 Stepper motor
 Shape-memory alloy
 Thermal bimorph
 Hydraulic actuators
 Trim actuator, in aircraft design
Circular to linear conversion
Motors are mostly used when circular motions are needed, but can
also be used for linear applications by transforming circular to linear
motion with a lead screw or similar mechanism. On the other hand,
some actuators are intrinsically linear, such as piezoelectric actuators.
Conversion between circular and linear motion is commonly made via
a few simple types of mechanism including:

 Screw: Screw jack, ball screw and roller screw actuators all
operate on the principle of the simple machine known as the screw.
By rotating the actuator's nut, the screw shaft moves in a line. By
moving the screw shaft, the nut rotates.
 Wheel and axle: Hoist, winch, rack and pinion, chain drive, belt
drive, rigid chain and rigid belt actuators operate on the principle
of the wheel and axle. By rotating a wheel/axle (e.g. drum, gear,
pulley or shaft) a linear member (e.g. cable, rack, chain or belt)
moves. By moving the linear member, the wheel/axle rotates.[18]
Virtual instrumentation
In virtual instrumentation, actuators and sensors are the hardware
complements of virtual instruments.
Performance metrics
Performance metrics for actuators include speed, acceleration, and
force (alternatively, angular speed, angular acceleration, and torque),
as well as energy efficiency and considerations such as mass, volume,
operating conditions, and durability, among others.
Force
When considering force in actuators for applications, two main
metrics should be considered. These two are static and dynamic loads.
Static load is the force capability of the actuator while not in motion.
Conversely, the dynamic load of the actuator is the force capability
while in motion.
Speed
Speed should be considered primarily at a no-load pace, since the
speed will invariably decrease as the load amount increases. The rate
the speed will decrease will directly correlate with the amount of
force and the initial speed.
Operating conditions
Actuators are commonly rated using the standard IP Code rating
system. Those that are rated for dangerous environments will have a
higher IP rating than those for personal or common industrial use.
Durability
This will be determined by each individual manufacturer, depending
on usage and quality.