Victorian and Modern Period

Unit 1: Victorian Novel: George Eliot’s Silas Marner (1861)

Contents:
0. Objectives:
1. Introduction:
1.1.Victorian Period/Literature (1832-1901)
2. Victorian Novel:
2.1.Types of Victorian Novels
2.2.Characteristics of Victorian Novel
2.3.Major Novelists of the period
3. George Eliot (1819-1880): Life and Work
3.1. Her literary contribution to the Victorian literature
3.2.George Eliot’s fictional frameworks
4. George Eliot’s Silas Marner (1861)
4.1.Historical backdrop to the novel
4.2. A summary of the novel
4.3.Critical analysis of the novel
4.4.Characters of the novel
4.5.Plot of the novel
4.6.Silas Marner is a novel
4.7.The setting of the story
4.8.Themes of the novel
4.9.Narration/Narratives of the novel
4.10. Point of view of the novel
4.11. Motif of the novel
4.12. Symbols of the novel
5. Summary
6. Exercise
7. References for further reading

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 Victorian Novel: George Eliot’s Silas Marner (1861)

0. Objectives:
i. Students will be able to understand the relevance of the constituent parts of the unit i. e.,
a) The historical background or trend of 19th-century British/Victorian literature, with
specific reference to the Victorian novel.
b) The account of the life and the works of George Eliot.
c) The context of the Victorian novel concerning Silas Marner.
ii. Students will be able to interpret and critically appreciate the novel in the context of the
Victorian novel.
iii. Students will judge the text and justify the reading.

1. Introduction:

In many respects, Victorian literature is a remarkable period in English literature. The

period witnessed the emergence of realism and naturalism in literature and moral conduct in
society, which is branded as Victorian morality. The literary period is known as so because of
Queen Victoria of Great Britain, who ruled the nation from 1832 to 1901.
Many considered the Victorian period to be the golden age of English literature,
specifically in novels, producing a wealth of enduring works that continue to captivate readers
today. The literature of this era offers a rich and complex exploration of the human condition,
reflecting the hopes, fears, and aspirations of a rapidly changing society.
So far, students have studied British literature in the historical context from the
Elizabethan period to the Romanticism. In this section, the students will study the Victorian time,
its literature, and moral and ethical principles reflecting from the literature of the time. Let’s see
the brief account of the Victorian literature-

1.1.Victorian Period/Literature (1832-1901):

The Victorian era, spanning from 1832 to 1901, was a time of immense social, political,
and economic change in England. This period witnessed the rise of industrialization,
urbanization, and the British Empire's global dominance. These transformations deeply
influenced the literature of the time, reflecting the anxieties, hopes, and contradictions of the era.
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 Historically, the period is divided into three phases early, middle and late Victorian England.
The early Victorian period from the 1930s to the 1950s, when Britain was deeply transformed
from rural to urban space due to the emergence of the Industrial Revolution. In the middle phase
of the time, from 1850 to 1873, which saw the highest point of British imperial expansion, and
economic and political prosperity. The final phase, the late Victorian period from 1873 to the
turn of the century, 1873 is a year of economic slowdown which marked the end of British
economic supremacy. Thus, Victorian literature can be seen according to the above phases and
its huge impact on the literary tradition of the time. However, Toorens asserts that“it is not useful
to divide the History of English literature intoclear-cut chronological periods because it might
lead to false parallelism between historical and literary events. Instead one can focus on the
development of history and literature in different periods based on the most outstanding literary
figures”.

However, the major reflecting characteristics of Victorian Literature are realism and
naturalism. Victorian literature emphasized realism, aiming to portray life as it was, rather than
as an idealized version. The authors sought to capture the details of everyday life and the
complexities of human nature. It was a major aspect of the Victorian literature. Social
commentary is another major feature of the novel in Victorian literature. Victorian authors often
used their works to address social issues such as poverty, inequality, and injustice. They explored
the impact of industrialization on society, the plight of the working class, and the hypocrisy of
Victorian morality. They also examine the issues of moral dilemmas. Many Victorian novels
delve into complex moral dilemmas, often focusing on characters who struggle to reconcile their
desires with societal expectations. Victorian literature reflects on the themes of historical and
gothic issues. Historical fiction and Gothic novels were popular genres during the Victorian
period. These works often explored themes of mystery, suspense, and the supernatural. It
exhibits the new era of scientific and technological advances. It is a result of scientific
discoveries and innovation. The rapid pace of scientific and technological progress during the
Victorian era influenced the literature of the time. Writers often incorporated scientific concepts
and inventions into their works of speculative fiction such as science fiction, Fantasy, Utopian
and Dystopian Fiction, Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, etc.

2. Victorian Novel:

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 Victorian novels became a leading genre of the time. It is also known as the golden
period of the novel in English literature. Before the Victorian Era, during the Romantic time, the
form of poetry was the dominant genre of literature. It was a result of changes in class structure
which saw the rise of the novel as a dominant form of the Victorian time. The fame of the novel
exploded as the middle class expanded and more people became literate. Novels also became
more accessible as a result of the Industrial Revolution and the expansion of newspapers and the
periodical press.

The works of Charles Dickens were frequently serialized in newspapers or journals, his
first being Pickwick Papers in 1836. As a result of this serialization and a focus on character
rather than plot, Dickens’ works are sometimes criticized for having weak plots. The themes of
realistic Victorian novels also helped increase their popularity. Dickens portrays the lives of
working-class people, creating characters that the newly rising middle-class audience could
relate to. The realistic Victorian novel focused on characters and themes such as the plight of the
poor and the social mobility that was being afforded to a new middle class and the rising middle
class was eager to consume these novels.

The novelists, at the turn of the century, continued to explore the problems in British
social life but explored other key themes as well. The greatest departure from the early Victorian
era came from these authors’ exploration of themes such as sexuality and a focus on how science
and technology would revolutionize the world in the 20thcentury.

2.1.Sub-genre of Victorian Novel:

The Victorian era saw a flourishing of literary genres, with the novel emerging as the
dominant form of expression. Victorian novelists explored a wide range of themes and styles,
giving rise to several distinct types of novels. The novel also categories based on the structural
and thematic issues like poetry. There are numerous subgenres of fiction based on structure as
well as subject matter. The Victorian novel is no doubt an era of the English novel, specifically
realistic, trickily plotted, crowded with characters and long. It was a primary means of analyzing
and offering solutions to social and political problems. The popularity of Victorian novels was
only challenged by the revival of drama at the end of the century.

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 The dominant approaches of the stories were realistic and naturalistic. Thematically, the
Victorian novel depicts the rural and urban social, economic and political space of Great Britain
incorporating the effects of the industrial revolution on the masses. It also reflects on the
economic, political, and social issues of England. Novelists employed various techniques to
reflect on these national matters, which led towards the emergence of various subgenres of the
novel, a few were newly introduced such as speculative fiction, children’s fiction, detective
fiction, industrial novel, crime fiction, etc. The following is a brief account of the various types
of the Victorian novel. The categorization of the fiction is more or less based on the narrative
perspectives as well as the structural techniques of the novel.

Social Problem Novel/ Industrial Novel: The Victorian Industrial Novel, also known as
the "social-problem novel" or "the Condition of England novel," is a subgenre of the Victorian
novel that deals with the problems of class prejudice, industrialization, race, and gender. These
novels emerged in response to the rapid industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century
England, which led to significant social and economic changes.These novels aim to depict the
harsh realities of life for the working class during the Industrial Revolution, including poverty,
disease, and exploitation. Such a novel often serves as a platform for social criticism,
highlighting the negative consequences of industrialization and calling for social reform. It also
deals with social commentary that often uses realism to depict the social and economic problems
of the Victorian era. Novelists employed satire, humour, and pathos to expose the injustices and
inequalities of society.

These novels explore moral and ethical dilemmas, such as the responsibility of the
wealthy to help the poor and the importance of individual conscience. Another feature of these
novels isthey focus on class and inequality in England. They often contrast the lives of the
wealthy and the poor, highlighting the stark inequalities between the two classes. Further, they
explore the human condition as they delve into the psychological and emotional impact of
industrialization on individuals, exploring themes of alienation, despair, and hope.

Charles Dickens’ Hard Times(1854),which offers a scathing critique of the utilitarian

philosophy and its dehumanizing effects on society. His other novel, Oliver Twist(1838), exposes
the harsh realities of life in workhouses and the criminal underworld. Elizabeth Gaskell’s North
and South(1854-55)explores the conflict between the industrial North and the rural South,

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highlighting the social and economic disparities between the two regions. Charlotte Brontë’s
Shirley(1849) offers a complex exploration of gender roles, class, and industrialization in the
context of the Luddite riots. Benjamin Disraeli’sSybil, or The Two Nations(1845) depicts the
stark contrast between the wealthy and the poor in England, highlighting the need for social
reform.

The Victorian industrial novel played a significant role in shaping public opinion and
influencing social policy during the 19th century. By exposing the harsh realities of
industrialization and calling for social justice, these novels helped to bring about important social
reforms and improve the lives of the working class.

Sentimental Novel: This type of novel always focuses on emotional themes, such as
love, loss, and sacrifice. These novels featured melodramatic plots and idealized characters. The
Victorian sentimental novel was a popular genre that emphasized strong emotions, involving
love, loss, and sacrifice. These novels aimed to evoke strong emotional responses from readers,
through melodramatic plots and idealized characters.

The major features of the Victorian sentimental novel areas follows. It deals with
emotional intensity.They feature characters who experience intense emotions, such as love, grief,
and joy. It also delves into moralizing tendencies. These novels convey moral messages,
emphasizing the importance of virtue, compassion, and self-sacrifice. Their characters seem
idealized in the story. Characters in sentimental novels are idealized, possessing qualities such as
purity, innocence, and unwavering moral compass. Sentimental novels are plot-driven narratives.
The plots of sentimental novels are often driven by dramatic events and coincidences, which
contribute to the emotional intensity of the story. As usual, they end with a happy tone and note
resultingin happy endings.Typically, they have happy endings, often involving romantic love and
the triumph of good over evil.

Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre (1847) is a classic example of a sentimental novel, featuring
a strong, independent heroine who overcomes adversity to find love and happiness. Emily
Brontë’s Wuthering Heights(1847) is often categorized as a Gothic novel, it also contains
elements of sentimentalism, particularly in its exploration of passionate love and loss. Susan
Ferrier’s novels, such as Marriage and Inheritance(1824), explore themes of love, marriage, and
social class, often with a focus on the emotional experiences of her characters. These are the
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notable examples of Victorian sentimental novels. While the sentimental novel has fallen out of
favour in contemporary literature, it remains an important part of literary history. Its emphasis on
emotion and morality continues to influence popular fiction, particularly in genres such as
romance and historical fiction.

Detective Fiction: The Victorian era saw the emergence of detective fiction, with authors
like Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins creating early examples of the genre. Detective fiction
often involves solving mysteries through careful observation and deduction. Victorian detective
fiction is the rational detective hero. A brilliant detective who uses logic, observation, and
deduction to solve crimes. They employ the unreliable narrator in the stories. A narrator whose
perspective is limited or biased, leading to ambiguity and suspense. They usually delve into the
locked-room mystery. A crime that seems impossible to solve due to the circumstances
surrounding it. To point out the mystery, detective fiction deals with the red herring. A false clue
or suspect that misleads the reader and the detective. They often end with a twist. A surprising
revelation that changes the reader's understanding of the story.

The Victorian era was a pivotal period for the development of detective fiction. Several
key authors and their works laid the foundation for the genre. Although Edgar Allan Poe is not
strictly Victorian, Poe's detective stories, featuring the brilliant detective C. AugusteDupin, were
influential in shaping the genre. His stories introduced elements like the rational detective, the
unreliable narrator, and the locked-room mystery. Dickens's novels often included complex
mysteries and detective-like figures. For instance, Inspector Bucket in Bleak House is a
memorable example of a detective character. Wilkie Collins is considered one of the fathers of
detective fiction. His novels, such as The Woman in White and The Moonstone, introduced
elements like suspense, intricate plots, and unreliable narrators. Arthur Conan Doyle's creation,
Sherlock Holmes, is perhaps the most iconic detective figure in literature. His stories,
characterized by Holmes's razor-sharp intellect and Watson's reliable narration, popularized the
detective genre and set the standard for many subsequent detective stories.

Victorian detective fiction laid the foundation for the modern detective story. Its
emphasis on logic, observation, and intricate plots continues to influence the genre today.

Speculative fiction: The Victorian era was a fertile ground for speculative fiction, a
genre that explores imaginative concepts like time travel, alternate realities, and futuristic
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technology. Here are some major aspects of Victorian speculative fiction. They are based on
thescientific exploration and discovery. The rapid advancement of science and technology during
the Victorian era inspired many authors to imagine future possibilities. They deal with the issues
of social and political and serve as a vehicle for social and political commentary, exploring
issues like class, colonialism, and the impact of industrialization. Novelists depict the unknown
and the supernatural in the stories. The Victorian era was fascinated with the supernatural, the
occult, and the unknown. This interest led to the development of Gothic fiction and other forms
of speculative fiction that explored the boundaries between reality and the supernatural. Further,
Many Victorian speculative fiction works warned of the potential dangers of unchecked
technological advancement and scientific exploration.

H.G. Wells is credited as a pioneer of science fiction. He explored themes of time travel,
alien invasion, and social commentary in works like The Time Machine, The War of the Worlds,
and The Invisible Man. Jules Verne is a master of adventure fiction, His works often involved
scientific exploration and technological innovation. His classic novels include Twenty Thousand
Leagues Under the Sea and Around the World in Eighty Days. Another pioneer of speculative
fiction is Mary Shelley, whose iconic novel,Frankenstein, was published earlier, it continued to
influence Victorian speculative fiction. Frankensteinexplores the ethical implications of
scientific experimentation and the consequences of playing God. Robert Louis Stevenson's
works often blended elements of horror, fantasy, and adventure. His classic novel The Strange
Case of Dr. Jekyll andMr. Hyde delves into the duality of human nature and the potential for evil
within us all.

Victorian speculative fiction laid the foundation for many of the genre conventions that
we still recognize today such as science fiction, Fantasy, Utopian and Dystopian Fiction,
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, etc.It continues to inspire and influence
contemporary writers, and its enduring themes and ideas remain relevant in our own time.

Children’s fiction: The Victorian time was a significant period for children's literature,
with many authors producing works that continue to be popular today. Many Victorian children's
books were designed to teach moral lessons, often with a strong religious undertone. These
stories emphasized values such as hard work, honesty, and obedience. They use the elements of
fantasy and imagination in the stories. Writers like Lewis Carroll and George MacDonald

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explored fantastical worlds and magical creatures, capturing the imaginations of young readers.
Robert Louis Stevenson and Rudyard Kipling often combined elements of adventure, history,
and realism, appealing to young readers' sense of wonder and excitement. Some Victorian
children's fiction addressed social issues like poverty, class inequality, and the impact of
industrialization.

Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-

Glass,George MacDonald’sThe Princess and the Goblin and Phantastes: A Faerie
Romance,Robert Louis Stevenson’sTreasure Island and Kidnapped Rudyard Kipling’sThe
Jungle Book and Kim. Victorian children's literature continues to influence contemporary
writing, with themes and styles that resonate with readers of all ages. These classic works have
stood the test of time, captivating readers with their imaginative storytelling, moral lessons, and
timeless appeal.

Bildungsroman/ Coming-of-age novel: A Bildungsroman is a coming-of-age novel that

follows the protagonist's journey of self-discovery and moral development as a maturity from
childhood to adulthood. The Victorian period, with its rigid social norms and rapid societal
changes, provided a rich backdrop for coming-of-age stories. These novels explored the
challenges and triumphs of young protagonists navigating a complex world. Characters of these
novels always grapple with their social standing and the expectations associated with their class.
Further, the protagonists face moral dilemmas and learn important lessons about right and
wrong. Another feature of Victorian coming-of-age novels is the rapid industrialization of the era
that influenced many such stories, highlighting the social and economic changes of the time. The
female protagonist’srole often challenged societal norms and fought for greater independence
and equality.

Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre explores social class, love, independence, and the role of
women. Jane Eyre, an orphaned girl, grows up in a harsh environment and eventually finds love
and independence. Charles Dickens’sGreat Expectationsdepictssocial class, ambition, and the
corrupting influence of wealth. The protagonist, Pip, a young orphan, is unexpectedly given a
large inheritance and must navigate the complexities of wealth and social status.George
Eliot’sThe Mill on the Flossdeals with family, love, and the limitations of societal expectations.

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The novel follows the lives of two siblings, Maggie and Tom Tulliver, as they grapple with their
family's decline and their own aspirations.

These novels, and many others from the Victorian era, continue to captivate readers with
their timeless themes and intricate character studies. They offer a glimpse into a bygone era and
provide valuable insights into the human condition.

Gothic Novel: Victorian Gothic novels explored themes of mystery, suspense, and the
supernatural drawing inspiration from earlier Gothic literature. Novelists like Mary Shelley and
Emily Brontë created haunting and atmospheric tales that captured the imagination of readers. A
Victorian Gothic novel is a genre of fiction that emerged during the Victorian era in England. It
blends elements of horror, romance, and the supernatural, often set in gloomy, atmospheric
settings like haunted castles, decaying mansions, or foggy moors. They use dark and atmospheric
settings. A gothic novel set in isolated, decaying locations, these novels create a sense of dread
and foreboding. The depiction of the supernatural, such as ghosts, vampires, or otherworldly
beings, plays a significant role in the plot. They also deal with psychological exploration of the
characters in the stories. The novels delve into the depths of human psychology, exploring
themes of madness, obsession, and the duality of human nature.Victorian Gothic novels serve as
social commentary, reflecting the anxieties and moral concerns of the time. They use romantic
love, loss, and longing are central themes, which intertwine with the supernatural and the
macabre.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Bram Stoker’s Dracula,Robert Louis Stevenson’s The

Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. HydeandOscar Wilde’sThe Picture of Dorian Gray are
examples of Victorian gothic novels. While the classic era of Victorian Gothic has passed, the
genre continues to influence contemporary literature and popular culture. Modern Gothic novels
often draw inspiration from classic works while incorporating new themes and styles. By
combining historical context, psychological depth, and supernatural elements, Victorian Gothic
novels offer a captivating and enduring genre that continues to fascinate readers today.

Historical Novel: Historical novels were set in past eras and often combined historical
accuracy with fictional elements. Writers like Walter Scott and Anthony Trollope used historical
settings to explore themes of love, loyalty, and social change. Historical fiction is a genre of
literature that blends historical events and settings with fictional characters and storylines. It
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allows authors to transport readers to different time periods, immersing them in the cultures,
customs, and challenges of the past.

The major features of Victorian historical fiction are as follows: Novelists strive to
accurately depict historical events, social norms, and cultural nuances of the time period. They
often conduct extensive research to ensure authenticity. The stories typically revolve around
fictional characters who interact with real historical figures or events. These characters bring the
historical setting to life and offer a personal perspective on the events.Historical fiction often
delves into universal themes such as love, loss, courage, and the human condition, providing a
timeless perspective on these issues. They may use historical settings to comment on
contemporary social issues, drawing parallels between the past and present.

There are numerous subgenres of historical fiction such as Historical Romance that
blends historical settings with romantic storylines. Historical Mystery combines elements of
mystery and detective fiction with a historical backdrop. Historical Fantasy incorporates
elements of fantasy, such as magic or mythical creatures, into a historical setting. Historical
Adventure focuses on adventure and exploration, often involving historical figures like pirates or
explorers. Alternate History is another subtype of historical fiction which explores what might
have happened if historical events had taken a different course. Historical fiction offers readers a
unique opportunity to connect with the past, learn about different cultures, and experience the
world through the eyes of fictional characters. It's a genre that continues to captivate readers of
all ages.

These are just a few of the many types of Victorian novels that emerged during this
prolific literary period. Each type offered unique insights into the social, cultural, and
psychological complexities of the Victorian period.

2.2.Characteristics of Victorian Novel:

The Victorian era saw the rise of two significant literary movements based on perception
or approach: Realism and Naturalism. Sometimes they are also known as literary techniques to
narrate the stories. These movements sought to depict the world more objectively and truthfully,
often focusing on the everyday lives of ordinary people and the challenges they faced.

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 Realism, in the literature, is the accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or
of contemporary life. Realism rejects imaginative idealization in favour of close observation of
outward appearances of reality.Victorian realist novels explored social issues, such as poverty,
inequality, and the impact of industrialization. Realism aimed to portray life as it truly was,
focusing on the everyday experiences of ordinary people.

Realist novels always depicted the lives of ordinary people, rather than idealized heroes
or heroines. They paid close attention to details of reality as well as everyday life, including the
setting, characters, and dialogue. Many realist novels addressed social issues, such as poverty,
inequality, and injustice, which become a social commentary of day to day of Victorian
times.They addressed social problems like poverty, class inequality, and urban decay.Realists
aimed to present their material in an objective and unbiased manner, avoiding sentimentality or
melodrama. Realist characters were multifaceted and often morally ambiguous. The goal was to
create a sense of reality and authenticity. The narrative voice was often objective, allowing
readers to form their own interpretations. Charles Dickens is known for his vivid depictions of
urban poverty and social injustice. Further, George Eliot explored the psychological and social
complexities of her characters. Anthony Trollope focused on the intricacies of middle-class life
and social norms.

Naturalism, another movement of the time,which can be defined as naturalists believed

that human behaviour was determined by heredity, environment, and other external forces. It, an
extension of realism, took a more deterministic approach. They presented a pessimistic view of
life, emphasizing the harsh realities of existence. which focused on the lives of the working class
and other marginalized characters and explored the darker side of human nature.Characters are
often portrayed as victims of their circumstances, with little control over their
destinies.Naturalistic novels often explore the lives of the working class and the urban poor.The
physical and biological aspects of human existence are often highlighted. Pessimistic View of
Life: Naturalistic novels often present a bleak and pessimistic view of the world. Naturalism was
influenced by scientific ideas, such as Darwin's theory of evolution.Thomas Hardy’s novels
explored the impact of fate and circumstance on his characters. Further, Emile Zola, a French
naturalist writer, who is known as a pioneer of the naturalistic approach of fiction, influenced
English novelists.

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 Both realism and naturalism played significant roles in shaping Victorian literature. By
exploring the complexities of human nature and the realities of the time, these novels continue to
resonate with readers today. Both approaches focused on the lives of ordinary people, sought to
present their material in an objective and unbiased manner and addressed social issues. While
realism emphasized free will, naturalism emphasized the role of external forces in shaping
human behaviour. The Victorian era was a period of significant social and industrial change,
which was reflected in the literature of the time.

Psychological realism is a literary technique that focuses on the internal thoughts,

feelings, and motivations of characters, inviting readers to reflect on their own experiences and
emotions.It delves deep into the human psyche, exploring the complexities of emotions, desires,
and subconscious impulses. This approach aims to provide a realistic and nuanced portrayal of
characters, often revealing their hidden depths and inner conflicts. It continues to be a powerful
tool for writers to explore the human condition. It seeks to understand the psychological
underpinnings of human behaviour and often employs techniques like stream-of-consciousness
narration and introspection.

The major features of psychological realism are subjective perspective, detailed character
analysis, focus on moral and ethical dilemmas of the character, and such novels often end with
ambiguity. The narrative of psychological realism often shifts between the perspectives of
different characters, allowing readers to access their innermost thoughts and feelings. Stream-of-
Consciousness, this technique mimics the flow of thoughts in the human mind, capturing the
rapid and often illogical nature of internal dialogue.Psychological realists pay close attention to
character development, exploring their backstories, motivations, and psychological growth.
These novels delve into a wide range of emotions, from love and joy to anger and despair,
offering a nuanced understanding of the human experience. The primary concern is the internal
lives of characters, rather than external events or plot. Novelists delve into the subconscious
mind, exploring dreams, desires, and hidden motivations. Their characters are often multifaceted
and morally ambiguous, with conflicting desires and beliefs. The endings of psychological realist
novels are often open-ended, leaving room for interpretation or end with ambiguity.

Examples of psychological realism in Victorian novels are as follows. George Eliot's

novels, such as Middlemarch and Adam Bede, are renowned for their deep psychological

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exploration of characters. She delves into their inner lives, examining their motivations, desires,
and the impact of social pressures on their choices. Another pioneer of psychological realism is
Henry James whose novels, like The Portrait of a Lady and The Turn of the Screw, are
masterclasses in psychological realism. He often employs a limited point of view to create a
sense of ambiguity and uncertainty, inviting readers to interpret the characters' motivations and
the events of the story. Further, Fyodor Dostoevsky is treated as psychological realists, his
popular novels areCrime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov.

Psychological realism offers a unique perspective on human nature, allowing readers to

empathize with characters and gain a deeper understanding of their own emotions and
motivations. It is a genre that continues to evolve and inspire writers and readers alike.

Thus Victorian novels employtechniques like realism, naturalism, and psychological

realism to explore the Victorian people’s lives.

2.3.Major Contributors/Novelists of the period:

The Victorian era was a prolific period for English literature, producing a wealth of
talented novelists. Here are some of the most prominent figures and their brief account of the
works.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870): A leading realist author, Dickens' novels repeatedly

explored social issues and depicted the lives of the working class. He is known for his vivid
characters, social commentary, and humorous storytelling. His major novels areGreat
Expectations, Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Hard Times, etc.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928): He is known for his depiction of a pessimistic view of life,
exploration of fate, and the harsh realities of rural life. His exemplary novels are Tess of the
d'Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure, and Far from the Madding Crowd. Hardy's novels, such as Tess
of the d'Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure, are considered to be naturalist works, focusing on the
harsh realities of life and the limitations of human agency.

George Eliot (1819-1880): She is known as a pioneer of the techniques of psychological

realism in literature.She portrays the psychological depth of the characters, social commentary,
and exploration of moral dilemmas. Her prolific novels Middlemarch, Adam Bede, and The Mill

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on the Floss. Eliot's novels, such as Middlemarch and Adam Bede, combined elements of realism
and naturalism.

Anthony Trollope (1815-1882): He is better known for his novels which employ
detailed observations of social life, realistic characters, and complex plots. His key works are
Barchester Chronicles, The Warden, and The Vicar of Wakefield.

William Makepeace Thackeray(1811-1863): He was indeed a prominent Victorian

novelist and satirist. His works offer sharp social commentary and insightful character studies,
always with a cynical and humorous tone.One of his most famous works is Vanity Fair(1847-
48), a panoramic novel that explores the lives of various characters navigating 19th-century
society. It's a satirical masterpiece that offers a critical look at social class, morality, and
ambition.

Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855): Her novels depict powerful female protagonists, and
themes of love, independence, and social injustice. Her prominent novels are Jane Eyre, Shirley,
and Villette.

Emily Brontë (1818-1848) is known for the use of gothic elements, passionate
storytelling, and exploration of the supernatural in the stories.Wuthering Heights(1847) is one of
the popular novels of Emily Brontë.

Anne Brontë (1920-1849)the youngest of the Brontë sisters, was a talented English
novelist and poet.Although her life was tragically short, she left a significant mark on the literary
world with her two novels and her poetry. Agnes Grey (1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall
(1848) are the only novels of Anne Brontë.

Wilkie Collins (1824-1889): Collins introduced the new genre of detective fiction. He
used suspenseful plots, and complex characters in his novels, which are peculiarities of his
fiction. The prominent detective fictions of Collins are The Woman in White(1859-60), and The
Moonstone: A Romance (1868).

H.G. Wells (1866-1946):It is a name synonymous with science fiction, was a prolific
English writer whose works have captivated readers for generations. He explored themes of time
travel, alien invasion, and social commentary in his novels and short stories.His most famous

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works includeThe Time Machine (1895), The War of the Worlds (1898), The Invisible Man
(1897), and The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896). He was a social critic and futurist, addressing
issues like social inequality and the potential dangers of technology. His writing remains relevant
today, inspiring countless authors and filmmakers.

Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894), a prominent figure of the Victorian era, is

renowned for his captivating novels that continue to enthral readers. His works often delve into
themes of adventure, morality, and the duality of human nature. Here are some of his most
celebrated Victorian novels- Treasure Island (1883), The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde (1886), and The Master of Ballantrae (1889)

Mary Shelley (1797-1851) started a new notion called the Frankenstein phenomenon.
Her use of gothic elements, exploration of scientific themes, and creation of iconic characters are
widely recognized in Victorian times. Her major novel is Frankenstein(1818).Though, her works
are considered to be romantic, one can easily find her works everlasting influence on Victorian
literature.

This is just a small selection of a few famous novelists who contributed to the literary
landscape of the Victorian era. Each author brought their unique perspective and style to their
work, creating a rich and diverse tapestry of literature.

3. George Eliot (1819-1880): Life and Works

George Eliot, the pen name of Mary Ann Evans, was a prominent English novelist and
essayist of the Victorian era. Her works, renowned for their psychological depth, social
commentary, and moral exploration, have secured her a place among the literary giants of the
nineteenth century. She was born in Chilvers Coton, Warwickshire, in 1819, Eliot was a
voracious reader from a young age. Her early education at home and later at a boarding school
fostered a love of literature and a deep intellectual curiosity. She was also exposed to the
religious and philosophical ideas of her time, which would significantly shape her worldview.

Her childhood was marked by a deep religious faith and a love of learning. She was
deeply influenced by the Unitarian minister, Charles Bray, and his wife, Caroline, who
introduced her to radical ideas and freethinking. This intellectual awakening led her to question
traditional religious beliefs and embrace a more secular worldview. One of the most significant
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events in Eliot's life was her relationship with George Henry Lewes, a married man. Despite
societal disapproval, they formed a deep intellectual and emotional bond. Their unconventional
relationship, though criticized, allowed Eliot the freedom to pursue her literary ambitions. Lewes
provided unwavering support and encouragement, helping her to develop her writing style and
critical thinking.

Eliot began her literary career as a translator and essayist. However, it was her novels that
would establish her reputation. She adopted the male pseudonym "George Eliot" to avoid the
prejudices and expectations associated with female writers of the time. Her decision to write
under a male pseudonym allowed her to gain greater recognition and respect for her work.

3.1.Her literary contribution to the Victorian literature:

George Eliot was a novelist, poet, journalist, translator, and one of the leading writers of
the Victorian era. The prominent works of George Eliot explore psychological realism,
commentary on social issues, focus on moral philosophy, and examine strong and complex
female characters. She was a master of psychological realism, delving deep into the minds of her
characters. She explored their motivations, desires, and inner conflicts with great insight. Her
novels often addressed social issues of her time, such as class inequality, gender roles, and the
impact of industrialization. She was influenced by philosophical ideas and frequently
incorporated them into her works, exploring themes of morality, ethics, and the consequences of
individual choices. Her works featured strong and complex female characters who challenged
societal norms and expectations. George Eliot's novels continue to be widely read and admired
for their literary merit and enduring themes. Her legacy remained in the tradition of English
literature as a brilliant writer and a perceptive observer of human nature lives on.

Some of her most notable works include: Adam Bede (1859), it is a tale of rural life and
moral dilemmas, exploring themes of guilt, redemption, and the complexities of human nature.
Next, The Mill on the Floss (1860), is a semi-autobiographical novel that follows the lives of
two siblings, Maggie and Tom Tulliver, as they navigate the challenges of love, family, and
societal expectations. Silas Marner (1861) is a heartwarming story of redemption and the
transformative power of love, focusing on a miserly weaver who is transformed by the presence
of a young child. Middlemarch (1871-1872), a masterpiece, which is a sprawling epic that
explores the lives of a diverse cast of characters in a provincial English town. The novel is
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celebrated for its psychological depth and its examination of social and political issues. Daniel
Deronda (1876), it is a novel that delves into themes of Jewish identity, social justice, and the
complexities of love.

George Eliot's contributions to English literature are immeasurable. Her novels continue
to be widely read and admired for their psychological insight, moral complexity, and social
commentary. She is considered one of the most important female writers of the Victorian era and
a pioneer of psychological realism in fiction.

3.2.George Eliot’s fiction frameworks:

George Eliot's novels employ intricate frameworks that shape the narrative and
thematically enrich the stories. Here are some of the common fictional frameworks she utilized.
Eliot's literary career took off in the mid-19th century. Her novels, more or less set in rural
England, explored themes of morality, social justice, and the human condition. She was
particularly interested in the psychological complexities of her characters, delving into their
inner lives with great depth.

George Eliot's strong connection to the English Midlands, particularly Warwickshire,

significantly influenced her fictional frameworks. Her novels often draw on the landscapes,
people, and social dynamics of this region. The region had a huge impact on George Eliot's
Fiction. The setting of many of her novels is fictionalized versions of Midlands towns and
villages. These settings provide a backdrop for exploring the lives of ordinary people and the
impact of social change. She is also well known of her novels, which are popular for novels of
characters, such as Adam Bede, Silas Marner, and Maggie Tulliver, which are often rooted in the
Midlands, reflecting the values, beliefs, and limitations of their time and place. Her novels
usually address social issues such as class inequality, poverty, and the impact of industrialization,
all of which were prevalent in the Midlands during the Victorian era. She incorporates regional
dialects and local customs into her writing, adding authenticity and depth to her characters and
settings.

By drawing on the rich tapestry of the Midlands, George Eliot created enduring
characters and compelling narratives that continue to resonate with readers today. Her novels
offer valuable insight into the social, cultural, and historical context of the region, making them a

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significant contribution to English literature.Apart from the social, cultural, and historical context
of her novels, the following are brief details of Eliot’s thematic, narrative, and technical fictional
frameworks.

Provincial setting: All of Eliot's novels are set in provincial English towns and villages.
This setting allows her to delve into the lives of ordinary people, exploring their hopes, dreams,
and struggles. Her novels Adam Bede, The Mill on the Floss,and Silas Marner have used the
midland setting of English towns.

Bildungsroman: Eliot’s novels,Adam Bede,and The Mill on the Floss, are examples of
coming-of-age novels. Which follows the protagonist's journey from youth to adulthood,
highlighting their moral and intellectual development.

The historical novel: Eliot’s Romola incorporated historical events and figures into her
novels, providing a rich and authentic backdrop for her stories. It is an example of historical
fiction of the Victorian era.

The moral and philosophical inquiry: Eliot's novels usually raise profound moral and
philosophical questions, exploring the nature of good and evil, free will, and determinism. The
Middlemarch, and Daniel Derondaare exemplary of the use of moral and philosophical enquiry
of the Victorian time.

The interconnected narrative: Eliot’s Middlemarchis a novel that employs multiple

storylines that intersect and influence one another, creating a complex and interconnected
narrative.

The use of symbolism and allegory: Eliot employs symbolism and allegory to convey
deeper meanings and themes, for example, the river in The Mill on the Floss symbolizes the
passage of time and the inevitability of change.

By skillfully employing these frameworks, George Eliot crafted complex and thought-
provoking novels that continue to resonate with readers today. Her works offer a rich tapestry of
human experience, exploring the depths of the human psyche and the complexities of social
relationships.George Eliot's novels continue to be celebrated for their literary merit and enduring

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themes. She is considered one of the greatest novelists of the Victorian era, and her influence can
still be felt in contemporary literature.

4. George Eliot’s Silas Marner (1861):

George Eliot's Silas Marner (1861) is a poignant exploration of isolation, redemption,

and the transformative power of love. The novel introducesSilas Marner, a solitary weaver who,
after being unjustly accused of theft, moves to the quaint village of Raveloe. Consumed by grief
and bitterness, he becomes obsessed with accumulating gold, finding solace in his wealth.
However, a fateful night changes his life forever. A mysterious event leads to the arrival of a
young child, Eppie, at his doorstep. Initially hesitant, Silas gradually develops a deep bond with
the child, and his heart, hardened by years of isolation, begins to soften. As Eppie grows, she
brings joy and purpose to Silas's life, transforming him from a solitary figure to a caring and
beloved member of the community. Through this heart-warming tale, Eliot delves into profound
themes like the redemptive power of love, wherein, the novel showcases how love, especially the
love for a child, can heal wounds and restore faith in humanity. Furthermore, Silas's initial
obsession with gold is contrasted with the genuine love and affection he develops for Eppie. The
novel highlights the significance of human connection and the role of community in shaping
individuals' lives.

Silas Marner is a timeless story that continues to resonate with readers of all ages. Its
exploration of the human condition, its vivid characters, and its powerful message of redemption
make it a classic of English literature.

4.1.Historical Backdrop to the novel:

George Eliot's Silas Marner was published in 1861, during the Victorian era in England.
This period was marked by significant social, economic, and political changes, which influenced
the novel's themes and setting. The Victorian era also saw a remarkable impact of the Industrial
Revolution on the society. The Industrial Revolution was in full swing, transforming England's
economy and society. This led to urbanization, increased poverty, and social inequality. During
this time transformed the rural society into urban or industrial. The rise of industrialization
contributed to the decline of rural communities. Many people left the countryside to seek work in
factories, leading to depopulation and economic hardship in rural areas. Another event that had

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huge impactful on the societal changes in England is Methodism. The Methodist movement,
which emphasized personal piety and social reform, was gaining popularity during this time. Its
influence can be seen in the novel's exploration of religious themes and the power of
redemption.Religious fervour was a prominent feature of the Victorian era, with various religious
movements and sects emerging.

Silas Marner is set in the early 19th century, during the industrial revolution. It impacts
on the rural life of England. This period was marked by significant social and economic changes
in England, including the rise of mechanized production led to rapid urbanization and a shift
from agrarian to industrial society. This era witnessed a growing middle class, increased social
mobility, and a changing class structure. As pointed out earlier, industries flourished in cities,
and many rural areas experienced economic decline, leading to poverty and migration.

By examining the social and cultural context of the 19th century, we can gain a deeper
understanding of Silas Marner and its enduring themes.

4.2. A Brief summary of the Silas Marner:

Silas Marner, a solitary weaver, is ostracized from his religious community in Lantern
Yard and exiled to the midland ofan English village called Raveloe. His life, once filled with
faith and purpose, is shattered by the unjust accusation. In Raveloe, he finds solace in his work
and a growing obsession with gold.

Meanwhile, the wealthy Cass family is plagued by internal strife. Godfrey Cass, the
eldest son, is torn between his secret marriage to the opium addict Molly Farren and his love for
Nancy Lammeter. His younger brother, Dunsey, is a manipulative and reckless individual who
exploits Godfrey's weaknesses.

Dunsey, desperate for money, steals Silas's hard-earned gold. This act of betrayal further
isolates Silas, who becomes a figure of pity in the village. However, a twist of fate brings a baby
girl, Eppie, into Silas's life. She is the daughter of Godfrey and Molly, abandoned by her father
and left to chance.

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 Silas, initially hesitant, embraces Eppie as his own. Her presence fills his life with love
and purpose, reawakening his dormant spirit. As Eppie grows, she becomes a beloved member of
the community, bridging the gap between Silas and the villagers.

Years later, Godfrey, now married to Nancy, confesses his past mistakes to Eppie.
However, she chooses to remain with Silas, who has become her true father. The revelation
brings a sense of closure to Godfrey, who realizes the depth of his past transgressions.

Silas, having found redemption through Eppie, returns to Lantern Yard, only to discover
that his old life has been erased. Yet, he finds peace in his newfound faith and the love of his
family. The novel concludes with Eppie's marriage to Aaron Winthrop, ensuring the continuation
of Silas's legacy of love and acceptance.

4.3.Critical analysis of the novel:

Silas Marner is a tale of redemption and transformation.It is a touching exploration of

isolation, redemption, and the transformative power of human connection. Its protagonist, Silas
Marner, is a solitary weaver who becomes obsessed with gold after being unjustly accused of
theft and exiled from his community. His life takes a dramatic turn when he encounters Eppie, a
young orphan whom he adopts and raises as his own daughter.

The Silas Marner delves into the profound themes of isolation and loneliness
experienced by Silas Marner. His exile from Lantern Yard and his obsession with gold reflect the
psychological consequences of social ostracism. Eliot's portrayal of Marner's solitude highlights
the human need for connection and belonging. Marner's encounter with Eppie awakens his
dormant capacity for love and compassion. Through his relationship with Eppie, he is able to
overcome his past and find meaning in his life. The story emphasizes the transformative power
of love. Eppie's love and affection help to heal Marner's wounded heart and restore his faith in
humanity. Eliot suggests that love has the potential to overcome even the most profound
isolation and despair. The contrast between Marner's obsession with gold and his eventual
spiritual awakening is one of the themes in the novel.

Eliot critiques, through the novel, the pursuit of material wealth and suggests that true
happiness and fulfilment can only be found through human connection and spiritual growth. The
novel highlights the importance of community and belonging. Marner's isolation is a direct result
22
of his exclusion from the Lantern Yard community. His eventual reintegration into society
through his relationship with Eppie underscores the significance of human connection and the
power of belonging.

The novelis praised for its psychological depth, moral complexity, and timeless themes.
Critics have admired, Eliot's ability to create compelling characters and explore the complexities
of human nature. The novel's exploration of isolation, redemption, and the power of love makes
it a classic of English literature.

4.4.Characters of the novel:

George Eliot's Silas Marner features a memorable cast of characters, each with their own
unique qualities and motivations. The story is also known as a novel of character. Here are
some of the most prominent and minor characters of the novel.Major Characters:

Silas Marner: Silas, the protagonist of the novel, is a solitary weaver who becomes
obsessed with gold after being discriminatorily accused of theft. His character undergoes a
profound transformation as he learns to love and trust again. The title character of the novel,
Silas is about thirty-nine years old and has been living in the English countryside village of
Raveloe for fifteen years. The villagers regard him with a mixture of suspicion and curiosity.
Throughout the day, he spends all the time at his loom and has never made an effort to get to
know any of the townsmen. Physically his appearance is odd. He is bent from his work at the
loom, has strange and frightening eyes, and generally looks much older than his real age.

His character is depicted as antisocial, however, he is at heart a deeply kind and honest
person. At no point in the novel does Silas do or say anything remotely malicious and, strangely
for a miser, he is not even particularly selfish. His passionfor money is merely the product of
spiritual desolation, and his hidden capacity for love and sacrifice manifests itself when he takes
in and raises Eppie. His character is treated in the story asan outsider which makes him the focal
point for the themes of community, religion, and family that the novelist explores in the novel.
Being an outcast who eventually becomes Raveloe’s most exemplary citizen, he serves as a
centre of the relationship between the individual and the community. At one point his loss and
subsequent rediscovery of faith demonstrate both the difficulty and the solace that religious
belief can bring to an individual. All of the major events in the novel demonstrate the passivity.

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He is framed for theft in his town,Lantern Yard, by his friendand, instead of declaring his
innocence in the event, he puts it on God to clear his name from the framed. Likewise, the loss of
Silas’s gold and Eppie’s appearance on his doorstepare the major events that build up the story.
He dramaticallydeparts from this pattern of passivity when he decides to keep Eppie, thereby
becoming an agent of his eventual salvation.

Eppie: A young orphan whom Silas adopts and raises as his own. Her love and affection
help to heal Marner's wounded heart and restore his faith in humanity.She is the biological child
of Godfrey Cass and Molly Farren, Godfrey's secret wife. Eppie is pretty and spirited and loves
Silas unquestioningly.Her character serves as a catalyst for Silas's transformation from a solitary
miser to a caring and compassionate personality. Eppie represents a symbol of the redemptive
power of love and human connection. She brings warmth, joy, and purpose to Silas's life,
transforming him from a solitary figure to a loving father.Her character is depicted as a source of
hope, her presence in Silas's life rekindles his faith in humanity and restores his belief in the
goodness of the world.Her arrival in the life of Silas forces him to confront his past and embrace
a new future. Eppie's purity and innocence contrast with the darkness and despair that have
consumed Silas. Her presence helps to illuminate his life and guide him towards a more fulfilling
existence.

Through Eppie, George Eliot explores the transformative power of love, the importance
of human connection, and the redemptive potential of the human spirit. Her character is a
testament to the enduring power of hope and the capacity for human beings to change and grow.

Godfrey Cass: Another major character of the story. A wealthy young man who is torn
between his love for Nancy Lammeter and his secret marriage to Molly Farren. His character is
marked by indecision and moral weakness. He is the eldest child of Squire Cass and fortunately
the heir to the Cass estate. His character is portrayed as a good-natured young man, but weak-
willed and usually unable to think of much beyond his immediate material comfort. He secretly
married with an opium addict, Molly Farren, with whom he had a daughter. This secret
marriageresults as hedemonstrates the mixture of guilt and moral cowardice that keep him
paralyzed for much of the story.

Godfrey’s character is generally treated as passive, despite his physical powerfulness and
graceful presence,sometimes he is compared to the characters of Silas. However, His passivity is
24
somewhat different from Silas’s, as his indecisiveness stems entirely from selfishness. He is
subject to constant blackmail from his younger brother, who knows of his secret marriage.
Fortunately,He is finally freed of his malicious brother simply by an accident. He is delivered
from Molly in a similarly fortuitous way when Molly freezes to death while on route to the
village to expose their marriage to his family. He eventual confessed to Nancy, that motivated
simply by his fright after the discovery of Dunsey’s remains. It comes years too lateby the time
Godfrey is finally ready to take responsibility for Eppie, she has already accepted Silas as her
father and does not want to replace him in her life.

Molly Farren: She is Godfrey's first butsecret wife, who disappears after giving birth to
their child, Eppie.Her character is presented as an opium addict, coming from a lower-class
family background. Eventually, Molly dies during a snowstorm while travelling through the
snowstorm to the Red House in Raveloe, where the party occurred, in order to reveal herself as
Godfrey’s secret wife in front of his family members and other villagers.

Dolly Winthrop: A kind and compassionate neighbour to Silas, who becomes a mother
figure to Eppie.She is a respected village woman who befriends Silas Marnerand the person to
whom he turns for help and advice after he adopts Eppie. Her character is shown as overflowing
with kindness and local wisdom. She is selfless with her time and helps selflessly others. She is
also a formidable mother to little Aaron. She attempts to help Silaswith how best to discipline
Eppie.

William Dane: A young man who is a friend to Silas in Lantern Yard. He falsely accuses
Silas oftheftof the church’s gold, which is responsible for Silas’s exile from Lantern Yard.He is
more confident and self-assured than Silas. Earlier they both appear to be inseparable friends, but
William is harsher on those who are less devoted than himself. William Dane becomes engaged
to Sarah, who had once been engaged to Silas.

Nancy Lammeter: A beautiful and virtuous young woman who becomes Godfrey's wife.
Nancy is a young lady whom Godfrey pursues and then marries. Similar to Godfrey, she comes
from a family that is wealthy by Raveloe’s standards. However, her father is a man who values
moral rectitude, thrift, and hard work. She has inherited these strict values and looks
disapprovingly at what she sees as Godfrey’s weakness of character. She lives her life according
to an inflexible code of behaviour and belief. When she is older, Nancy’s code forbids her to
25
adopt a child, as in her mind such an action represents a defiance of God’s plan. Nancy is,
however, a genuinely kind and caring person, as evidenced by her forgiveness of Godfrey after
his confession.

Dunstan Cass: Squire Cass’s younger son and brother to Godfrey. He prioritizes
drinking and gambling in his life as well as being unconcerned for others’ interests. He
manipulates his brother into giving him money to pursue his various pastimes. He is struck by a
memory of talk of the weaver’s wealth and decides to rob him. Years later, Dunstan’s body,
along with the stolen gold, is found at the bottom of the stone pit by Silas cottage.

Squire Cass: Squire Cass, the head of the family,is a wealthy man in a small village. He
enjoys hosting dances and parties for the neighbours. Godfrey believes his father would disown
him for his choice to marry Molly Farren. Squire Cass, unaware of the real situation, tries to
force Godfrey into becoming engaged to Nancy Lammeter.

Sally Oates: A woman in Raveloe whom Silas helps when he sees that she is suffering
from heart disease and dropsy. His mother had suffered from the same disease, and he offers
Sally Oates relief with a foxglove mixture. This act of kindness occurs during his troubled early
years in Raveloe, but it does not reconnect him to the people of the village.

Aaron: He is Dolly Winthrop’s earnest son; Aaron meets Silas when he is very young.
Dolly hopes to help Silas by visiting him after the loss of his gold, and she brings her son to help
raise the weaver’s spirits. He sings and accepts the cake offered by Silas, who is unsure how else
to interact with the child. Later, Aaron falls in love with Eppie and the two plan to marry and to
live with Silas, which will mark as Eppie will not leave him.

Priscilla Lammeter: She is Nacy’sless attractive sister. Shehas good sense and strong
character. She seems happily resigned to a life of caring for Mr. Lammeter, their father, and she
encourages Nancy’s marriage and happiness.

The Osgoods: The Osgoodsare a prominent family in the town of Raveloe. They are
often compared to Squire Cass’s’s family in the story. They also host parties during the winter
months. Mrs. Osgood is the aunt of Nancy and Priscilla Lammeter.

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 Minor Characters: Other significant minor characters of the novel are presented as
follows.Sarah: Silas’s fiancé in Lantern Yard, after Silas is framed as a thief, she marries
William Dane,Silas’ once-friend and betrayer. Jem Rodney: Silas accuses a young man
in Raveloe, Jem Rodney, of stealing his gold as he once asked Marner about the money.Mr.
Macey: He is a Raveloe villager who serves both as a tailor and as the senior parish clerk. Mr.
Tookey:Mr. Macey’s young deputy clerk. Mr. Tookey and Mr. Macey squabble from time to
time, when both the youthful man and the elderly man are convinced that he is in the right.Mr.
Lammeter: Hi isthe father to Priscilla and Nancy. Mr. Dowlas: He is a fiery man who works as
the village farrier, making horseshoes and shoeing horses.Master Lundy: Master Lundy is the
local butcher.Mr. Crackenthrop The rector of the Raveloe church. He presides over the
investigation of Silas’s robbery.Dr. KimbleThe village doctor. He is a lively and social man,
and Squire Cass’s in-law.Mrs. Kimbleis the wife of the village doctor and the aunt
of Godfrey and Dunstan Cass.

These characters are intricately connected, and their interactions drive the plot and
explore the themes of isolation, redemption, and the power of love.

4.5. Plot of the novel:

George Eliot's Silas Marner is a story of redemption and transformation, as pointed out
earlier, set in a small, rural village. The novel follows the life of Silas Marner. The major events
of the plot of the novel are Silas’s exile and isolation, his encounter with Eppie, Godfrey Cass's
secret, Eppie's true identity, Silas's redemption and transformation, and happy ending.

The novel depicts the events of exile and isolation of Silas Marner, who is falsely accused
of theft and ostracized from his community, Lantern Yard. He moves to the isolated village of
Raveloe and becomes consumed by his obsession with gold. Eliot’s portrays Silas encounter with
Eppie, a young orphan who is left abandoned on his doorstep. He adopts her and raises her as his
own, which gradually transforms his life. It explores the wealthy young man, Godfrey Cass, who
is revealed to have a secret marriage to Molly Farren, who disappears after giving birth to their
child. This secret creates tension and conflict in the village. Similarly, the event of the true
identity of Eppie eventually revealed that she is the daughterof Godfrey Cass.

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 However, the elements of redemption and transformation of Silas a central events of the
story which demonstrated through Silas's love for Eppie, which helps him overcome his
obsession with gold and find meaning in his life. He becomes a respected member of the
community. As usual in the Victorian era, the novel concludes with a happy ending, as Silas and
Eppie are reunited with Godfrey and Nancy Cass, and Silas finds peace and fulfilment in his new
life.The plot of Silas Marner is driven by the themes of isolation, redemption, and the
transformative power of love. The novel explores the complexities of human nature and the
importance of community and belonging.

4.6.Silas Marner: A Novel:

Eliot’s Silas Marner has demonstrated numerous peculiarities of the Victorian novel
including novel of character, pastoral fiction, psychological realism, and more or less novel of
manner. These things help to understand the questionof what type of novel, Silas Marner, is?
Let’s find out how this novel is exemplary of these fictional verities one by one.

First,Silas Marner is a quintessential Victorian novel. George Eliot was a prominent

novelist of the Victorian era. Her novels reflect the social and cultural concerns of the time,
including the impact of industrialization, the decline of rural communities, and the importance of
morality and redemption. Her novel, Silas Marner, is a prime example of a Victorian novel,
showcasing the various following characteristics.The novel explores the moral and ethical issues
of the Victorian times. The novel delves into themes of morality, redemption, and the importance
of human connection. It exhibits another primary social commentary of Victorian society. It,
also, reflects the social changes of the industrial revolution, such as the decline of rural
communities and the rise of materialism. Thus the story becomes an example of the Victorian
novel. By examining these elements, it is clear that Silas Marner is a quintessential Victorian
novel that captures the spirit of its time.

Second, Silas Marner is a novel of character.George Eliot is renowned for her deep
psychological exploration of her characters, and Silas Marner is no exception. The novel is
primarily driven by the transformation of its central character, Silas Marner. His transformation
shows the central theme of the novel as well as major events in the protagonist’s life. The novel
delves into the psychological and emotional journey of Silas Marner, a solitary weaver who, after
a traumatic betrayal, becomes a miser. The arrival of Eppie, a young orphan, catalyzes a
28
profound transformation in Silas, awakening his dormant capacity for love and
compassion.Therefore, her role becomes more important in the novel, helping the central
character to transform into redemption. Eppie's innocent presence and unwavering love play a
crucial role in Silas's redemption. She becomes the catalyst for his transformation, drawing him
out of his isolation and restoring his faith in humanity.The villagers of Raveloe, particularly
Dolly Winthrop, contribute to Silas's transformation by offering him kindness, understanding,
and a sense of belonging. Their acceptance and support help him to overcome his past and
embrace a new life.The novel has focused on character development rather than the general
development of the character. Silas Marner's journey from a solitary and bitter man to a caring
and compassionate individual is a central theme of the novel. By focusing on the internal
struggles and external experiences of her characters, George Eliot creates a compelling narrative
that explores the complexities of human nature. Silas Marner is a testament to the power of love,
redemption, and the enduring nature of the human spirit.

Third, Silas Marner is a prime example of psychological realism.George Eliot was a

master of psychological realism, and Silas Marner is a testament to her skill in delving deep into
the minds of her characters. The novel explores the psychological transformation of Silas
Marner. Let’s see how the novel exhibits the issues of psychological realism. The novel has in-
depth character analysis, which is a major feature of it. Eliot delves into the intricate workings of
Silas Marner's mind, exploring his feelings of isolation, bitterness, and eventual redemption. It
also explores the subconscious mind. The novel suggests that Silas's cataleptic fits are a
manifestation of his psychological trauma. Such a novel often deals with moral and ethical
dilemmas in the psyche of the characters. The characters in the novel grapple with complex
moral dilemmas, such as the tension between individual desires and societal expectations.
Further, the novel explores how the physical and social environment can shape a person's
psychology. Silas's isolation and the loss of his community contribute to his mental anguish.

By focusing on the psychological complexities of George Eliot’s characters, she offers a

profound and insightful exploration of the human condition. Silas Marner is a classic example of
psychological realism, demonstrating the enduring power of literature to illuminate the depths of
the human mind.

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 Fourth, Silas Marner can be considered a pastoral fiction.Pastoral fiction often idealizes
rural life, presenting it as simple, peaceful, and morally pure. While Silas Marner doesn't entirely
fit this traditional definition, it does share some key elements of pastoral fiction. Such a novel
has a rural setting. The novel is primarily set in the idyllic English countryside, particularly the
village of Raveloe.The novel explores simple characters, which is one of the features of Pastoral
fiction. The characters, especially Silas Marner and Eppie, are relatively simple and
straightforward, embodying traditional rural virtues.Pastoral fiction always focuses on nature.
The natural world, particularly the English countryside, plays a significant role in the novel. It
provides a backdrop for the characters' lives and symbolizes the cycle of life and death.The novel
explores themes of morality, redemption, and the importance of human connection, which are
often central to pastoral fiction.

However, Silas Marner also deviates from traditional pastoral fiction in several ways. It
does not shy away from exploring darker themes, such as isolation, loss, and the consequences of
moral failings. Additionally, the novel is grounded in realism, with characters who are flawed
and complex. Therefore, while Silas Marner can be seen as a pastoral fiction, it is a more
nuanced and complex work that blends elements of pastoralism with social realism and
psychological exploration.

Last, while Silas Marner does touch on societal expectations and norms, it's not primarily
considered a novel of manners.A novel of manners typically focuses on the social conventions,
etiquette, and moral codes of a particular society, often satirizing or critiquing them. It's more
concerned with the external behaviours and interactions of characters within a specific social
context.While Silas Marner does explore themes of social class and community, its primary
focus is on the psychological and moral development of its characters. The novel delves deep
into the inner lives of Silas Marner and Eppie, examining their emotional journeys and their
transformation.Therefore, while Silas Marner is undoubtedly a product of its time and reflects
the social and cultural norms of the Victorian era, its primary focus is on character development,
moral exploration, and the power of human connection. Thus the novel is not at all an example
of a novel of manners.

30
 One may find more or less various fictional approaches in this novel. But these will be
treated as central or primary approaches of the novel as Silas Marner is a timeless example of
such perspectives.

4.7. TheSetting of the novel:

The setting of the novel is divided into two parts one is time-related and another is a
fictional location. Let’s see both types of settings in the novel.
First, the primary setting of Silas Marner is the fictional village of Raveloe, located in the
English countryside, known as the midlands. It is a fictional town portrayed by George Eliot to
demonstrate the typical countryside of Great Britain. This idyllic setting contrasts sharply with
the harsh reality of Silas Marner's life, emphasizing his isolation and the transformative power of
human connection.Before settling in Raveloe, Silas lived in Lantern Yard, a small, religious
community. However, he was falsely accused of theft and banished from the community, leading
to his move to the peaceful village.The contrasting settings of Lantern Yard and Raveloe
highlight the impact of community and the importance of human connection on individual lives.
While Lantern Yard represents a small, insular community that can be both supportive and
oppressive, Raveloe offers a more open and accepting environment, allowing Silas to find
redemption and happiness.
Second, the novel presents the “early years” of the 19th century, which had huge turmoil
in the rural society of England due to the Industrial Revolution. The novel depicted its impact as
adrastic change in the class structure of society.
Thus George Eliot picturizes the Victorian era, as defined earlier, altogether in the novel,
which presents a very minute details of the era in order to see the time and setting of one’s
realities.

4.8.Themes of the novel:

George Eliot's Silas Marner explores a range of powerful themes. These themes are
fundamental and universally applicable to one and all. All the themes presented in the novels are
intermingles with each other or they are interrelated with each other. Here are some of the most
prominent themes used in the novel.

31
 Alienation, Isolation and Loneliness: These are central themes of the novel, which
delves into the profound isolation and loneliness experienced by Silas Marner. His exile from his
community and his obsession with gold reflect the psychological consequences of social
ostracism, which resulted in alienation, isolation, and loneliness. The character of Silas is
presented in a such manner to explore these themes in the novel. His character is depicted as
alienated, isolated, and lonely in a rural society, where one cannot feel like that but Eliot portrays
his character to exhibit and present these issues are inevitable products of the era.

The themes are presented with specific techniques, as discussed earlier, of psychological
realism, that is exploring the psychological consequences of the sudden changes in the society as
well as economic and political.

These themes also can be seen as a conflict between individuals and society. It is
depicted as individual versus society. The novel is not only about the character of Silas but it has
some major concerns with the community of the Raveloe, a small town representing England’s
rural part. As rural part of any nation is deeply rooted in the belongingness towards the
community. In the early nineteenth century, a person’s village or town was all-important,
providing the sole source of material and emotional support. The notion of interconnectedness
and support within a village runs through the novel.

Redemption and Transformation: Silas Marner is a powerful story of redemption and

transformation. It is one of the central themes of the novel. The central character has two primary
passages of his life one is before and another is after the redemption and transformation of Silas.
After the encounter of Silas's with Eppie awakens his dormant capacity for love and compassion.
Through his relationship with Eppie, he is able to overcome his past and find meaning in his life.
The novel also deals with the transformation of the character of Silas wherein he feels complete
and satisfied at the end of the novel as it results in a happy ending.

Under the themes of redemption and transformation, the novelist has given treatment to
the characters of the novel as characters of destiny. It is a major related issue of the novel while
treating the numerous characters of the story such as the title character, Eppie, Geofrey, Molly,
etc.

32
 The power of love: This is another major theme of Silas Marner. The novel emphasizes
the transformative power of love. The theme of love exhibitedthroughEppie's love and affection
helps to heal Marner's wounded heart and restore his faith in humanity. Eliot suggests that love
has the potential to overcome even the most profound isolation and despair.

Materialism and Spirituality: The Victorian major conflict is material vs spirituality. It

was newly introduced in the 19th-century. As it rightly employs Eliot in her novels. Silas Marner
shows the contrast between Marner's obsession with gold and his eventual spiritual awakening is
a central theme in the novel. Eliot critiques the pursuit of material wealth and suggests that true
happiness and fulfilment can only be found through human connection and spiritual growth.

Community and Belonging: The novel highlights the importance of community and
belonging. Marner's isolation is a direct result of his exclusion from the Lantern Yard
community. His eventual reintegration into society through his relationship with Eppie
underscores the significance of human connection and the power of belonging. Apart from these
themes, Eliot depicts alternative themes of the interdependence of faith and community, in the
novel, these notions of faith and community are closely linked.

4.9. The narration of the novel:

George Eliot employs a third-person omniscient narrator in Silas Marner. This narrative
perspective allows the author to delve into the thoughts and feelings of multiple characters,
providing a comprehensive understanding of the story's events and motivations.

The novel is divided into three main narrative sections: First, the weaver of Raveloe,this
section focuses on Silas's life in isolation and his obsession with gold. The narrator provides
insight into his inner thoughts and feelings, revealing his loneliness and despair. Second, the
golden call, this section introduces Eppie and explores the transformative impact of her presence
on Silas's life. The narrator shifts the focus to Eppie's perspective, providing a child's view of the
world. Last, the lifted veil, this final section reveals the true identity of Eppie's parents and
explores the complexities of Godfrey Cass's character. The narrator offers a more objective
perspective on the events of the story.

Apart from this, however, Eliot's use of multiple narrative perspectives allows her to
create a rich and multifaceted portrait of the characters and events in Silas Marner. The narrator
33
provides context, commentary, and insight, enhancing the reader's understanding of the story's
themes and significance.

4.10. Point of view of the novel:

George Eliot uses a third-person omniscient narrator in Silas Marner. This means that the
narrator has access to the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story. This perspective
allows for a deeper exploration of the character’s inner lives and motivations, providing a more
comprehensive understanding of the events and themes.

The narrator is able to shift between different characters' perspectives, giving the reader a
well-rounded view of the story. This technique allows Eliot to explore the complexities of human
nature and the interconnectedness of the characters' lives.

4.11. Motifs of the novel:

George Eliot’s Silas Marner presents a few motifs, that are recurring things in the story.
There are frequently occurred motifs that reflect the novel. The following account briefs about
the motifs of the novel.

Eliot’s draws on the natural world. Its transformative power of nature. Nature is often
used to symbolize growth, renewal, and the cyclical nature of life. Silas's connection to nature,
particularly through his gardening and his bond with Eppie, mirrors his own personal
transformation.The natural world can be both a place of solitude and a source of connection.
Silas's initial isolation in Raveloe is contrasted with his eventual integration into the community,
which is often depicted through references to the natural world.

Gold is another motif of the novel. That emphasis is on materialism and spiritual
emptiness. Gold, as a symbol of wealth and security, initially represents Silas's obsession and
isolation. However, as he loses his gold, he begins to rediscover his humanity and form deeper
connections with others. The loss of gold and the entry of Eppie into the life of Silas is presented
as redemption and rebirth. The loss of gold becomes a catalyst for Silas's spiritual rebirth and his
newfound capacity for love and compassion.

Class: Raveloe, like most of nineteenth-century English society, is organized along strict
lines of social class. This social hierarchy is encoded in many ways,including the forms
34
characters use to address one another, their habits, and even where they sit at social events.
While they are not nobility, as landowners they sit atop Raveloe’s social pecking order, while
Silas, an outsider, is at its base.

4.12. Use of symbols:

George Eliot often employs various symbols, which are objects, characters, figures, and
colours. She used such symbols to represent abstract ideas or concepts. The following account
shows the use of symbols and their exhibition in the novel.

The Hearth:The hearth is a symbol of home, warmth, and family. It represents the
domestic ideal and the importance of human connection. As Silas transforms from a solitary
figure to a loving father, his hearth becomes a symbol of his newfound happiness and
contentment. By such a symbol, one can gain a deeper understanding of the novel's themes, such
as the power of human connection, the importance of redemption, and the transformative nature
of love.

Silas’s Loom:The loom represents Silas's solitary and industrious nature. It symbolizes
his dedication to his craft and his isolation from the community.As Silas's life changes, so too
does his relationship with the loom. It becomes a symbol of his transformation and his growing
connection to the world around him.

Light and Darkness: Light and darkness are used to symbolize good and evil, as well as
the complexities of human nature. Characters like Godfrey Cass are often associated with
darkness, while Silas's transformation is marked by a growing sense of light. Light can also
represent knowledge and understanding, while darkness signifies ignorance and superstition.
Silas's journey from a life of isolation and despair to one of love and community is marked by a
gradual shift from darkness to light.

Community: An abstract symbol of the novel. It is a place where Silas was raised in a
tight-knit religious sect, Lantern Yard is a community of faith, held together by a narrow
religious belief that Eliot suggests is based more on superstition than any sort of rational thought.
Lantern Yard is the only community Silas knows, and after he is excommunicated, he is unable
to find any similar community in Raveloe.

35
5. Summary and conclusion:

Through the novel,Silas Marner, George Eliot explores profound themes of isolation,
redemption, and the power of human connection. The novel highlights the transformative impact
of love, particularly the love for a child, and the importance of community in shaping individual
lives. Silas Marner's journey from a solitary and bitter man to a loving and compassionate father
serves as a powerful reminder of the redemptive power of human connection.

The novel's enduring appeal lies in its timeless themes, vivid characters, and compelling
narrative. It continues to resonate with readers, offering a poignant exploration of the human
condition and the power of love to overcome adversity.

Thus, the Victorian period is historically remarkable. It has a huge impact on the
contemporary literary tradition. The literature of the era has been reflected in various manners as
discussed above.

6. Exercise:

1. What are the various types of Victorian novels?

2. Give a survey on the Victorian literature.
3. Is Silas Marner an example of a Victorian novel? If yes, justify your views.
4. How does the central character transform at the end of Silas Marner?
5. What are the themes of the novel, Silas Marner?
6. What is the significance of the use of symbols in Eliot’s Silas Marner?
7. How does social class function in the novel?
8. Why does Silas wish to visit Lantern Yard again? What does his visit accomplish?
9. Eliot sets her novel in the recent, but nonetheless irretrievable, past. In what ways does
she foreshadow the end of the world she describes?

7. References for further reading:

Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of
Victorian Literature. Norton, 1974.
Ashton, Rosemary.George Eliot: A Life. Hamish Hamilton, 1996.
Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. Harcourt Brace,
1994.
36
Fowler Brown, Donald. "Zola, Master of Naturalism". The Catholic Naturalism of Pardo
Bazán. University of North Carolina Press, 1957.
Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and
the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination, Yale University Press, 1979.
Horsman, Alan. The Victorian Novel. Oxford University Press, 1991.
Kvas, Kornelije. The Boundaries of Realism in World Literature. Lexington Books, 2020.
Leavis, F R, The Great Tradition, Chatto&Windus, 1948.
Martin, Bruce K. "Similarity Within Dissimilarity: The Dual Structure of Silas
Marner". Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 14 (3)Fall 1972, pp. 479–489.
Morris, Pam. Realism. Routledge, 2003.
Roberts, Adam Charles, ed. Victorian Culture and Society: The Essential Glossary. Arnold,
2003.
Thomson, Fred C. "The Theme of Alienation in Silas Marner". Nineteenth-Century
Fiction. 20 (1),June 1965, pp. 69–84.

****

37
 Unit-2
19th Century British Drama
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) - The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)

Contents

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 19th Century British Drama

2.2.1 Check Your Progress

2.2.1 Terms to Remember

2.3 Life and Works of Oscar Wilde

2.3.1 Check Your Progress

2.4 Plot Summary of the play The Importance of Being Earnest

2.4.1 Check Your Progress

2.5 Characters in The Importance of Being Earnest

32.5.1 Check Your Progress

2.6 Themes and Other Aspects in The Importance of Being Earnest

2.7 Summary

2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.9 Exercises

2.10 Further Readings

1
2.0 Objectives:
After completing the study of this unit, you will
 know about 19th Century British Drama
 know about the life (and works) of Oscar Wilde
 know the plot summery of the play The Importance of Being Earnest
 learn about the characters in The Importance of Being Earnest
 learn the themes and other aspects in The Importance of Being Earnest
 be able to answer the questions on the play The Importance of Being
Earnest

2.1 Introduction:
Oscar Wilde’s most successful play, The Importance of Being Earnest
became an instant hit when it opened in London, England, in February, 1895,
running for eighty-six performances. The play has remained popular with
audiences ever since, vying with Wilde’s 1890 novel The Portrait of Dorian
Gray as his most recognized work. The play proves vexing to critics, though,
for it resists categorization, seeming to some merely a flimsy plot which
serves as an excuse for Wilde’s witty epigrams (terse, often paradoxical,
sayings or catch-phrases). To others it is a penetratingly humorous and
insightful social comedy.
This unit begins with the discussion about a brief survey of 19th century
British drama, and continues to take into account a few biographical details of
a renowned British writer, Oscar Wilde (1854-1900). It also presents the
detailed summary of Wilde’s famous play The Importance of Being Earnest,
the analysis of the characters in the play and the critical commentary on the
themes, motifs and symbols used in the play.

2.2 19th Century British Drama

2
 The 19th century was a transformative period for British drama,
characterized by changes in societal values, the rise of the middle class, and
the development of new forms of entertainment. The century can be roughly
divided into two parts: the early 19th century, which was dominated by
melodrama, and the late 19th century, which saw the emergence of more
realistic and socially engaged plays.
 Early 19th Century: The Age of Melodrama
The first half of the 19th century was characterized by the immense
popularity of melodrama, a form of theatre that emphasized exaggerated
emotion, moral polarization, and sensationalism. Originating from France,
melodrama became a staple of the British stage, particularly in urban theatres
like London’s Drury Lane and Covent Garden. The form appealed to a
growing, more diverse audience, driven by the rise of the middle class and the
expansion of urban populations.
Melodramas were typically formulaic, with heroes and heroines facing
dramatic, often life-threatening situations at the hands of villainous
antagonists. Spectacle was key – scenes often featured thrilling rescues,
exotic settings, and elaborate special effects. Dion Boucicault, an Irish-born
playwright and actor, was one of the most successful exponents of this genre.
His plays, such as The Colleen Bawn (1860), combined suspense, romance,
and moral lessons, and were highly popular with British audiences.
In addition to melodrama, pantomime and burlesque became established
forms of entertainment. Pantomime, often associated with holiday
performances, involved slapstick comedy, music, and exaggerated characters,
while burlesque parodied classical and contemporary works, often with a
satirical or comic bent.
 Mid-Century Changes: The Well-Made Play and Social Drama

3
 The middle of the century saw the rise of the well-made play, a tightly
structured form of drama that emphasized logical plot construction, suspense,
and resolution. This form, pioneered in France by Eugène Scribe, was
adopted by British playwrights such as Tom Taylor and Wilkie Collins. Their
works, including Taylor’s Still Waters Run Deep (1855) and Collins’ The
Frozen Deep (1857), reflected the values of Victorian society, focusing on
family, marriage, and morality.
These plays were often moralistic in tone, aligning with the dominant
cultural expectations of respectability and virtue during the reign of Queen
Victoria. The rise of a middle-class audience influenced the content and tone
of the plays, which often reinforced social hierarchies and norms, although
some playwrights began to question and critique these conventions.
Theatre of the mid-century also began to reflect social issues more
directly. Although many plays still adhered to the popular melodramatic
formula, an emerging interest in addressing contemporary social problems –
especially those related to the industrial revolution, class struggles, and
gender roles – began to shape British drama.

 Late 19th Century: The Rise of Realism and Social Critique

The late 19th century witnessed a major transformation in British drama,
moving towards realism and a more serious engagement with social, political,
and moral issues. This shift was influenced by European playwrights such as
Henrik Ibsen, whose work challenged traditional Victorian values and
dramatically altered the nature of modern drama.
In Britain, the Independent Theatre Society, founded by J. T. Grein in
1891, played a crucial role in this movement by staging plays that mainstream
commercial theatres were reluctant to produce due to their controversial
content. The society’s production of Ibsen’s Ghosts (1891) shocked British

4
audiences with its frank discussion of topics like disease, morality, and
hypocrisy.
Henry Arthur Jones and Arthur Wing Pinero were among the British
playwrights who introduced realism to the English stage. Jones’ The Silver
King (1882) and Pinero’s The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893) addressed
social issues such as marriage, morality, and class, challenging the idealized
portrayals of Victorian life.
Perhaps the most significant figure in this transition was George Bernard
Shaw (1856–1950), whose works, including Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1893)
and Arms and the Man (1894), combined realism with sharp social critique.
Shaw, a leading advocate of socialism, used drama to challenge the values of
capitalism, imperialism, and social inequality. His plays often featured
debates between characters representing different ideological perspectives,
blending comedy with serious discussion.
Similarly, Oscar Wilde brought a different energy to the stage with his
brilliant comedies of manners, which satirized Victorian society’s strict moral
codes and superficiality. His most famous work, The Importance of Being
Earnest (1895), is a sharp critique of Victorian hypocrisy, combining clever
wordplay and a subversive take on class and identity.
 The Advent of Naturalism and the Theatre Movement
As the century drew to a close, British drama was increasingly influenced
by naturalism and the growing interest in portraying the realities of modern
life. This movement, spearheaded in France by Émile Zola, focused on
depicting life in a more objective, scientific manner, often emphasizing the
grim aspects of human existence.
The naturalist influence reached Britain through the Independent Theatre
Movement, which sought to challenge the conventional moralities and tastes

5
of Victorian audiences. Playwrights like Arthur Wing Pinero and later Harley
Granville-Barker began experimenting with more complex characters, subtle
social critique, and a departure from the neatly resolved plots of melodrama
and the well-made play.
.

 Conclusion
The 19th century was a period of enormous growth and experimentation
in British drama, reflecting the profound social and economic changes of the
time. From the sensationalism of early melodrama to the intellectual rigor and
social engagement of late-century realism, British theatre evolved
dramatically, setting the stage for the more experimental and politically
charged works of the 20th century. The works of Shaw, Wilde, and their
contemporaries laid the foundation for the modern British theatre that would
come to dominate the early 20th century.

2.2.1 Check Your Progress

1. Which form of drama was dominant in Britain during the early 19th
century?
2. Which Irish-born playwright and actor was considered as one of the
most successful exponents of melodrama?
3. Who pioneered the form of the well-made play in France which was
later adopted by the British playwrights such as Tom Taylor and Wilkie
Collins?
4. Who founded the Independent Theatre Society in 1891 in Britain?
5. Who is the author of Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1893) and Arms and the
Man (1894)?

2.2.1 Terms to Remember

6
1. Melodrama – a popular form of sensational drama, flourished in 19th-
century theatre and continues to influence modern cinema and
television. The term, which comes from the Greek meaning “song-
drama,” originally referred to European theatrical scenes featuring
mime or spoken dialogue accompanied by music. In early 19th-century
London, many theatres were restricted to producing musical
entertainments. From these simplified productions, often adaptations of
Gothic novels, the modern concept of melodrama emerged:
emotionally charged conflicts between innocent heroines and scheming
villains, with suspenseful plots.
Famous examples include Douglas Jerrold’s Black-Eyed Susan (1829),
the anonymous Maria Marten (c. 1830), and Sweeney Todd, the Demon
Barber of Fleet Street (1842). Irish playwright Dion Boucicault
contributed several melodramas in the 1850s, including The Colleen
Bawn (1860). Melodramatic elements, such as exaggerated plots and
simplified characters, are also evident in literature, as seen in the works
of Charles Dickens.
2. Pantomime – A pantomime, now often seen as a children's theatrical
entertainment, typically based on a fairy tale, features songs, dances,
topical jokes, and the tradition of having the hero’s role played by a
woman. In ancient Rome, however, pantomime referred to a
performance based on mythological themes, where a single actor
mimed all the roles while a chorus narrated the story through song. The
term is also sometimes used interchangeably with mime or dumb show.
3. Burlesque – is a form of theatrical entertainment that combines comedy,
satire, and often, extravagant or provocative performances.
Historically, it originated in 17th-century Italy as a literary and

7
 dramatic genre that parodied serious works, often using humor and
exaggeration. Over time, especially in the 19th and early 20th
centuries, burlesque evolved into a popular form of variety
entertainment in the United States and the United Kingdom.
In its modern form, burlesque is best known for its blend of striptease,
comedy, dance, and elaborate costumes. Performers, known as
burlesque artists or “burlesquers,” often engage in playful, teasing
routines that highlight sensuality while parodying cultural norms or
popular tropes. Modern burlesque also tends to celebrate body
positivity and individual expression, often incorporating elements of
vintage glamour and camp.
The genre is noted for being more playful and theatrical compared to
other forms of adult entertainment, such as stripping, focusing on
performance art, satire, and spectacle
4. Well-Made Play – is a type of dramatic structure that became popular in
the 19th century, particularly associated with French playwright
Eugène Scribe. It adheres to a precise and formulaic structure designed
to create suspense, maintain audience engagement, and provide
satisfying resolutions. While this form was criticized later for being too
mechanical, it had a significant influence on modern dramatic writing,
particularly in melodrama, farce, and realism.
Key Characteristics of a Well-Made Play:
a. Tight Plot Structure: The plot is intricately constructed, with no
extraneous scenes. Every element serves the overall narrative.
b. Exposition: The play typically begins with a careful exposition of
background information that sets the stage for the action to unfold,

8
 ensuring the audience knows key details about the characters and
situations.
c. Secret or Information Known to the Audience: Often, a key secret
or piece of information is revealed to the audience but kept hidden from
some characters, creating dramatic irony and suspense.
d. Obligatory Scene: This is the moment of confrontation or dramatic
climax where secrets are revealed, and the conflict comes to a head.
e. Reversals: The plot often contains reversals of fortune for the
characters, with sudden twists and turns designed to shock or surprise
the audience.
f. Logical Resolution: The play concludes with all loose ends neatly
tied up. Problems are resolved, and justice, whether moral or legal, is
usually served.
g. Stock Characters and Situations: Characters may be somewhat
stereotypical, and situations (such as misunderstandings, mistaken
identities, or secrets) are used in predictable ways to drive the plot
forward.
5. Realism – is an artistic and literary movement that emerged in the mid-
19th century as a reaction against Romanticism. It focuses on
representing everyday life and ordinary people with a high level of
detail and accuracy, without idealization or exaggerated emotionalism.
Realist artists and writers sought to depict the world as it is, often
addressing social issues such as poverty, class struggles, and working
conditions. In visual arts, figures like Gustave Courbet pioneered this
style, while in literature, authors like Leo Tolstoy and Charles Dickens
portrayed the lives of common people in a truthful, unsentimental
manner. Realism also established itself as an important tradition in the

9
 theatre in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in the work of Henrik
Ibsen, Bernard Shaw, and others; and it remains a standard convention
of film and television drama
6. Victorian Period (1837-1901) – refers to the era during the reign of
Queen Victoria in Britain. It was a time of significant social, cultural,
political, and industrial transformation. The Industrial Revolution was
at its height, bringing about technological advancements and changes in
the labor force. Urbanization increased, leading to a rise in the working
and middle classes.
Victorian society was marked by strict social hierarchies, moral
rigidity, and a focus on propriety, often referred to as “Victorian
values.” Literature and art flourished, with authors like Charles
Dickens, the Brontë sisters, and Thomas Hardy capturing the
complexities of the age. The period also saw debates over gender roles,
empire, and scientific discoveries, including Charles Darwin’s theory
of evolution. This era is remembered for both its progress and
contradictions – advancements in science and technology coexisted
with deep social inequalities and imperialism
7. Naturalism – is a philosophical viewpoint that emphasizes
understanding the world through natural processes and laws, without
invoking supernatural or metaphysical explanations. It is often
associated with the scientific method, which relies on observation,
experimentation, and evidence to understand reality. Naturalism holds
that everything arises from natural properties and causes, and that
supernatural explanations are unnecessary. This perspective often leads
to a focus on empirical research and skepticism towards religious or
mystical claims. In literature and art, naturalism refers to a style that

10
 seeks to represent subjects in a realistic, unidealized manner, reflecting
the influence of scientific understanding on human experience.
.

2.3 Oscar Wilde: Life and Works:

Oscar (Fingal O’Flahertie Wills) Wilde was born on October 15 (though
some sources cite October 16), 1854 (some sources cite 1856) in Dublin,
Ireland, where he would spend his youth. His father was a celebrated eye and
ear surgeon who was knighted by Queen Victoria for founding a hospital and
writing an influential medical textbook. Wilde’s mother, Jane Francesca
Elgee Wilde, came to be called “Speranza,” writing poems, stories, essays,
and folklore meant to give hope to advocates of rights for women and Ireland.
Wilde won prizes in the classics at Portora Royal School in Ulster, and
his continued success in classic studies at Dublin’s Trinity College won him a
scholarship to attend Magdalen College, Oxford, where he earned a B.A. In
1878, the undergraduate Wilde won the Newdigate Prize for his poem
“Ravenna.”
While at Oxford, the ideas of Walter Pater and John Ruskin shaped
Wilde’s thinking about art. He became known for flamboyance in dress (his
trademark became wearing a green carnation in his lapel), collecting peacock
feathers, and blue china; he came to personify the term “Dandy” used to
describe men who paid excessive attention to their appearance. He also
became a spokesman for Aestheticism, a belief in the supreme importance of
“Art for Art’s sake,” without regard for its practical, ethical, or social
purpose. (“The object of Art is not simple truth but complex beauty”, Wilde
wrote later in his 1889 essay “The Decay of Lying.”) Following publication
of the first volume of his Poems in 1881, which included “The Harlot’s
House” and “Impression du Matin,” Wilde spent ten months giving 125

11
lectures throughout the United States. The Aesthetics movement and Wilde
were satirized in the magazine Punch and in W. S. Gilbert’s Patience (1881).
After the disappointing reception of his first play, Vera, in 1883, Wilde
returned to Britain to spend eighteen months lecturing on “Impressions of
America.” In 1884, he married Constance Lloyd and began working as a
reviewer and editor. The Happy Prince and Other Tales, a volume of fairy
tales originally written for his sons appeared in 1888, followed two years later
by Wilde’s novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray.
Success eluded Wilde’s second play. The Duchess of Padua (1891), but
his subsequent theatrical efforts received increasing acclaim: Lady
Windermere’s Fan in 1892, A Women of No Importance in 1893, An Ideal
Husband in 1895, and, that same year, his greatest theatrical success, The
Importance of Being Earnest.
While in Paris, Wilde wrote Salome in French, but the play was refused a
license for performance in England, though the 1896 Paris production starred
noted actress Sara Bernhardt. An English translation of Salome appeared in
1894 with illustrations by famed illustrator Aubrey Beardsley and the play
provided the libretto for Richard Strauss’s successful 1905 opera of the same
name.
Social criticism of Wilde’s openly homosexual behavior (though married
with children, he professed a deep passion for young men) led to the end of
his career. Wilde’s relationship with Lord Alfred Douglas led Douglas’s
father, the Marquess of Queensberry, to publicly accuse Wilde of sodomy.
Encouraged by Lord Alfred, Wilde sued the Marquess for slander, losing his
suit when the Marquess offered evidence of Wilde’s homosexuality. Wilde
refused the advice of friends to flee to the Continent and in subsequent trials

12
was convicted of “public indecency” and sentenced to two years of hard
labor. With the scandal, Wilde’s plays ceased production.
Two major works written in prison were published following Wilde’s
release. De Profundus appeared in 1905, offering an apologetic confession of
Wilde’s conduct, while The Ballad of Reading Gaol, published initially in
1898, indicts England’s prison system and tells of his experiences there. Upon
his release, Wilde, divorced and bankrupt, adopted the name Sebastian
Melmouth and moved to Paris, France, where he died in 1900.
Wilde’s literary reputation enjoyed a considerable resurgence in the years
following his death. He is now regarded as one of modem literature’s major
figures. His skill and diversity within multiple genres has earned him respect
as a poet, novelist, essayist, and playwright. His works are still widely studied
and his plays enjoy frequent revivals.

2.3.1 Check Your Progress:

Answer in one word/phrase/sentence.
1. Which Prize did Wilde win in 1878 for his poem “Ravenna”?
2. Which two writers shaped Wilde’s thinking about art at Oxford?
3. In which essay Wilde expressed his views about Aestheticism (a belief
in the supreme importance of “Art for Art’s sake,” without regard for its
practical, ethical, or social purpose?
4. Who is the author of A Women of No Importance (1893)?

2.4 Plot Summary of the play The Importance of Being Earnest:

Act One
The play opens in the fashionable London residence of Algernon
Moncrieff. His friend Jack (who goes by the name “Earnest”) Worthing
arrives, revealing his intention to propose matrimony to Algernon’s cousin

13
Gwendolen Fairfax. In the course of their conversation, Jack admits that he is
the ward to a young woman, Cecily Cardew. Also, he admits to leading a
double life, stating that his “name is Earnest in town and Jack in the country”.
In the country, he pretends to have a brother in London named Earnest whose
wicked ways necessitate frequent trips to the city to rescue him.
Algernon’s aunt Lady Augusta Bracknell arrives with his cousin
Gwendolen Fairfax. While Algernon and his aunt discuss the music for her
next party, Jack – claiming his name is Earnest – confesses his love for
Gwendolen and proposes marriage. She is delighted, because her “ideal has
always been to love someone of the name Earnest.” When the lovers tell Lady
Bracknell their news, she responds frostily, forbidding marriage outright after
learning that while Jack has an occupation – he smokes – and money, he has
no lineage to boast of – in fact, he has no knowledge of his real family at all.
He was discovered as an infant, abandoned in a handbag in Victoria Station.
Because Cecily seems too interested in Jack’s imaginary brother, Earnest,
Jack decides to “kill” him. Gwendolen informs Jack that while Lady
Bracknell forbids their marriage and that she “may marry someone else, and
marry often,” she will retain her “eternal devotion” to him.

Act Two
July in the garden of Jack’s Manor House in Hertfordshire. Miss Prism,
Cecily’s governess, chides her for not attending to her German lesson, as Jack
has requested. Prism informs Cecily that when younger, she had written a
novel. The Rector, Canon Frederick Chasuble enters, suggesting that a stroll
in the garden may cure Miss Prism’s headache. She feels fine but a headache
develops soon after his suggestion, and they walk off together.
Algernon arrives, and, finding Cecily alone, introduces himself as Jack’s
“wicked’’ city brother, Earnest. Cecily and Algernon (as Earnest) walk off.
14
Prism and Chasuble return as Jack shows up unexpectedly. Hoping to end his
double-life, Jack informs them that his brother Earnest has died in Paris of a
“severe chill.” They console him, until Cecily enters with Earnest (Algernon),
who seems very much alive. Jack is bewildered, but Cecily, thinking Jack’s
coolness is resentment at his brother’s dissipated lifestyle, insists that the
“brothers” mend their relationship.
Left alone, Algernon proposes to Cecily, only to discover that –
according to Cecily – they have already been engaged for three months. It
seems that since Cecily heard from Jack about his wicked brother, Earnest,
she fell in love with him. She entered in her diary their entire romance, com-
plete with proposal, acceptance, break-up, and reconciliation.
Gwendolen arrives and chats with Cecily, until both women realize they
are engaged to a man named Earnest. When Algernon and Jack return, their
true identities – and the fact that neither of them is actually named Earnest –
are revealed. As the scene ends, both men admit to having arranged for
Chasuble to re-christen them with the name Earnest.

Act Three
Later the same day at the Manor house, Gwendolen and Cecily prepare to
forgive the men, though they are disappointed that neither is named Earnest.
Lady Bracknell arrives, in pursuit of Gwendolen. She learns from Jack that
his ward Cecily is quite wealthy and therefore a desirable match for her
nephew Algernon. When she hears of Miss Prism, Lady Bracknell recognizes
her as a former family servant. Prism and Lady Bracknell’s infant nephew
had disappeared at the same time under mysterious circumstances.
Miss Prism confesses that she had left the house with her novel
manuscript in one hand and the baby in the other. In her confusion, however,
she had put the book in the baby carriage and the baby in the handbag at the

15
train station. The baby, Jack, turns out to be Lady Bracknell’s lost nephew
and Algernon’s older brother. Lady Bracknell now gives her permission for
Algernon to wed Cecily, but Jack, as Cecily’s guardian, refuses his
permission unless Lady Bracknell consents to his marriage to Gwendolen.
She does, and as the act closes, they learn that Jack was named after his
father, General Earnest John Moncrieff – Earnest for short.

2.4.1 Check Your Progress:

Answer in one word/phrase/sentence.
1. Where does the play, The Importance of Being Earnest, open?
2. Who states that his “name is Earnest in town and Jack in the country”?
3. Whose “ideal has always been to love someone of the name Earnest”?
4. Who was discovered as an infant, abandoned in a handbag in Victoria
Station?
5. At the end of The Importance of Being Earnest, what does Miss Prism
confess?
6. Act II of The Importance of Being Earnest opens in ________ .

2.5 Major and Minor Characters:

Lady Augusta Bracknell
Algernon’s aunt and the sister of Jack’s mother. She opposes Jack’s
marriage with her daughter Gwendolen, though relents when she learns that
Jack is actually her nephew. More accurately, she wants Algernon to be able
to marry the very wealthy Cecily, but that match cannot take place without
Jack’s permission, which he refuses to give unless Lady Bracknell approves
his marriage with Gwendolen. Overall, she is realistic, hard-nosed, and an
upholder of convention – though not entirely conventional herself.
Cecily Cardew

16
 Jack’s pretty, young ward, whom Algernon woos but who remains
determined to marry a man named Earnest. Not quite as naive as she may
appear, Cecily keeps a diary, which “is simply a very young girl’s record of
her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for publication.”
Tutored by Miss Prism, Cecily fails to attend to her studies and marries
Algernon at the play’s conclusion.
Canon Frederick Chasuble
Canon Chasuble is the rather foolish, pedantic Rector attracted to Miss
Prism. Both Jack and Algernon ask Chasuble to christen them Earnest, though
no christening actually takes place. As Cecily says, “He has never written a
single book, so you can imagine how much he knows.”
Gwendolen Fairfax
Algernon’s cousin, with whom Jack – as Earnest – is in love and to whom
he proposes marriage. She accepts, believing him to be Algy’s friend Earnest.
As she explains to Jack, her “ideal has always been to love someone of the
name Earnest. There is something in that name that inspires absolute
confidence.” Her mother, Lady Augusta Bracknell, initially forbids their
marriage, because while Jack seems an otherwise eligible bachelor, he cannot
identify his parents, as he was found abandoned in a handbag. The play’s end,
however, establishes Jack’s identity; Lady Bracknell grants permission, and
the lovers are united.
Lane
The self-deprecating butler who serves Algernon in his London residence.
Merriman
The servant at Jack’s country manor house in Hertfordshire.
Algernon Moncrieff/ Algy

17
 Jack (Earnest) Worthing’s friend, Lady Bracknell’s nephew, and
Gwendolen’s cousin. In order to free himself from unwanted social and
family responsibilities, Algy has invented an invalid friend, Bunbury, whose
ailing health frequently – and conveniently – requires Algernon’s attention,
enabling him to skip dinners with boring guests and tiresome relatives.
Ostentatiously cynical and constantly hungry, Algernon pretends to be
Jack’s brother Earnest and visits Jack’s ward Cecily Cardew. He falls in love
with her and proposes matrimony. Jack refuses his permission for Algernon
to marry Cecily unless Lady Bracknell gives her permission for Jack to marry
Gwendolen, which, at the play’s end, she does. The mystery of Jack’s
parentage reveals that Jack and Algy are actually brothers.
Miss Laetitia Prism
Cecily’s absent-minded governess who is wooed by Chasuble. Formerly,
while working for Lady Bracknell, she wrote a novel then lost Jack in the
railway station. She “deposited the manuscript in the bassinet, and placed the
baby in the handbag,” which was lost in the cloak room of Victoria Station.
John Worthing/ Earnest
John “Jack” Worthing (Earnest) begins the play of unknown parentage,
an orphaned infant found in a handbag in a cloak room at London’s Victoria
Station. Discovered and raised by Thomas Cardew, Jack becomes guardian of
Cardew’s granddaughter, Cecily. Though he calls himself Jack in the country,
he identifies himself as Earnest when in the city. In order to excuse himself
when he leaves for the city, he tells Cecily that he must get his wicked citified
brother, Earnest, out of various scrapes. In time, Cecily becomes infatuated
with this imaginary brother Earnest. By the play’s end, it is revealed that Miss
Prism had left Jack at the station, that Lady Bracknell’s sister Mrs. Moncrieff
is his mother, and that Jack is Algy’s elder brother. Also, significantly, Jack,

18
who has been named after his father General Earnest John Moncrieff, actually
is named Earnest.

2.5.1 Check Your Progress

Answer in one word/phrase/sentence.
1. Who pretends to be Jack’s brother Earnest and visits Jack’s ward Cecily
Cardew?
2. Who is the rather foolish, pedantic Rector attracted to Miss Prism?
3. Who keeps a diary, which “is simply a very young girl’s record of her
own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for
publication.”?
4. Whose “ideal has always been to love someone of the name Earnest.
There is something in that name that inspires absolute confidence”?
5. Who was discovered and raised by Thomas Cardew, and later became
guardian of Cardew’s granddaughter, Cecily?

2.6 Themes and Other Aspects in The Importance of Being Earnest:

I. Themes
Morals and Morality
Much of The Importance of Being Earnest’s comedy stems from the ways
various characters flaunt the moral strictures of the day, without ever
behaving beyond the pale of acceptable society. The use of the social lie is
pervasive, sometimes carried to great lengths as when Algernon goes
“Bunburying” or Jack invents his rakish brother Earnest so that he may
escape to the city. Another example is Miss Prism’s sudden headache when
the opportunity to go walking (and possibly indulge in some form of sexual
activity) with Canon Chasuble presents itself.
Love and Passion
19
 One of Wilde’s satiric targets is romantic and sentimental love, which he
ridicules by having the women fall in love with a man because of his name
rather than more personal attributes. Wilde carries parody of romantic love to
an extreme in the relationship between Algernon and Cecily, for she has
fallen in love with him – and in fact charted their entire relationship – before
ever meeting him. She writes of their love in her diary, noting the ups and
downs of their affair, including authoring love letters to and from herself.
Culture Clash
The play’s action is divided between the city and the country, London
and the pastoral county of Hertfordshire. Traditionally, locations like these
symbolize different attitudes toward life, contrasting, for example, the
corruption of urban living with the simple bucolic pleasures of rural farm life.
As Jack says, “when one is in town one amuses oneself. When one is in the
country one amuses other people. It is excessively boring.” Wilde’s
symbolism does not adhere rigidly to audience expectations, however.
Though Jack is more sedate while in the country and more festive when in
London, Cecily is far from the innocent she appears (and pretends to be
around her guardian). Her handling of her “affair” with Algernon/Earnest
shows her to be as competent in romance as any city woman. The trait is seen
again when Gwendolen visits. During their tiff over just who gets Earnest
(who they believe to be one man), Cecily holds her own and then some
against her sophisticated city guest.

Language and Meaning

Those familiar with semiotic theory (signs and symbols) will notice the
ways various characters in the play obsess over the signifier. The best
example is the desire of both Gwendolen and Cecily to love men named
Earnest. They see something mystical in the processing of naming and

20
assume some connection between the word (the signifier) and the person (the
signified), that one who is named Earnest will naturally behave earnestly.
Freedom
Both Jack and Algernon struggle to remain free of the restrictions of
Victorian convention. Jack does so by maintaining a double identity, being
Jack in the country and Earnest in the city. Algernon achieves similar results
by inventing an invalid named Bunbury who constantly requires his atten-
tions. This similarity in Algernon and Jack’s behavior also offers a clue to the
men’s true relationship as brothers (further duality is indicated by their
respective attractions to very similar women, Gwendolen and Cecily).
.

II. Style and Other Aspects

Romantic Comedy
Most commonly seen in Shakespeare’s romance plays like As You Like It
or A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the plot of a typical romantic comedy
involves an idealized pair of lovers who the circumstances of daily life or
social convention seem destined to keep apart. Along the way, the lovers
escape their troubles, at least for a while, entering an ideal world (like the
Garden of Eden) where conflicts resolve and the lovers ultimately come
together. The plots of such comedies contain pairs of characters and conclude
happily, often exhibiting poetic justice, with the good rewarded and the evil
punished.
While The Importance of Being Earnest certainly fits this description, it is
a play that is appraised beyond simple romantic comedy. In fact, part of the
play’s wide and lasting appeal is that it so competently fits into any number
of comedy genres, including comedies of manners, farces, and parodies.
Comedy of Manners

21
 Generally set in sophisticated society, this type of intellectual comedy
privileges witty dialogue over plot, though social intrigue involving the prob-
lems of lovers – faithful and unfaithful – can be complicated. The comedy
arises from the critique of the fashions, manners, and behavior of elevated
society. While often featuring standard characters such as fools, fops,
conniving servants, and jealous husbands, the action itself is largely realistic.
At least one character, like the audience, accurately comprehends the foolish
nature of the people and their situations. In addition to Restoration Comedies
like William Congreve’s The Way of the World, other examples would be
Goldsmith’s She Stoops to Conquer, Sheridan’s School for Scandal, and Noel
Coward’s Private Lives.
Farce
This type of low comedy relies on physical gags, coarse wit, and
generally broad humor. Laughter arises as exaggerated characters, sometimes
caricatures of social types, extricate themselves from improbable situations.
Farce occasionally involves disguise or the confusion of gender roles.
Algernon’s indulgence with food and his short attention span qualify him as a
farcical character, as does Miss Prism’s bumbling mix-up with her novel and
the infant Jack.
Parody
A work which, for comic or satiric effect, imitates another, familiar,
usually serious work, mocking the recognizable trademarks of an individual
author, style, or genre. Successful parody assumes an informed audience,
with knowledge of the parodied target. For example, one of the most parodied
works today is the “Mona Lisa” painting which shows up in cartoons,
advertisements, and fine art. In Earnest, Wilde parodies, among other things,

22
love at first sight by having his characters fall in love before they ever see
each other.

2.7 Summary
When The Importance of Being Earnest opened, Wilde was already
familiar to readers for Dorian Gray, as well as for collections of fairy tales,
stories, and literary criticism. Theatre-goers knew him for his earlier dramatic
works, including three previous successes, Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A
Women of No Importance (1893), and An Ideal Husband (1895), as well as
for his more controversial play, Salome (1896), which was banned in Britain
for its racy (by nineteenth century standards) sexual content.
The Importance of Being Earnest has been favorably compared with
William Shakespeare’s comedy Twelfth Night and the plays like Richard
Brinsley Sheridan’ s School for Scandal and Oliver Goldsmith’s She Stoops
to Conquer. While it is generally acknowledged that Wilde’s play owes a debt
to these works, critics have contended that the playwright captures something
unique about his era, reworking the late Victorian melodramas and stage
romances to present a farcical, highly satiric work – though audiences
generally appraise the play as simply great fun.
In this unit, you have read/ studied: the plot and characters in Wilde’s
comedy, The Importance of Being Earnest, and also various themes, style and
other aspects presented in this play. All these points, no doubt, would be
helpful to you to understand the comedy The Importance of Being Earnest.
They will enhance your understanding of the play. For better understanding
of this play, it is essential to read the original text.

2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress:

2.2.1 Answers to Check Your Progress

23
 1. melodrama
2. Dion Boucicault,
3. Eugène Scribe,
4. J.T. Grein
5. George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950)

2.3.1 Answers to Check Your Progress:

1. the Newdigate Prize
2. Walter Pater and John Ruskin
3. “The Decay of Lying.”
4. Oscar Wilde

2.4.1 Answers to Check Your Progress:

1. The Importance of Being Earnest opens in the fashionable London
residence of Algernon Moncrieff.
2. John “Jack” Worthing (Earnest)
3. Gwendolen Fairfax
4. John “Jack” Worthing (Earnest)
5. Miss Prism confesses that she had left the house with her novel
manuscript in one hand and the baby in the other.
6. the garden of Jack’s Manor House in Hertfordshire.

2.5.1 Answers to Check Your Progress:

1. Algernon Moncrieff/ Algy.
2. Canon Chasuble
3. Cecily Cardew
4. Gwendolen Fairfax
5. John Worthing/ Earnest

24
2.9 Exercises:
A) Answer the following:
1. Consider The Importance of Being Earnest as an instance of ‘Comedy of
Manners’.
2. Do you agree with the view that “The Importance of Being Earnest is
Wilde’s supreme demolition of late 19th century social and moral
attitudes”. Elucidate your arguments with appropriate illustrations.
3. Consider The Importance of Being Earnest as an example of ‘Romantic
Comedy’.
4. How far do you agree with the view that “much of The Importance of
Being Earnest’s comedy stems from the ways various characters flaunt
the moral strictures of the day”. Illustrate your views.
5. Discuss the theme of ‘culture clash’ in The Importance of Being Earnest.

B) Write short notes on:

1. The character of John “Jack” Worthing.
2. The character of Algernon Moncrieff.
3. The theme of the ‘love and passion’ in The Importance of Being Earnest.
4. The theme of ‘freedom’ in The Importance of Being Earnest.
5. The character of Gwendolen Fairfax.

2.10 References for Further Study:

Abrams, M. H. and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms.
11th Ed. Cengage, 2015.
Beckson, K. Oscar Wilde: The Critical Heritage. Routledge, 2005.
Bloom, Harold, ed. Oscar Wilde. (Bloom’s Classic Critical Views).
Bloom’s Literary Criticism, 2008.

25
Bloom, Harold, ed. Oscar Wilde. (Bloom’s Modern Critical Views).
Bloom’s Literary Criticism, 2011.
Cohen, P. K. The Moral Vision of Oscar Wilde. Associated University
Presses, 1978.
Ellmann, R., ed. Oscar Wilde: A Collection of Critical Essays. Prentice-
Hall, 1969.
Raby, Peter, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Oscar Wilde. CUP, 2004.
Symons, A. A Study of Oscar Wilde. Charles Sawyer, 1930.
Worth, Katharine. Oscar Wilde. (Macmillan Modern Dramatists).
Macmillan, 1983.

***

26
 Unit-3: Modern Novel

D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930)- Sons and Lovers (1913)

Contents

3.0 Objectives

3.1 General Topic : Modern Novel

3.2 Text: D.H.Lawrence: Sons and Lovers

3.3 List of Characters

3.4 Summary of the novel: Sons and Lovers

3.5 Plot Analysis

3.6 Themes in the Novel

3.7 Symbols in the Novel

3.8 Character Analysis

3.9 Check your progress

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.11 Exercise

3.12 References and Further Reading

3.0 Objectives:

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

a) understand general characteristics of modern novel.

b) know D.H.Lawrence’s contribution to modern novel

c) know the plot summary of Sons and Lovers

d) know the major and minor characters in Sons and Lovers

e) understand the themes and other aspects of the novel.

3.1 General Topic: Modern Novel

The term "modern novel" refers to a specific form of literary fiction that emerged
primarily during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern novel broke away from the
conventions of previous literary traditions and was characterized by a willingness to experiment
with new narrative forms and styles.. This approach created a deeper exploration of human
consciousness, societal structures, and existential questions.

The modern novel is typically defined by its emphasis on realism, experimentation with
narrative techniques, and exploration of the subjective experience of individuals. This literary
form arose as a response to the changes brought about by industrialization, the World Wars, and
a growing disillusionment with traditional authority figures and societal structures.

Modernism, as a literary movement, was characterized by a conscious departure from the

conventions of 19th-century fiction, particularly Victorian ideals, which had focused on moral
order, linear narratives, and stable characters. Instead, modernist novelists sought to explore
themes like alienation, disorientation, and the subjective nature of reality. The modern novel thus
became an instrument for expressing the complexities of the modern world.

Characteristics of the Modern Novel

The modern novel is marked by several defining characteristics that distinguish it from its
predecessors. These characteristics include narrative experimentation, psychological depth,
realism, fragmentation, anti-heroic characters, ambiguity, and an exploration of modern social
issues. We will examine these traits in greater detail below.

1. Narrative Experimentation

One of the most defining features of the modern novel is its experimentation with
narrative form and structure. Traditional storytelling conventions, such as linear plots and third-
person omniscient narration, were often discarded in favor of more fragmented and disjointed
narratives.

Modern novelists frequently used stream-of-consciousness narration, which aimed to

capture the internal flow of characters' thoughts and feelings. This technique, popularized by
writers like James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and William Faulkner, offers an intimate glimpse into
the character's mind, making the reader a witness to the raw, unfiltered process of thinking and
experiencing.

An example of this is Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway (1925), which follows the
thoughts and experiences of several characters over the course of a single day. Woolf's
innovative use of stream-of-consciousness narration provides insight into the characters' inner
worlds while avoiding a conventional linear plot. Similarly, James Joyce's Ulysses (1922) is
known for its complex narrative structure and use of multiple narrative styles, making it a
pioneering work of the modern novel.

2. Psychological Depth and Subjectivity

The modern novel places a significant emphasis on the inner lives of characters, often
prioritizing psychological complexity over external events. Instead of focusing on action-driven
plots, modern novelists delved into the mental processes, emotions, and experiences of their
characters. This focus on subjectivity and the human condition was influenced by contemporary
psychological theories, such as Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, which emphasized the role of
unconscious desires and motivations in shaping behavior.

In Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899), the psychological journey of the

protagonist, Marlow, becomes the central focus of the narrative. As Marlow travels deeper into
the African Congo, the line between civilization and savagery blurs, and his internal conflict
reflects the darkness within the human psyche. The novel uses symbolism and ambiguous
narrative elements to explore themes of human depravity and moral ambiguity, representing the
complexity of the human mind.
3. Realism and Anti-Romanticism

Realism is an important aspect of the modern novel, which aims to depict the human
condition as authentically as possible. Modern novelists moved away from the idealized
portrayals of characters and settings that were prevalent in the Romantic and Victorian traditions.
Instead, they portrayed flawed, complex, and often disillusioned characters who struggled with
their sense of identity in a world that seemed increasingly chaotic and indifferent.

D.H. Lawrence's Sons and Lovers (1913) is an example of this realistic depiction of the
human experience. Lawrence captures the struggles of his protagonist, Paul Morel, as he
navigates the complexities of love, family, and identity within the context of his working-class
upbringing. Lawrence's portrayal of characters is unflinching in its honesty, emphasizing the
imperfections of human nature and the conflicts that arise from personal relationships.

4. Fragmentation and Discontinuity

Modern novelists often used fragmented and disjointed narratives to reflect the
fragmented nature of modern life. The modern novel rejected the notion of a cohesive, unified
worldview and instead embraced multiple perspectives, disjointed timelines, and fragmented
plotlines to capture the uncertainties of the modern world.

William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury (1929) is a prime example of this
characteristic. The novel is divided into four sections, each providing a different perspective on
the same events, with a non-linear narrative structure that disorients the reader. Faulkner's use of
multiple perspectives, stream-of-consciousness narration, and fragmented timelines underscores
the themes of loss, decay, and disintegration that pervade the story.

5. Anti-Heroic Characters

The modern novel often features anti-heroes—characters who are flawed, conflicted, and
do not conform to traditional ideals of heroism. These characters embody the uncertainties and
complexities of the modern age, challenging readers to understand and empathize with their
struggles. The anti-hero represents the disillusionment with the notion of a clear moral order and
the complexities of human motivations.
 Albert Camus's The Stranger (1942) presents one of literature's most famous anti-heroes,
Meursault. Meursault's emotional detachment, indifference to social norms, and lack of heroic
qualities challenge conventional expectations of a protagonist. Through Meursault's perspective,
Camus explores themes of existentialism, absurdity, and the search for meaning in a seemingly
indifferent universe.

6. Ambiguity and Open-Endedness

The modern novel often leaves questions unanswered and embraces ambiguity, avoiding
definitive resolutions or moral judgments. The endings of modern novels are frequently left open
to interpretation, reflecting the uncertain nature of modern existence and challenging readers to
draw their own conclusions.

F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925) exemplifies this sense of ambiguity. The
novel ends with Nick Carraway reflecting on the elusive nature of the American Dream and the
moral decay of the Jazz Age. The ambiguity of Gatsby's dreams, Daisy's intentions, and the
meaning of the green light serves to highlight the theme of unattainable ideals and the
disillusionment that accompanies them.

7. Exploration of Social Issues

The modern novel also explores social, political, and cultural issues of the time, including
alienation, the decline of traditional values, and the effects of war and industrialization. Modern
novelists were often critical of the rapid changes brought about by industrialization and
urbanization and sought to capture the sense of alienation experienced by individuals in modern
society.

Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1929) is a poignant depiction of
the horrors of World War I and its impact on the soldiers who fought in it. The novel portrays the
alienation and disillusionment felt by soldiers who faced the brutality of war, challenging the
glorification of nationalism and questioning the value of heroism in the face of senseless
violence.
 James Joyce's Ulysses (1922): Joyce's Ulysses is one of the most important modernist
works, known for its complex narrative style, including stream-of-consciousness and various
experimental techniques. The novel chronicles a single day in the life of Leopold Bloom in
Dublin and provides a deeply introspective exploration of the human condition.

Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse (1927): Woolf's To the Lighthouse is a hallmark of

modernist fiction, employing stream-of-consciousness narration and shifting perspectives to
explore the complexities of family dynamics, time, and perception. The novel captures the
fragmented, subjective experiences of its characters, providing insight into their inner worlds.

Franz Kafka's The Trial (1925): Kafka's The Trial is an example of the existential themes
that characterize much of modern literature. The novel tells the story of Josef K., who is arrested
and prosecuted by an inaccessible and bureaucratic authority without ever being informed of the
charges against him. Kafka's exploration of the absurdity of modern life and the sense of
alienation faced by the individual reflects the existential concerns of the modern era.

William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying (1930): Faulkner's As I Lay Dying employs multiple
narrators to tell the story of the Bundren family's journey to bury their deceased matriarch. The
novel's fragmented narrative structure and use of stream-of-consciousness give insight into the
inner thoughts and motivations of each character, emphasizing the subjectivity of human
experience.

Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932): Huxley's Brave New World is a modern
dystopian novel that explores the dangers of technological advancement, state control, and the
loss of individuality. The novel presents a futuristic society where human emotions and desires
are suppressed in favor of stability and efficiency, raising questions about the cost of progress
and the value of individual freedom.

Joseph Conrad's Lord Jim (1900): Conrad's Lord Jim is a modern novel that examines
themes of identity, guilt, and redemption. Through the story of Jim, a young seaman who
struggles
3.2 D. H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers

D. H. Lawrence: Life and works

David Herbert Lawrence, commonly known as D.H. Lawrence, was a British novelist,
poet, playwright, and essayist born on September 11, 1885, in Eastwood, Nottinghamshire,
England. His works are characterized by their passionate exploration of human relationships,
sexuality, and the conflict between the individual and society and have had a lasting impact on
modern literature. Despite facing considerable controversy during his lifetime, Lawrence's
literary legacy continues to resonate today.

Lawrence was born into a working-class family. His father, Arthur Lawrence, was a coal
miner, while his mother, Lydia, had been a schoolteacher. The family’s struggles, particularly
their socioeconomic conditions, deeply influenced Lawrence’s worldview and writings. He was
profoundly shaped by the tensions between his parents, and his mother's progressive ideals and
his father's more traditional views fostered his complex understanding of human relationships.

As born in a mining community in Northern England. Lawrence loved the countryside

surrounding his home and spent a great deal of time outside as a child .After school, he became
a clerk in an office in the town but came down with pneumonia a few months later which forced
him to leave his position. During his recovery, Lawrence spent a great deal of time at a nearby
farm where he became friends with Jessie Chambers, the inspiration for Miriam in Sons and
Lovers. After the death of his father in 1910, Lawrence's family life changed dramatically. He
attended Nottingham University College, where he studied to become a teacher. However, his
passion for literature gave him recognition for his fiction.. He published his first novel, The
White Peacock, in 1910 shortly before the death of his mother. Lawrence was deeply affected by
his mother’s death which is reflected in his novel, Sons and Lovers.

Lawrence's is the prolific writer and his early works include novels such as Sons and
Lovers (1913), which explores the intricate relationships between mothers and sons. This semi-
autobiographical novel draws heavily on his own life experiences, particularly his troubled
relationship with his mother. The book's raw emotional intensity and exploration of sexual and
familial relationships marked a significant departure from the conventional Victorian literature of
the time.
 Following Sons and Lovers, Lawrence published The Rainbow (1915), which was met
with scandal and controversy due to its candid treatment of sexuality and social norms. The
novel narrates the story of three generations of women in the Brangwen family, emphasizing the
theme of personal growth amidst societal constraints. The book was banned shortly after its
publication, but it remains one of Lawrence’s most important works.

In Women in Love (1920), a sequel to The Rainbow, Lawrence further explores the
complexities of love and relationships through the lives of two sisters, Ursula and Gudrun
Brangwen, and their relationships with two men, Gerald Crich and Rupert Birkin. The novel
delves into the tensions between individual desires and societal expectations, encapsulating
Lawrence's belief in the importance of personal authenticity. His later novel, Lady Chatterly’s
Lover published in (1928) which tells the story of an aristocratic woman’s affair with a working-
class gamekeeper, was subject to an obscenity trial upon its publication. The book's frank
treatment of sexual relationships and its exploration of class dynamics prompted significant
debate about censorship and the role of literature in society.

Despite the controversies surrounding his work, Lawrence continued to write prolifically,
producing poetry, essays, and plays. His collections of poetry, such as New Poems (1918) and
Birds, Beasts and Relatives (1930), reveal his deep appreciation for nature and his belief in the
interconnectedness of all living things. He eventually left England with his wife Frieda and
moved to the United States. He was forced to return to Italy for the sake of his health in 1925 and
died from tuberculosis in 1930.

Introduction to novel

Sons and Lovers, published in 1913, is a seminal work of modernist literature that
explores themes of love, family dynamics, and the complexities of human relationships. The
novel is semi-autobiographical, drawing on Lawrence's own experiences growing up in a coal-
mining family in Nottinghamshire, England. The novel centers on the Morel family, particularly
the relationship between the mother, Gertrude Morel, and her sons, William, Paul, and Arthur.
The family is established in a working-class environment marked by economic hardship and
emotional tension. Gertrude, a middle-class woman who marries a coal miner named Walter
Morel, finds herself increasingly disillusioned with her life. Walter's alcoholism and
irresponsible behavior create a strain in the marriage, leading to a deep-seated resentment in
Gertrude.

3.3 List of Characters

Gertrude Morel

Gertrude is the pivotal character of the novel. She is portrayed as a strong but unhappy woman
with her husband Walter and devotes herself to her children.

Paul Morel

Paul Morel is the protagonist in the second half of the book. After his brother William’s death,
Paul becomes his mother’s favorite and struggles throughout the novel to balance his love for her
with his relationships with other women.

Walter Morel

Gertrude’s husband, a coal miner.

William Morel

Their first son, who is Mrs. Morel’s favorite until he falls ill and dies.

Annie Morel

Paul’s older sister. When their mother lies dying toward the end of the novel, she and Paul
decide to give her an overdose of morphia pills.

Arthur Morel

Paul’s younger brother, not central to the plot.

Miriam Leivers

The daughter of the family at Willey Farm. She befriends Paul and becomes his first love.
Clara Dawes

A friend of Miriam’s, she is a suffragette, who is separated from her husband. She becomes
Paul’s second love, and they have a passionate affair.

Baxter Dawes

Clara’s husband. He fights with Paul, but they later become friends while he is ill.

Mrs. Radford

Clara’s mother.

Thomas Jordan

The owner of the factory where Paul works. Paul dislikes him from their first interview because
he is rude and makes Paul look foolish. He later fires Baxter Dawes because he knocks him
down a flight of stairs.

Louisa Lily Denys Western

A girl William sees in London, and to whom he becomes engaged. The rest of the family is less
than impressed with her when he brings her home, and William shortly becomes sick of her as
well.

Mr. and Mrs. Leivers, Agatha, Edgar, Geoffrey, Maurice

The family who live at Willey Farm.

Fanny

A hunchback who works in the finishing-off room at the factory, who likes to have Paul come
visit her to sing or talk. She organizes the other girls to get Paul a birthday present.

John Field

A man with whom Gertrude is friendly when she is nineteen. He gives her a Bible, which she
keeps for the rest of her life. From John she learns that “being a man isn’t everything.”
Jerry Purdy

Walter Morel’s bosom friend. Walter goes for a walk to Nottingham with Jerry, during which he
takes the nap on the ground that eventually causes an illness.

Mr. Heaton

The Congregational clergyman who visits with Mrs. Morel every day after Paul is born. He is
Paul’s godfather and teaches him French, German, and mathematics.

Beatrice Wyld

A friend of the Morel family who ridicules Miriam and flirts with Paul. She eventually marries
Arthur when he returns from the army.

3.4 Summary of the novel

The novel opens with the description of housing estate for coalminers called as ‘Hell
Row’ and surrounding countryside where the Morels live. The first part of the novel concentrates
on early married life of the Morels. Gertrude, an intelligent young woman from a middle-class
English family, meets a young miner, Mr Walter Morel, at a country dance and gets attracted to
his vigorous nature. The pair are married a few months later and soon Mrs. Morel becomes
pregnant. The first few months of their marriage are happy, but afterwards it turns to be an
unhappy marriage. Mrs. Morel discovers that Walter is not as wealthy as she believed and that
they do not own the house they live in, but rather rent it from Walter’s mother. She dislikes life
in the mining community and does not get along with the other women, who find her superior.
She has many arguments with her husband. After giving birth to a son, Mrs. Morel names him
William, whom she loves dearly.

Despite their continued friendship, she has lost interest in Mr. Morel, and their distance
grows as a result of the child's birth. When Mrs. Morel walks downstairs one morning when
William is a toddler, she discovers that Mr. Morel has chopped off all of the boy's hair. This
behavior causes a rift between Mrs. Morel and her husband. She gives her son all of her love and
enjoys watching him grow up and making plans for the future.
After giving birth to Annie, the second child, Mrs. Morel became pregnant with a third. William
can't enjoy the fair in the town without his mother, so Mrs. Morel grudgingly goes along when a
fair arrives to town one day, just before her due date.

Mrs. Morel notices that Mr. Morel, who has started drinking a lot, is in the beer tent
while she is there, and she is not shocked when he comes home that night intoxicated. A public
holiday occurs a few weeks later, and Mr. Morel takes advantage of it to go out drinking with his
misogynistic friend Jerry Purdy, whom Mrs. Morel finds intolerable. That evening, the couple
fights when Mr. Morel returns, heavily drunk. Mrs. Morel looks at the moon and the flowers in
her garden to relax after Mr. Morel locks her out of the home. Mr. Morel allows her back in
when she gets back, without saying anything to his wife. Another boy is born to Mrs. Morel. She
chooses to name the baby as Paul. She regrets as she looks down at the small baby.

Paul develops into a smart and conscientious youngster. William, on the other hand, is
pleasant and rather energetic. Mr. Morel immediately takes a liking to Arthur, the third son born
to Mrs. Morel. When a job offer to work as a clerk in London is made, William gladly takes it.
Mrs. Morel is saddened by William's departure from home.Initially, William sends money to his
family and makes frequent trips home.

But as time passes, he became engrossed in his work in the city and spends his money on
Louisa Lily Denys Western, his fiancée. When William brings the young lady home to meet his
family, they are let down by her superiority complex and her treatment of them as if they were
her servants. William will not call off the engagement even though he grows to hate his fiancée
as their relationship progresses. William's obvious cruelty to Louisa during a subsequent visit
shocks and depresses Mrs. Morel. Mrs. Morel is devastated when William dies from pneumonia
shortly after this.

In the meantime, Paul develops into a bright young man and accepts a position in
Nottingham as a clerk. Although he enjoys his job and gets along well with his coworkers, his
health suffers as a result of the long hours. Paul, who is also very close to his mother, is trying to
bring Mrs. Morel out of herself and to regain her attention while she continues to grieve for
William. Mrs. Morel discovers, much to her dismay, that she has neglected Paul after he
contracts pneumonia. She does everything she can to help him get better. After Paul makes a full
recovery, Mrs. Morel becomes devoted to him and places all of her future dreams in him.. After
recovering from his sickness, Paul starts going to a nearby farm that belongs to Mr. Leivers. He
develops an unusual friendship with Miriam, the educated, devout, and timid daughter of the
Leivers. She is disliked by Mrs. Morel, who believes she is harmful for Paul. Despite their good
relationship, Paul and Miriam are physically awkward with one another. Both of them lack
maturity and are unaware of their mutual attraction. Mrs. Morel, who is envious of Paul's time
with Miriam, keeps a careful eye on their connection and wishes he would cease it. After some
time, Paul goes back to work at the factory, but his hours are reduced, giving him more time to
pursue his true passion,painting. Miriam discovers she is in love with Paul at this period, but she
feels embarrassed by the physical attraction because it goes against her religious beliefs. Miriam
keeps her sentiments to herself. Miriam joins the family while they take a vacation by the sea.
However, Paul only sees Miriam in the evenings and spends the majority of his time with Mrs.
Morel.

Paul receives a prize for his painting at a Nottingham exhibition around this period. He
meets Miriam and a young woman named Clara Dawes at the exhibition one evening. Baxter,
Clara's husband, and Paul both work in the same factory, but they are no longer together. Clara's
involvement with the suffragettes makes Paul think she is snobby and a "man hater." Baxter,
who treated him rudely on his first day at the plant, is another reason he doesn't like him. Miriam
and Paul's continued platonic relationship strains them. Paul is angry with Miriam because he
believes that her excessive spirituality prevents him from acting "normal," or physically, around
her. Despite her pain and confusion, Miriam insists that she is excellent for Paul and that he
"belongs to her." Mrs. Morel becomes unwell one night when Paul and Miriam are gone. Annie
chastises Paul for ignoring his mother when he returns. Because he is close with Miriam's
brother, Edgar, Paul continues to visit the farm frequently despite his attempts to seve their
relationship. Paul receives an invitation from Miriam to join Clara Dawes for tea one day. Paul
still doesn't like Clara, but he thinks she's beautiful and impressive. Afterward, Paul brings a
package to Clara's residence, which is close to the factory where he works. He finds out that she
is quite unhappy and that she lives with her mother, Mrs. Radford. Paul finds Clara arrogant and
reticent at work, even after securing her a position at the plant. He makes an effort to irritate her
since he finds her presence annoying. Paul and Miriam become engaged in the summer, but a
few weeks later, Paul breaks it. He starts dating Clara, although he still sees Miriam frequently.
After learning about Paul and Clara, Baxter Dawes and Paul brawl in a tavern. Later, when Paul
is returning from Clara's residence in the dark, Baxter attacks him. After this encounter, Paul
feels a peculiar affinity with Baxter and is not seriously wounded.

Mrs. Morel's health starts to deteriorate at this time. She becomes ill and receives a
cancer diagnosis while on vacation with Annie in Sheffield. The idea that his mother might pass
away appalls Paul. In addition to staying in Sheffield to care for her, he finds out that Baxter is
recuperating from typhoid at a local hospital. After Paul pays him a visit, the two men become
friends. Everyone knows that Mrs. Morel won't live long, but she is able to return home after a
few weeks.

Despite maintaining communication with Miriam and Clara, Paul discovers that he no
longer cares for them and instead devotes all of his time in taking care of his mother. Annie and
Paul, who look after Mrs. Morel, are barely able to handle the stress as she passes away slowly
and painfully. Finally, using the medicines the doctor gave him, Paul poisons Mrs. Morel after
she has become intolerably ill. Mr. Morel can no longer bear to live in the house he shared with
his wife, and she is buried next to William. In Nottingham, he and Paul move out and find
separate housing.

Paul invites Clara to accompany him on a trip to the seaside with Baxter shortly after
Mrs. Morel's passing. Since his mother passed away, he has lost all interest in her and in life in
general. He sets things up such that he leaves them together in the cottage because he thinks
Clara wants to make amends with Baxter. Clara forgives Baxter and consents to marry him
again, despite her anger at Paul for controlling her. For many years following this, Paul feels
disconnected from life and longs to die. He invites Miriam back to his place .Miriam proposes
that they get married since she is saddened by his decline. Miriam resolves to never see Paul
again after he rejects her. Paul wanders over the fields in the dark after she leaves and catches a
car out into the country. He wants to die so that he can be with his mother, and he screams out to
her. But he knows he cannot kill himself and is determined not to die. Paul, dejected but
determined, makes his way back across the pitch-black fields toward the town.

3.5 Plot Analysis

Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence is unquestionably a study of interpersonal

interactions. Gertrude Morel develops strong emotional bonds with her two oldest sons as a
result of her tumultuous and peculiar marriage. Her intense emotion is directed at Paul.
Paul struggles to feel at ease in his personal relationships as a result of these emotions and the
stronger emotional connection between the two .His mother's disapproval, jealousy, and
Miriam's own spirituality all negatively impact Paul and Miriam's relationship. Paul and
Miriam's relationship is one in which love is not let to grow. Despite the fact that their love is
undeniable, the tension created by their surroundings stifles it.
Miriam thinks she is not nearly as attractive as she actually is. She is constantly searching for
things to adore her .Regarding Paul, she thinks that "if he could rely on her, if she could, as it
were, have him in her arms, how she would love him," she would be able to care for him if he
were in need. (137)

But this is never permitted to occur. This area of Paul's life is already occupied by his
mother, Gertrude. As a result, their relationship is of identity conflict. There is conflict in the
relationship between Paul and Miriam as well as between Paul and his mother.
The primary points of contention between Paul and Miriam are his mother and their physical and
spiritual differences. Spirituality is very important to Miriam. Miriam's problem is always on a
spiritual level.But this is never permitted to occur. Lawrence occasionally used floral imagery to
illustrate this. Miriam could never meet Paul's other wants. "I don't want to be spiritual, but you
make me feel that way." (190) Finally, in an attempt to meet these demands, Miriam presents
Paul to Clara. Another significant source of friction is Paul's mother.
Paul had a highly controlling relationship with his mother. Paul would start to despise Miriam as
a result of the intense tension that resulted from comparing his two loves. The stress that led to
William's death is comparable to this tension. It hurt William every time he brought his lover,
Lilly, near his mother. He felt compelled to constantly disparage her in light of his mother. He
was aware that she did not think highly of her. Paul became his mother's primary emotional
outlet after William's death.

Gertrude's primary issue with Miriam is her value and familial status. She was not
particularly hostile to Lilly Gertrude when her older son, William, went out with her. So why
should she oppose Miriam? Since Lilly lacked Gertrude's intelligence, she had no possibility of
ever severing or even approaching that connection. William was employed in the business sector.
William was on his way, and Gertrude wanted her sons to succeed more than she had. Gertrude
was not entirely opposed to William being married. Paul was all she had left after William
passed away, whereas Arthur resembled his father more. In contrast, Miriam is bright, spiritual,
and eager to learn. Paul was miserable as a result of Gertrude's concern and criticism. Paul does
appear to have recognized the existence of two feminine powers at one point, one of inspiration
and one of comfort. Naturally, his mother is the source of inspiration. Paul's mother persisted in
expressing her disapproval of Miriam. Paul's bodily requirements were evident as he dealt with
that warmth, which was part of what Gertrude was unable to provide. Gertrude's ambition for her
sons to outperform her monetarily and marry into respected households.

Clara is introduced to Paul by Miriam which shows Miriam’s boundless love for Paul.
Despite his affection for Miriam, Paul despises her after comparing her to his mother. At last, he
ends his relationship with Miriam for his mother. Miriam seems to be waiting for Paul
interminably. When his mother passes away and he goes off to find himself, it ends in a tangible
way.

The study of human interactions is the focus of the novel. Paul has a strong and unusual
link with his mother and receives the majority of her intense emotional sentiments. Paul
struggles to manage and feel at ease in his own relationships as a result. Paul's mother's
displeasure hampered his connection with Miriam.

3.6 Themes in the Novel

Familial Relationship
One of the major themes in Sons and Lovers is the struggle for individual identity against
familial obligations. This conflict manifests most prominently in Paul, who finds himself torn
between pursuing his own desires and fulfilling the expectations of his family, particularly his
mother. The novel delves into the complex emotional attachment Paul Morel has with his
mother, Gertrude. Lawrence portrays Paul as emotionally bound to his mother, which
significantly affects his relationships with other women. Paul's love for his mother verges on a
possessive attachment, which Freud defined as an unconscious rivalry with the father figure for
the mother's affection. This attachment creates tension, inhibiting Paul's ability to forge
independent relationships. Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence explores the emotional dynamics
of the Morel family and follows Paul Morel, the middle son, as he gradually deteriorates due to
conflicts between his familial and personal lives. Conflict and division characterize the Morel
family, starting with Mr. and Mrs. Morel's troubled marriage. Mrs. Morel, a young English
woman from a "good family," meets Mr. Morel at a country dance and ends up marrying him.
But she soon discovers that she and her husband are not very similar, and that being a miner's
wife is a difficult and impoverished life. Mr. and Mrs. Morel's relationship rapidly degenerates
into an unstable one, and they never fully reconcile. The division within the family foreshadows
the conflicts that the children—particularly William and Paul—will psychologically inherit, as
their offspring support their mother against their father. In their interactions with women,
William and Paul carry on this tradition of strife and division. Long into adulthood, William and
Paul both go on their mother for psychological support, emotional direction, and self-validation.
They feel disloyal to their mother, who frequently resents these women, and are conflicted when
they attempt to form connections with women their own age. Paul's relationships with Miriam
and Clara, which are portrayed as a "battle," best illustrate this division. Miriam believes she
owns "Paul's soul," whereas Clara feels physical desire. The most important psychological
conflict in Paul's life—his intense bond with his mother—is symbolized by this separation
between body and spirit, which he is unable to resolve. Because of the strength of their
relationship, Paul feels as though he must choose between her and his lovers all the time. As a
result of their strong familial ties, Paul eventually takes the side of his mother and rejects Miriam
and Clara, leaving him without a place to call home once Mrs. Morel passes away. The novel's
recurrent depictions of such harmful psychological processes highlight the importance of early
familial ties and imply that these influences frequently influence actions made later in life. Paul's
experience suggests that if these early familial experiences are tense or polarizing, they may
result in the maintenance of unpleasant or unsatisfying relationships throughout adulthood.

The Oedipus Complex

A central and pervasive theme in Sons and Lovers is the Oedipal complex, which
provides much of the psychological tension in the novel. The Oedipal complex, a concept
derived from Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, refers to a child's subconscious sexual
desire for the opposite-sex parent and a concurrent sense of rivalry with the same-sex parent. In
Sons and Lovers, this theme is depicted vividly through the character of Paul Morel and his
relationship with his mother, The title character of the Greek drama Oedipus Rex serves as the
inspiration for Sigmund Freud's most well-known sexuality theory, the Oedipus complex. Sons
and Lovers explores Paul's connection with his mother by using Freudian concept of the Oedipus
complex as its foundation. Paul's unwavering devotion to his mother frequently verges on
romantic yearning. Paul murderously despises his father and frequently fantasizes about his
death, and Lawrence crafts numerous sequences between the two that transcend the boundaries
of traditional mother-son love.

However, Lawrence gives the Oedipus complex a twist by saddling Mrs. Morel through it
as well. She hates all of their girlfriends and has almost romantic feelings for both Paul and
William. By putting her discontent with her marriage onto her overwhelming love for her sons,
she also engages in this complex. At the end of the novel, Paul has made significant progress in
overcoming his Oedipus complex. He purposefully gives his dying mother too much morphia,
which lessens her anguish but also defies his Oedipal destiny because he kills his mother. Thus,
Sons and Lovers is a story of intricate love relationships.

Christianity

Christianity was prevalent in British society in the early 1900s, when Sons and Lovers is
set, and Lawrence regularly employs biblical stories to support the plot of his novels. However,
when combined with social concepts of decorum Christian beliefs disrupt the lives of the
characters by prohibiting them from fulfilling their physical desires and urges. Lawrence
believed that bodily experiences may lead to spiritual transcendence, which would unite people
with God, and that physical sensation was a manifestation of the divine. Therefore, the novel
makes the case that Christian belief is a cause of confusion and emotional suffering rather than
fulfillment when it downplays the significance of the material world in favor of the purely
spiritual. Christianity appears to be a source of wisdom, in this novel, it represents chaos and
conflict in the novel. The character of Paul, is modeled after the biblical character St. Paul. When
Paul is a baby, Mrs. Morel raises him up to show him the sun, starting this association. This is
comparable to the insight that St. Paul experienced from God while traveling to Damascus after
being momentarily blinded. But even while St. Paul's immersion in the biblical story results in
theological knowledge, Mrs. Morel is concerned that her sadness during her pregnancy has
taught her that baby Paul already knows the anguish of life, and she raises him to the sun to
express her concern. The image of the dazzling brightness is repeated later in the book when Paul
is at the beach with Miriam, whom he is trying to win over, and he notices the orange moon. He
knows that Miriam, who is quite religious and detests sex and physical contact, expects to have a
spiritual moment with him when he sees the moon. Paul's inability to have a sexual relationship
with Miriam through spirituality alone makes him want for one. Therefore, the constraints of
religion impede Paul's attempts to build a relationship with Miriam rather than advancing him
toward emotional and spiritual clarity.

Depiction of Industrial Society

The setting of Sons and Lovers in a working-class mining community is crucial to
understanding the struggles faced by the Morel family. Lawrence vividly portrays the harsh
realities of industrial life and its impact on both individuals and relationships. The coal mines
symbolize the oppressive nature of working-class existence, representing the limitations and
hardships faced by people like Walter Morel. The influence of industrial society on family
dynamics is a recurring theme in the novel. Walter’s labor in the mines leaves him physically
exhausted and emotionally distant, contributing to the deterioration of his relationship with
Gertrude. The portrayal of the mining community reflects Lawrence’s own experiences growing
up in Nottinghamshire, and he presents both the camaraderie and the struggles of the working-
class environment with an authentic voice.

For Paul, the mining town represents the limitations he desperately wants to escape. He is
drawn to art and beauty, which contrasts sharply with the grim, labor-intensive world of his
father. The tension between the pull of the industrial environment and the desire for something
more meaningful is a driving force behind Paul’s character, contributing to his ongoing struggle
for personal freedom and identity.

Love and Sexuality

Love and sexuality are central themes in Sons and Lovers, and Lawrence’s exploration of
these themes is both nuanced and daring for its time. The novel depicts different forms of love—
familial, romantic, and physical—each with its own complexities and challenges. Gertrude
Morel’s love for her sons, particularly Paul, is possessive and stifling, blurring the lines between
maternal and romantic affection. This intense bond prevents Paul from fully committing to any
romantic relationship, creating an emotional conflict that is a central focus of the novel.
 Paul’s relationships with Miriam Leivers and Clara Dawes reflect different aspects of
love. Miriam represents spiritual and idealized love. Her relationship with Paul is deeply
emotional and intellectual, but Paul feels suffocated by her need for spiritual connection, which
hinders the development of their physical relationship. Lawrence uses Miriam to explore the idea
of love as something pure and transcendent, yet ultimately unfulfilling for Paul, who craves a
more passionate connection.

Bondage

Lawrence addresses servitude, or bondage, in two main ways: romantically and socially.
Mrs. Morel feels constrained socially by both industrialism and her gender. She laments feeling
"buried alive," which is a reasonable complaint for a miner's wife, and even the kids feel like
they're in a "tight place of anxiety." Despite joining a women's organization, she is obligated to
stay at home for the rest of her life, which makes her envious of Miriam, who has more options
to use her intelligence. Though it seems like he would still prefer to paint, Paul paradoxically
feels liberated in his employment at the factory, loving the work and the companionship of the
working-class women. The novel places a lot greater focus on romantic bondage. Paul feels
obligated to his mother and finds it impossible to conceive leaving her or even being married to
someone else. In the end, it becomes clear that his actual ambition is for a woman to firmly claim
him as her own, despite his obsession with the idea of lovers "belonging" to one another. He
believes that Clara has always belonged to Baxter Dawes and that Miriam, the sacrifice, falls
short in this area. It is obvious that no woman could ever equal his mother's ferocity and
determination.

The novel's handling of jealousy goes hand in hand with the bondage motif. Mrs. Morel
wears a very thin mask to hide her continual jealously of her sons' partners. Morel is also envious
of his wife's stronger bonds with his boys and their accomplishments. Paul's flirtations with
Agatha Leiver and Beatrice often cause Miriam to become envious, and Dawes is ferociously
envious of Paul's relationship with Clara.

Death, Grief, and Self-Destruction

Death and life are closely intertwined in Sons and Lovers, and mourning has a significant
and lasting effect on the lives of the individuals. The events of Sons and Lovers are impacted by
Lawrence's melancholy because his own mother died after the novel was completed. Throughout
the novel death is portrayed as an omnipresent, terrifying, and occasionally very seductive force.
Lawrence shows how people usually battle for the thin line between life and death. He also
argues that focusing on the past, particularly via grief, can turn this persistent fear of dying into
total self-destruction. Death was a continuous threat in the mining villages where the novel is set,
and Lawrence's personal experiences are portrayed here. Mining was an extremely dangerous
profession in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Even while conditions did gradually
improve, early death or widowhood was a common issue in mining towns like "The Bottoms,"
and many people died in mines due to the possibility of death or serious injury. Mrs. Morel often
worries about her husband's safety when he is at work or does not return at the appointed hour.
Even though she normally assumes that her husband is out drinking, she worries about what will
happen to her and the children if he is dead because he supports for the family financially.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mining was a very risky occupation. The risk of
death or major injury meant that many people died in mines, and early death or widowhood was
a prevalent concern in mining villages like "The Bottoms," even though circumstances did
gradually improve. When her husband is at work or fails to return at the scheduled hour, Mrs.
Morel frequently worries about his safety. Since her husband provides for the family financially,
she frets about what will happen to her and the kids if he is killed, even though she usually
expects that he is out drinking. This was a common concern for wives in mining communities.
Because industrial mining communities were built especially to house miners and their families,
Paul and William, who did not grow up to be miners, had to travel to the nearby cities to obtain
paid jobs because there was little other employment available. Because of the dangerous working
conditions in the mines, which resulted in a number of possible problems for workers and their
families, death was a persistent factor in these towns even during the boom in the coal business.

Because death is omniscient in the novel it also significantly affects how the characters'
lives develop. Mrs. Morel almost dies after William's death because her grief weakens her will to
life. It is also suggested that her health problems began following William's death because of the
physical toll that melancholy takes on her. In turn, Mrs. Morel's grief influences Paul's life
course. Paul is close to dying after catching pneumonia shortly after William's death. Mrs. Morel
regrets that she was so upset for William that she neglected Paul throughout his illness; she feels
that she should have "watched the living rather than the dead." This is clearly a harsh judgment
of her, as her deep sadness at the loss of her kid is very understandable. But because she feels
guilty, she transfers her love for William, whom she loves too much, to compensate for her lack
of love for her husband and then to Paul. This conveyance causes her and Paul to get close,
which hinders Paul's ability to love other women and have fulfilling relationships despite Mrs.
Morel's best attempts. The years-long grief process begins with William's death. Just when Mrs.
Morel was ready to be shattered by William's death, the novel ends with Paul in shock over Mrs.
Morel's passing and him wandering through a field at night in the dark. In addition to
highlighting how grief has altered Paul's life and made it difficult for him to move on from the
past, this image skillfully conveys the emotional sense of sadness.

Perhaps because of the horrible effects of loss and grief, a number of the characters are
enticed to death and self-destructive behavior throughout the novel. For example, when William
moves to London, he sacrifices his health to lead an unfulfilling, and shallow lifestyle. This
suggests that William's motivation to ruin his life stems from his self-destructive, almost suicidal
impulses. William's carelessness affects Mrs. Morel's life by causing him to spend money, ruin
his health, and contribute to her untimely death. This demonstrates how self-destructive actions
usually have harmful impacts on oneself as well as other people.

Paul also repeatedly proclaims a desire to die and engages in self-destructive actions.
When he leaves Miriam one evening after they had fought, he hopes to fall off his bike and die.
Even though in this case he wants to die in order to resent Miriam, Paul frequently finds himself
drawn to the idea of death and self-obliteration; he thinks that such experiences may be similar to
the loss of self he experiences during sex. In addition, he has suicide thoughts and wants to join
his mother after Mrs. Morel's death. Paul also repeatedly proclaims a desire to die and engages in
self-destructive actions. When he leaves Miriam one evening after they had fought, he hopes to
fall off his bike and die. Even though in this case he wants to die in order to resent Miriam, Paul
frequently finds himself drawn to the idea of death and self-obliteration; he thinks that such
experiences may be similar to the loss of self he experiences during sex. He also has suicide
thoughts and wants to go to be with his mother after Mrs. Morel's death.

In addition, Paul and William's silent interest in death is a reflection of their relationship
with their mother. By focusing on their love for their mother rather than emotionally pursuing
other relationships, the young men reject the possibility of new life .Their futures will inevitably
include the loss of their mother, and because Paul and William are so preoccupied with their
mother and the past, they reject this future, symbolically dying by refusing to go on.

3.7 Symbols in the Novel

1. Flowers:

In Sons and Lovers, flowers stand for female sexuality and femininity. Women are called
flowers or likened to flowers. William compares his numerous female admirers to various
flowers that flourish "like cut blooms in his heart" when he tells Paul about them. Despite the
fact that this may appear attractive to the women, it conveys the sense that William does not
perceive these women as individuals but rather as ornaments that balance off his own good looks
and size. His connection with Louisa Lily Denys Western, whom William sees more as an
accessory than a companion, serves as evidence of this mindset. In other parts of the novel
flowers are used to symbolize female sexuality.

Miriam treats the flowers with the same respect and dedication as she does to her sexual
relationship with Paul when she shows him a rosebush she has discovered and then a patch of
daffodils. In contrast, Clara considers flowers to be "dead things" while she remains celibate
following her departure from Baxter Dawes. Later, when she and Paul rekindle her sexuality, he
offers her a flower to wear on her coat, signifying the renewal of her physical existence. It is
implied that Paul has penetrated Clara's outward, ornamental façade and established a genuine
sexual bond with her when the flower is "smashed to pieces" and they are lying together on the
ground. The broken flower also evokes the idea of spoiled virginity, which implies that, despite
Paul's seeming kindness toward Miriam and Clara, he is actually shallow and irresponsible
toward them, much like William was with the women he collected like flowers without
considering their feelings.

2. The Moon:

The moon is associated with motherhood in the novel and represents the oppressive bond
that exists between Mrs. Morel and Paul. When Mrs. Morel is pregnant with Paul, she has a fight
with her husband and is thrown out of the house. She goes into her garden and is surprised to
find herself bathed in light from a full moon overhead. The presence of the moon soothes her and
calms the child, Paul, who is “boiling within her,” and this represents the love that Mrs. Morel
will develop for Paul and her hopes for the future that she will invest in him. Paul and Mrs.
Morel's friendship becomes problematic later in the book because it interferes with Paul's
capacity to develop a sexual relationship; he is so close to his mother that they are practically
lovers, and she has him in a way that his lovers cannot. In the scene where Paul is with Miriam
and cannot comprehend or articulate the physical desire she arouses in him, he sees the big,
orange moon over the beach. This is mirrored once more through the use of the moon symbol.
The moon is connected to the concept of motherhood since it is usually associated with
femininity. But rather than producing light, the moon absorbs it and reflects it back. This
illustrates how Paul and Mrs. Morel's love is destructive and cyclical.

3. Darkness:

In the book, darkness stands for unconscious or secret yearning. Paul takes Miriam into a
pitch-black area surrounded by fir trees for their first sexual encounter, stating that he "wishes
the darkness were thicker." This implies that even though Paul wants to love Miriam, he is
unsure of his actual sentiments and intentions toward her and is ashamed of his attraction to her
or of the way he treats her (as he repeatedly fails to commit to her). In a similar vein, Paul escorts
Clara to the train in the dark when he brings her home to meet his family, and when she tells him
she wants to go home, he becomes furious.

Darkness is a metaphor for unconscious or hidden desire in the novel. For their first
sexual encounter, Paul leads Miriam into a completely dark space encircled by fir trees, saying
he "wishes the darkness were thicker." This suggests that despite Paul's desire to love Miriam, he
is unsure of his true feelings and intentions toward her and feels embarrassed by his treatment of
her or by his attraction to her. Similarly, when Paul brings Clara home to meet his family, he
escorts her to the train in the dark, and he gets upset when she tells him she wants to go home. At
the end Paul expresses his desire to die following Mrs. Morel's passing away. He is conscious of
his destructive tendencies, but he doesn't expressly know that he intends to end his life; instead,
he wanders aimlessly into the night. In the end, he turns away from darkness in order to return to
the town by following the light, implying that he chooses to live rather than die.
3.8 Character Analysis

1. Mrs. Gertrude Morel

Gertrude Morel is one of the most pivotal characters in the novel. She is the wife of Mr.
Morel and the mother of William, Paul, Annie and Arthur. She is born into a middle-class family
and marries Mr. Morel after she meets him at a country dance. Mrs. Morel is reserved and
religious, but she is also an extremely practical and determined woman she is portrayed as a
strong, intelligent, yet dissatisfied woman who initially falls for Walter Morel due to his charm.
However, her disenchantment with his working-class habits and irresponsibility leads her to
channel her hopes and dreams into her children, particularly William and Paul. Gertrude's love
for her sons becomes possessive and emotionally consuming, inhibiting their ability to form
independent lives. Her character embodies the conflict between personal ambition and societal
roles, as she tries to influence her children's destinies to escape her own unfulfilled life.

Mrs. Morel has genuine affection and good intentions for her kids. Sadly, her intense love
for her sons causes her to become possessive and jealous, thus limiting them as they attempt to
live their own lives. They are so attached to her that they feel bad if they show their love to
another lady. Paul's longtime girlfriend Miriam frequently believes that he is influenced by his
mother and that she must compete with Mrs. Morel. The reader gets the impression that Mrs.
Morel has not been given the chance to reach her full potential because her life has been difficult
and sad overall. Although she is a bright, well-organized, and hardworking woman, Mrs. Morel
is denied chances in school and employment that would have benefited succeeding generations
of women due to the limitations imposed by her gender and class.

2. Mr. Walter Morel

Mr. Morel is the husband of Mrs. Morel and the father of William, Paul, Annie and
Arthur. Walter Morel, the father, is portrayed as a typical working-class miner whose crude
manners and alcoholism alienate him from his family. While he loves his children, his inability
to express affection or communicate effectively makes him distant. Walter's character represents
the older, traditional generation, with its straightforward, practical way of living, juxtaposed
against the emotional and intellectual aspirations of Gertrude and her children. At the age of
thirteen Mr. Morel is employed as a coalminer. Although he is a physically attractive and sensual
man, he lacks the tolerance for serious ideas and is not inclined to engage in conversation. Like
the majority of miners during this time, he lacks education and is not proficient in reading or
writing. He is incredibly "handy" around the house and is happiest when working or doing
something useful. After a brief marriage, he discovers that he is incompatible with Mrs. Morel
and that he disagrees with her strict, orderly way of living. Mr. Morel responds to this by
drinking and hanging out at the pub a lot. He vents his fury on his wife and kids since he finds it
difficult to express his feelings or discuss them. When Mrs. Morel gives the kids more attention
than he does, he feels betrayed and rejected and thinks he isn't valued as the family's provider.
Encouraged by his friend Jerry Purdy, he occasionally entertains misogynistic thoughts and
makes an effort to control Mrs. Morel. However, he discovers that he is a far weaker person than
she is, and even when he abuses her and once threatens to leave, she always seems to have more
control over the situation than

3. William Morel

William Morel is the older brother of Annie, Paul, and Arthur and the son of Mr. and
Mrs. Morel. He is his mother's favorite child and is happy, well-liked, and sporty. As a child,
William was very attached to his mother and could not bear it if she was sick or injured. He spars
with his father frequently, and once nearly fights him when he hits Mrs. Morel. William develops
into a lively and outgoing young man, but he is emotionally unstable and has a fiery temper. He
frequently lacks confidence in his own judgment and depends on his mother to guide and temper
his thoughts.

William is driven to succeed in society and has a lot of ambition. He accepts a position in
London and demonstrates his considerable academic and professional potential. Mrs. Morel,
however, challenges William's motive because he leads a hedonistic and materialistic lifestyle,
and it is obvious that he lacks purpose in life and is not fully aware of his own actions. He
publicly views Louisa Lily Denys Western as shallow and foolish, and he treats her cruelly and
spitefully. In spite of this, he refuses to end their relationship and appears to blame her for his
distaste for her. Mrs. Morel is disappointed since this indicates that William has picked up some
of his father's violent tendencies. William ultimately dies young as a result of his careless and
destructive actions, having ruined his health for the sake of wealth and status.
4. Paul Morel

Paul Morel is the son of Mr. and Mrs. Morel and the brother of William, Annie, and
Arthur. Paul, the protagonist, is a complex character marked by internal conflict. As an artist, he
seeks beauty and meaning in life, yet he remains deeply tied to his mother's expectations. Paul’s
relationships with Miriam and Clara are fraught with confusion, guilt, and a desire for autonomy,
mirroring his struggle to balance the demands of love and freedom. His character development
reveals his attempt to forge his own path amidst the psychological influence exerted by his
mother. Paul's struggle to reconcile his identity is caught between his artistic aspirations and
family loyalty, forms the core of his narrative journey.

Mrs. Morel worries a lot about Paul, a serious and thoughtful youngster, because she
believes he is weak and prone to "fits of depression." But in spite of Mrs. Morel's reservations,
Paul develops into a bright and active young man. He is a gifted painter and has a strong interest
in ideas and the arts. In addition to being appealing to women, he is accomplished and well-liked
at work. But occasionally, Paul gets into problems because of his introspective nature and
propensity for abstract reasoning. Despite being a sophisticated thinker, he struggles to identify
his feelings and comprehend what he needs or wants from a circumstance. His inability to decide
what he wants from Miriam and Clara, as well as his tendency to be self-absorbed and think
about himself before he considers their feelings, enable him to unintentionally be unkind to them.
After William's death, Paul has grown very close to Mrs. Morel. He wishes he and his mother
were unrelated so they could be lovers instead of mother and son. He favors his mother over his
girlfriends, whom she is extremely envious of, and bases his entire life and work on pleasing and
supporting her. Paul loses all interest in life and his own future after his mother passes away,
leaving him sad. He believes that his mother was his true friend, and he doesn't want to live
without her. Even though he is left desolate at the end of the novel, Paul is a resolute character
whose love of physicality and the material world drives him to live.

Miriam Leivers
Miriam represents spiritual love, contrasting with the physical passion embodied by Clara
Dawes. She is portrayed as sensitive and intellectually inclined, but her intensity and yearning
for emotional closeness make Paul uncomfortable. Miriam's love is idealized, but it ultimately
lacks the freedom and ease that Paul desires. She reflects the conflict between spiritual
connection and physical desire, as Paul struggles to reconcile his deep bond with her with the
demands of his own independence.

Clara Dawes
Clara is the more liberated counterpart to Miriam, a representation of the “new woman”
of the early 20th century. Separated from her husband, Clara seeks passion and freedom, which
she finds in her relationship with Paul. However, her relationship with Paul is not devoid of
challenges—Paul’s emotional ties to his mother ultimately prevent him from fully committing to
Clara. Clara represents Paul's exploration of sensuality, though this relationship also fails to
provide him with true fulfillment.

3.9 Check your progress

1. What does the first part of sons and lover focus on?
2. What does Mrs moral take comfort in amidst her estrangement from her husband?
3. Who suggest to Paul that he and Miriam consummate their love?
4. What town do the Morels live in?
5. What is water morals job?
6. Where does William work?
7. Who is William‘s fiancee?
8. Where does Miriam live?
9. What does Paul throw at Miriam when he sits up in a tree one day?
10. What is painted on the expensive dish Mrs Morel buys that pleases Paul?
11. What does Paul nearly die from shortly after William dies?
12. What does moral throw at his wife one night during a fight? a drawer
13. What is the name of the morals whole mining community?
14. What does Arthur impulsively join?
15. Whom does Arthur Mary?
16. Where does Thomas Paul employee Paul morel?
17. What term describes Clara Dawe’s political ability?
18. What does Gertrude morel become unhappy with in the first part of the novel?

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

 1. Mrs Morels unhappy marriage
2. her children
3. Clara Dawes
4. Bestwood
5. Collier
6. London
7. Lily
8. On a farm
9. Cherries
10. Cornflowers
11. Pneumonia
12. a drawer
13. the bottoms
14. the military
15. Beatrice
16. his factory
17. Suffragette
18. Her husband Walter

3.11 Exercise

1. Discuss D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers as a psychological novel.

2. Bring out biographical elements in D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lover.

3. Write a detail note on the relationship between Paul and his mother.

4. Discuss uses of symbols used in D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lover.

5. Write a character sketch of William Morel.

3.12 References and Further Reading

D. H. Lawrence, Ashok Celly edt. Sons and Lovers (Worldview Critical Editions) 2002
Judith farr, Twentieth Century Interpretations of Sons and Lovers, Prentice Hall, 1970

Mrs. Rufina Roslin Mary and Mrs. J. Mercy Rani, Psychological Aspects in Sons and Lovers,
Notion Press, 2023
 Shivaji University, Kolhapur
Distance Education Centre
Self-Instruction Study Material (SIM)
M.A. II G3 E4 – : Victorian Poetry and Modern Period

Contents
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the trends in Victorian Poetry
 Understand major concerns in the poetry of Modern Period
 Understand social, political, literary and religious background to the Victorian Poetry
 Understand themes in Major Victorian and Modern poetry
 Understand War poetry
 Victorian Poetry and Modern Period (Selected Poems): The following poems are prescribed.
 Lord Alfred Tennyson
Ulysses
 Robert Browning
My Last Duchess
The Last Ride Together
 Christina Rossetti
Song: When I am Dead My Dearest
Winter: My Secret
 Dante Gabriel Rossetti
A Match with the Moon
 G. M. Hopkins
I wake and I feel the fell of dark and not day
 W.B. Yeats
Sailing to Byzantium
Second Coming
WAR POETS:
 Rupert Brooke
The Soldier
 Siegfried Sassoon
The General
 Wilfred Owen
Anthem for Doomed Youth
1.1.Victorian Period: An Overview
(a) Social Background
The Victorian Period or Age (1837- 1901) is recognized during the rule of Queen
Victoria. It was a period of peace and prosperity. The development of industries and science
caused the society to undergo a change. Three social classes emerged in this era included- the
Upper class, Middle class, and Lower class. The Upper-class people were landowners and
industrialists who were making huge profits. They hired workers to work in their farms or
industries. They were further divided into three subclasses as a. the Royals who were the
members of royal family, b. the Middle Upper class who were important officers and lords and c.
the Lower Upper Class who were wealthy men and business owners.
The Middle class were the skilled people who were called as ‘Bourgeoisie’. This class
emerged during this age due to the rapid growth of industries, transportation and economy. The
domestic and overseas trade flourished which resulted in the growth of merchants and
shopkeepers more in number. The growth of new industries, banks, coal mines and cities needed
more labour. More such professionals were required for the administrative works and they rose
up quickly in the ranks and salary. This Middle-class people were further divided into two
subclasses, Higher Middle class and Lower Middle class. People from the Lower Middle class
worked under the people in the Higher ranks. The Lower class were further divided into the
Working class and the Underclass.
During this period, the roles of men and women were separated more sharply. Women
were best suited for the domestic sphere because they were considered physically weaker but
morally superior. The men travelled long distance to do work, leaving the women in home to
take care of the house. After the marriage, everything including the body, property, and money
of women belonged to her husband.
(b) Political background
Under the rule of Queen Victoria, the English government was formed comprising of a
Parliament. The Parliament was a Bicameral legislature and it consisted of The House of Lords
(appointed and not elected by public voting) and The House of Commons (elected by the
common people). These Houses met separately, passed bills which were made as a law by
winning majority votes in both the houses. The two strong political parties in the Victorian
period were The Whigs (Liberals) and the Tories (Conservatives). The Whigs supported the
 growth of the Parliament and wanted to control the Royal power. They thought that the
Parliament should take all the decisions and all men irrespective of their social status or economy
should have a right to vote. The Tories were in favour of monarchy and many rich officials
belonging to high posts were members of this party. They supported the voting rights for only
the rich men and who owned large plots of land. ‘Colonialism’ occurs when one nation expands
its territory beyond its own borders and establishes either colonies or administrative
dependencies through which they rule the people native to the land. The colonizers further took
control of the resources, finances and the labour markets of the occupied countries. During the
Victorian period, the British Empire was described as ‘high empire’ because it conquered a huge
amount of territory and colonized a massive proportion of the world’s population.
‘Cultural Imperialism’ is the process in which one nation dominates another, by
enforcing their culture and language upon the colonized people. ‘Orientalising' is a process by
which Western writers described the colonised people to possessing feminized, childish and
exotic characters, rather than trying to understand the reality and cultural values of the colonized
nation. In 1858, India came under the direct control of the Queen Victoria from the British East
India Company. In 1876, she was proclaimed Empress of India and the British rule in the country
lasted until 1947. The Commonwealth countries emerged during this period. The British directly
ruled in India, Africa, and the West Indies.
(c) The Social Change:
a. The First Industrial Revolution: It began at the end of the eighteenth century, starting with the
industrialisation of the textile industry. The power-looms required unskilled operators to work
the machines of the modern mills. The skilled handloom weavers and spinners working from
home lost their income. The structure of the family unit changed due to the migration of the
males from villages to towns and cities for working.
b. The Second Industrial Revolution began from the mid and extended to the late nineteenth
century with further advances in industrialisation. The development of steam power paved way
to increased production of clothes which paved way for the development in international trade.
Britain became the chief provider of cotton goods to the rest of the world. Further
industrialisation required more labour which led to exponential increase in urbanisation.
c. In the early to mid-nineteenth century, the advanced technology was invented in printing with
which the mass production of paper started and the decreased travelling time encouraged a new
 reading class of people. Current events were printed and sold in single sheets of paper as street
ballads with simple rhymes and rhythms. It resulted in the rise of the literacy levels as the
newspapers and periodicals were available. The novels and short stories were published in serial
form in the periodicals.
(d) Religious background:
Most of the writers of the nineteenth Century were strongly influenced by the King James
Version of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer. Victorian fictions find direct references to
the Book of Common Prayer and to this Bible. Churches were built in the new industrial cities
with regular attendance by major population. Even the language of the Bible and rhymes recited
in the sermons in churches were referred in the fictions by the writers. Churches continued to be
centres of the communal life in villages, towns and old cities. The role of Churches was vital as
they were having with good attendance on every Sunday mornings. ‘Preachers got a wide
audience in meeting halls, on television and radio. The government supported ‘Church of
England’ was the dominant church in Victorian Age in terms of numbers and memberships. New
religious movements like the Methodist and the Baptist were also increasing with their combined
chapels or nonconformist churches. During the English Civil War, the Congregationalist
churches had developed from the independent churches that separated from the Church of
England collectively known as Dissenting or Nonconformist churches. These new sects had
arisen because people wanted a simpler, direct religious form of Worship without priests and
rituals. These Methodists and the Baptists were predominantly lower class. A social distinction
was indicated by describing people to either ‘church' (Anglican) or ‘chapel' (Nonconformist)
goers. Evangelicalism became a powerful movement within the Church of England. Many
members of the Anglican Church had considerations with the views of the Dissenting Churches.’
In the early nineteenth century, an Evangelical Movement began in the Anglican Church,
inspired by the Methodist movement referred to as ‘Low Church Anglicanism.’ Christianity
spread the piousness among individuals. Missionaries went to other countries to spread
Christianity by setting many charities for the upliftment of the natives. They fought for abolition
of slavery. The great Evangelical social reformer, William Wilberforce the led the campaign to
end slavery in Britain. Lord Shaftesbury worked to end poverty and the exploitation of children.
The nation's political and church leaders were mostly the Oxford and Cambridge educated and
were mostly Anglicans. (Encyclopaedia Britanica)
(e) Literary background
The literature that developed during the reign of Queen Victoria entered a new period
called as the Victorian Age literature. Victorian literature has a fusion of romantic and realist
style of writing because it followed romanticism and was followed by modernism or realism.
The discoveries and inventions of science influenced greatly upon the literature of the age. The
Victorians took a great effort in describing and classifying the entire organisms and land forms.
The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin created deep impact although it took a long time for
this work to be widely accepted. The theory of evolution in the book broke many perceptions of
the Victorians about themselves. It challenged the concept of omnipotent God. The book
completely shook the future thoughts and beliefs of the people and the literature itself. The
people were confused whether to follow ancient religion or the new science which provided them
the opportunity to check the reality themselves. This age is the threshold of modernism. So,
much of the poetic work of the Victorian age is seen bridging between the romantic era and the
modernist era of the next century. The influence of science and industrialisation were strongly
reflected in this literature. In general, the Victorian Age literature characterizes practical or
materialistic life but portrays a completely ideal life. The ideal concepts like justice, truth, love,
and brotherhood were emphasized equally by the poets, essayists and novelists of the age. The
significant Victorian poets include Alfred Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett
Browning, Matthew Arnold, Christina Rossetti, A. E. Housman, Algernon Charles Swinburne
and G.M. Hopkins.
All the great writers and literature of the Victorian Age had three general characteristics
which were concerned with human progress. 1. The literature was realistic mainly concerned
with practical problems and solutions. 2. The Victorian literature moved away from the strict
principle of ‘art for art’s sake’ towards ‘art for moral or life’s sake.’ 3. Despite great economic,
scientific and social revolutions, this period was more like the age of pessimism and confusion.
In the Victorian Age, the literature underwent the transformation from romantic to realist style.
The language, theme, content, diction, poetic devices and analogies were unique. Many poets,
novelists and dramatists of Victorian age produced famous realistic works which paved way for
the modern literature. The Victorians loved the heroic stories of knights and they hoped to regain
 some of that noble behaviour. The Victorian literature always has a deep influence even on the
modern literature.
Let’s see the poetry of the major poets in the era.
1.2.Lord Alfred Tennyson
Alfred, Lord Tennyson, is one among the greatest poet of Victorian age English
literature. His poems are distinguished for their valiant heroic narratives, expressions of deep
emotions, lyricism, modulations, imagery. Tennyson began writing poetry at very young age. He
composed The Devil and the Lady when he was just fourteen and then, he and his brother
Charles published Poems of Two Brothers (1827). Tennyson was awarded the Chancellor’s Prize
in 1829 for his romantic poem based on the legendary African intellectual city, Timbuctoo. He
became a close friend with Arthur Henry Hallam in the undergraduate intellectual club ‘The
Apostles’. In 1830 Tennyson published Poems, Chiefly Lyrical which contained such works such
as Mariana, The Kraken, The Dying Swan, and Ode to Memory. Tennyson’sPoems in 1832
included The Lotos-Eaters, The Lady of Shalott, Hesperides, and The Palace of Art. He was
greatly shocked when Arthur Henry Hallam died in 1833 and some of his best works are
dedicated to Hallam after his untimely death. These poems along with others were included in
the two-volume Poems, published in 1842 which included The Vision of Sin, Locksley Hall,
Tithonus, The Princess: A Medley, and Ulysses. He was appointed the new poet laureate in
1850, after the publication of In Memoriam, dedicated to Hallam. His late works included the
twelve blank-verse poems on King Arthur and his knights comprising The Idylls of the King
(1859), Crossing the Bar, The Charge of the Light Brigade, and Maud.

 Ulysses

Ulysses – Alfred, Lord Tennyson

It little profits that an idle king,
By this still hearth, among these barren crags,
Match'd with an aged wife, I mete and dole
Unequal laws unto a savage race,
That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me.
I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees:
All times I have enjoy'd
Greatly, have suffer'd greatly, both with those
That loved me, and alone, on shore, and when
Thro' scudding drifts the rainy Hyades
Vext the dim sea: I am become a name;
For always roaming with a hungry heart
Much have I seen and known; cities of men
And manners, climates, councils, governments,
Myself not least, but honour'd of them all;
And drunk delight of battle with my peers,
Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy.
I am a part of all that I have met;
Yet all experience is an arch wherethro'
Gleams that untravell'd world whose margin fades
For ever and forever when I move.
How dull it is to pause, to make an end,
To rust unburnish'd, not to shine in use!
As tho' to breathe were life! Life piled on life
Were all too little, and of one to me
Little remains: but every hour is saved
From that eternal silence, something more,
A bringer of new things; and vile it were
For some three suns to store and hoard myself,
And this gray spirit yearning in desire
To follow knowledge like a sinking star,
Beyond the utmost bound of human thought.
This is my son, mine own Telemachus,
To whom I leave the sceptre and the isle,—
Well-loved of me, discerning to fulfil
This labour, by slow prudence to make mild
A rugged people, and thro' soft degrees
Subdue them to the useful and the good.
Most blameless is he, centred in the sphere
Of common duties, decent not to fail
In offices of tenderness, and pay
Meet adoration to my household gods,
When I am gone. He works his work, I mine.
There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail:
There gloom the dark, broad seas. My mariners,
Souls that have toil'd, and wrought, and thought with me—
That ever with a frolic welcome took
The thunder and the sunshine, and opposed
Free hearts, free foreheads—you and I are old;
Old age hath yet his honour and his toil;
Death closes all: but something ere the end,
Some work of noble note, may yet be done,
Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods.
The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks:
The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep
Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends,
'T is not too late to seek a newer world.
Push off, and sitting well in order smite
The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds
To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
Of all the western stars, until I die.
It may be that the gulfs will wash us down:
It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles,
And see the great Achilles, whom we knew.
Tho' much is taken, much abides; and tho'
We are not now that strength which in old days
Moved earth and heaven, that which we are, we are;
One equal temper of heroic hearts,
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.

Tennyson selected the hero, ‘Ulysses’ on the inspiration of the ancient hero of Homer’s
Odyssey. ‘Ulysses’ is the Roman form of the ancient Greek ‘Odysseus’ and the medieval hero of
Dante’s Inferno. This poem was written in 1833 and revised in 1842 for publication. In Homer’s
Odyssey, Ulysses has learnt from a prediction that he will take a final sea voyage after killing the
man who had desire for his wife Penelope. In Dante’s Ulysses, there is a heart-rending figure
who dies while sailing too far in search of knowledge. Tennyson’s version combines these two
stories by making Ulysses address his sailors after returns to Ithaca, resumes his administration
and before boards the ship on his final voyage. Ulysses is restless in Ithaca and driven by ‘the
longing I had to gain experience of the world.’At the same time, the poem concerns about the
poet’s own personal journey. It was composed few weeks after the death of his dear friend in
college, Arthur Henry Hallam, in1833. This poem is also an elegy for his beloved friend. Ulysses
represents the grieving poet, declares his pledge to move forward in life despite the knowledge
that ‘death closes all.’ The poem expresses the poet’s own need to struggle for life after the loss
of his beloved friend Arthur Hendry Hallam. The final line in the poem, ‘to strive, to seek, to
find, and not to yield,’ served as a slogan for the poet’s Victorian contemporary poets to escape
from the boredom of daily life. The poem presents the rebellion against romanticism and
agreement to realism. Therefore, Ulysses holds mythological meaning and the image of a
contemporary cultural icon at the same time.
Ulysses is concerned with Man’s desire to reach beyond the limits of one’s vision and the
ordinary details of everyday life. Itprovides the contrast to the poem The ‘Lotos-Eaters,’. In it,
the mariners proclaim that ‘we will no longer roam’ and desire to relax in the middle of the Lotos
fields. However, in Ulysses, the King ‘cannot rest from travel’ and longs to roam around the
globe. In the dramatic monologue by the King Ulysses, he is portrayed as an incompetent ruler
who moves away from responsibilities for longing for a wandering life. The major number of
lines declare his boasting about his previous voyages motivating his fellow mariners for
venturing into a new voyage. He dedicates a few lines to the administration of his son and his
efficiency.

Summary

Ulysses (Odysseus) declares that it is uselessto stay home ‘by this still hearth’ with his
old wife. It is of no use to give rewards and punishments for the unnamed mass of people in his
kingdom in the name of administration. He declares that he ‘cannot rest from travel’ but wants to
have a full life and cherishing every moment of it. He considers himself as a symbol for every
wanderer who roams the earth. The travels have exposed him to many different types of people
and many different ways of living. They have also given him the ‘delight of battle’ while
fighting the Trojan War with his men. Ulysses tells that his travels and encounters have shaped
his character, ‘I am a part of all that I have met.’ When he keeps travelling, the ‘margin’ of the
world that he has not yet traversed shrinks.
Ulysses further declares that it is boring to be stationary in one place. It is like rusting
instead of shining by encountering new experiences through travelling. Instead of staying in one
place and doing a simple act of breathing, his will constantly longs for new experiences that will
broaden his horizons. He wishes ‘to follow knowledge like a sinking star’ and gain wisdom.
Ulysses speaks about his son Telemachus, who will be his successor while he restarts his travel,
is seen in the line, ‘This is my son, mine own Telemachus, to whom I leave the scepter and the
isle.’ He speaks highly of his son’s ability in administration, carefulness, dedication, and
devotion to the native Gods. “He works his work, I mine,’ means that Telemachus will do
governing of the island while Ulysses will do his work of traveling the seas. In the last stanza,
Ulysses speaks to his fellow mariners who accompanied him in his previous travels and
weathered storms of the life for many years. He confirms that although they are old, they still
have the potential to do something dignified and respectable before ‘the long day wanes.’ He
encourages them saying that ‘tis not too late to seek a newer world’ and declares that his
intension to sail ‘beyond the sunset’ until he dies. He encourages them that they could even reach
the ‘Happy Isles,’ described in Greek mythology which is the paradise with continuous summer.
Great heroes like the Achilles were believed to be there after their deaths. Although Ulysses and
his mariners are not as physically strong as they were in youth, he says, they are ‘strong in will’
and can push forward persistently that is, ‘To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.’
In Ulysses, Odyssey has complaints that he is an idle king, living with his elderly wife,
making laws for citizens who sleep and eat but they do not know him in person. He is ‘a part of
all that I (he) have met,’ but this is not the end of his experience. In his opinion, his experience
cannot be earned though he lives multiple lives that would be not enough to get the highest
meaning for existence in this world. Though a little of his life has remained he does not want to
be inactive. He doesn’tlike taking rest even for three days. Ulysses feels that the port and the sea
lying beyond are calling him. He remembers ‘the thunder and the sunshine’ of exciting travels
together with his ‘mariners.’ He recalls their ‘free-hearts and free minds’ during the travel and
understands that every one of them was old now. But still he wishes that they can do something
noble as they are those men who once fought with Gods. As the light fades and the day ends,
Ulysses calls out that it is never late to discover a ‘newer world.’ He wishes to depart this shore
and sail beyond the horizon until his death. He says that they can reach the Happy Isles and meet
Achilles. Thus, even though, they are physically weak, their mental energy is intact. They have
‘heroic hearts’ which are ‘strong in will’ and want to explore and discover new world and never
want to give up. Ulysses is based on a genre in the Romantic Age called as a ‘crisis lyric,’ in
which a crisis is given and attempts to solve that crisis. The crisis in this poem is the old age
where Ulysses is forced to live his old days as an ‘idle’ king. But he refuses to live the dull life,
like his son Telemachus who is his successor. Ulysses loves him and his capacity for governance
and his ability to change the ‘rugged’ people into ‘mild’ ones. He praises his son to be
‘blameless’ and who honours the family’s Gods. In his opinion, Telemachus does not have the
energy for adventure like him in the line, ‘He works his work, I mine.’ For him, when he has led
a noble and risky life surviving by his intelligence in these unpredictable sea voyages. Ulysses
says this through the lines that ‘my purpose holds / To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths / Of
all the western stars, until I die.’ ‘Ulysses seems to explore the spiritual reality after death. But in
the concluding lines, Ulysses continues to challenge to push his life ahead with strength despite
his old age or weak body. In this poem, the poet has described his own declaration of liking for
an adventurous life in twenty-six lines, another twenty-six lines are dedicated to the invitation of
his fellow mariners to sail with him, offers eleven lines for praise to his son concerning the
governance of the kingdom in his absence, and only two words about his ‘aged wife’ Penelope.
Task:
A) Answer the following questions in one word/ phrase/ sentence:
1. Who is the speaker of the poem Ulysses and what is his wife’s name?
2. Who is the heir to the king mentioned in the poem Ulysses?
3. What war is mentioned in the poem Ulysses?
4. Who is the other great warrior mentioned in the poem Ulysses?
5. What is the speaker longing for in his life in the poem Ulysses?
B) Answer the following questions in around 200-250 words.
1. Give a detailed note on the background theme in the poem Ulysses.
2. Give a detailed account of the plight of the speaker in the poem Ulysses.
C) Write short notes on the following topics:
1.Give a brief account of character of Ulysses based on the poem Ulysses.
2. Analyse the Give a brief account on Telemachus based on the poem Ulysses.
3. Write a short note on Alfert, Lord Tennyson.
Answers to Question A)
1. Ulysses and Penelope 2. Telemachus 3. Trojan War 4. Achilles 5. For new voyage for new
lands
1.3.Robert Browning

Born in Camberwell, London, Robert Browning (1812-1889) had interest in literature due to his
early education, family support, financial wellbeing. He got stimulation for writing from his
father’s large library. He married a fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett and moved to live in Florence,
Italy. After the death of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in 1861 Browning moved back to England.
Browning gained critical acclaim in his 50 years of age. The greatest work, The Ring and the
Book, was published in 1868-69. The Browning Society was formed to honour him in Oxford
University. He is a recipient of an honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from Balliol College at
Oxford University.

 My Last Duchess

FERRARA
That’s my last Duchess painted on the wall,
Looking as if she were alive. I call
That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf’s hands
Worked busily a day, and there she stands.
Will’t please you sit and look at her? I said
“Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read
Strangers like you that pictured countenance,
The depth and passion of its earnest glance,
But to myself they turned (since none puts by
The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)
And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst,
How such a glance came there; so, not the first
Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, ’twas not
Her husband’s presence only, called that spot
Of joy into the Duchess’ cheek; perhaps
Fra Pandolf chanced to say, “Her mantle laps
Over my lady’s wrist too much,” or “Paint
Must never hope to reproduce the faint
Half-flush that dies along her throat.” Such stuff
Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough
For calling up that spot of joy. She had
A heart—how shall I say?— too soon made glad,
Too easily impressed; she liked whate’er
She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.
Sir, ’twas all one! My favour at her breast,
The dropping of the daylight in the West,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace—all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech,
Or blush, at least. She thanked men—good! but thanked
Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked
My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name
With anybody’s gift. Who’d stoop to blame
This sort of trifling? Even had you skill
In speech—which I have not—to make your will
Quite clear to such an one, and say, “Just this
Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss,
Or there exceed the mark”—and if she let
Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set
Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse—
E’en then would be some stooping; and I choose
Never to stoop. Oh, sir, she smiled, no doubt,
Whene’er I passed her; but who passed without
Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;
Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands
As if alive. Will’t please you rise? We’ll meet
The company below, then. I repeat,
The Count your master’s known munificence
Is ample warrant that no just pretense
Of mine for dowry will be disallowed;
Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed
At starting, is my object. Nay, we’ll go
Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though,
Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me!

Summary
This poem is broadly based on historical events involving Alfonso, the Duke of Ferrara, who
lived in the 16th century. Thespeaker of the poem is theDuke who tells us he is entertaining an
emissary who has come to negotiate the Duke’s marriage (he has recently been widowed) to the
daughter of another powerful family. As he shows the visitor through his palace, he stops before
a portrait of the late Duchess, apparently a young and lovely girl. The portrait is painted by the
famous painter, Fra Pandolf. The Dukestarts to discuss about the portrait sessions, then about the
Duchess herself. He accuses herfor flirting with everyone and not appreciating his “gift of a nine-
hundred-years- old name.” As his monologue continues, the listener realizes with certainty that
the Dukehad caused theearly demise of the Duchess: when her behaviour increased, “[he] gave
commands; / Then all smiles stopped together.” Having opened the fact, the Duke returns to the
business at hand: arranging for another marriage, with another young girl. As the Duke and the
emissary walk, they leave the painting behind, the Duke points out other notable artworks in his
collection which symbolizes his attitude to control the uncontrollable.
Critical Analysis

The poem “My Last Duchess” has rhyming pentameter lines. The rhymes do not create a sense
of closure when they come, but rather express a subtle driving force behind the Duke’s
compulsive revelations. The Duke is quite a performer: he mimics others’ voices, creates
hypothetical situations, and uses the force of his personality to deliver horrifying information.
The poem is a classic example of a dramatic monologue in which the speaker is clearly distinct
from the poet; an audience is suggested but never appears in the poem; and the disclosure of the
Duke’s character is the poem’s primary aim.Browning wishes to convey more than simply
creating a colorful character and placing him in a picturesque historical scene.So, the temporal
setting allows Browning to explore sex, violence, and aesthetics as all entangled together with
each other. The beauty of the language contradicts the fact that the Duchess was punished for her
sexuality. The poem powerfully presents the efforts of Victorian society to mould the
behaviour—sexual and otherwise—of individuals.
During the Renaissance, thepeople like the Duke exercised absolute power. It produced
magnificent art like theportrait of the Duchess that couldn’t have been entirely evil in its
allocation of societal control—even though it put men like the Duke in power.
A poem, “My Last Duchess” engages its readers on a psychological level. As we hear only
the Duke’s musings, we need to piece the story together ourselves. Browning compels his reader
to become involved in the poem in order to understand it, and this adds to the fun of reading his
work. It also forces the reader to question his or her own response to the subject portrayed and
the method of its portrayal.

 The Last Ride Together

I SAID—Then, dearest, since ’tis so,

Since now at length my fate I know,
Since nothing all my love avails,
Since all, my life seem’d meant for, fails,
Since this was written and needs must be—
My whole heart rises up to bless
Your name in pride and thankfulness!
Take back the hope you gave,—I claim
Only a memory of the same,
—And this beside, if you will not blame;
Your leave for one more last ride with me.

My mistress bent that brow of hers,

Those deep dark eyes where pride demurs
When pity would be softening through,
Fix’d me a breathing-while or two
With life or death in the balance: right!
The blood replenish’d me again;
My last thought was at least not vain:
I and my mistress, side by side
Shall be together, breathe and ride, CAESRA
So, one day more am I deified.
Who knows but the world may end to-night?
Hush! if you saw some western cloud
All billowy-bosom’d, over-bow’d
By many benedictions—sun’s
And moon’s and evening-star’s at once—
And so, you, looking and loving best,
Conscious grew, your passion drew
Cloud, sunset, moonrise, star-shine too,
Down on you, near and yet more near,
Till flesh must fade for heaven was here!—
Thus leant she and linger’d—joy and fear!
Thus lay she a moment on my breast.

Then we began to ride. My soul

Smooth’d itself out, a long-cramp’d scroll
Freshening and fluttering in the wind.
Past hopes already lay behind.
What need to strive with a life awry?
Had I said that, had I done this,
So might I gain, so might I miss.
Might she have loved me? just as well
She might have hated, who can tell!
Where had I been now if the worst befell?
And here we are riding, she and I.
Fail I alone, in words and deeds?
Why, all men strive and who succeeds?
We rode; it seem’d my spirit flew,
Saw other regions, cities new,
As the world rush’d by on either side.
I thought,—All labour, yet no less
Bear up beneath their unsuccess.
Look at the end of work, contrast
The petty done, the undone vast,
This present of theirs with the hopeful past!
I hoped she would love me; here we ride.
What hand and brain went ever pair’d?
What heart alike conceived and dared?
What act proved all its thought had been?
What will but felt the fleshly screen?
We ride and I see her bosom heave.
There’s many a crown for who can reach.
Ten lines, a statesman’s life in each!
The flag stuck on a heap of bones,
A soldier’s doing! what atones?
They scratch his name on the Abbey-stones.
My riding is better, by their leave.
What does it all mean, poet? Well,
Your brains beat into rhythm, you tell
What we felt only; you express’d
You hold things beautiful the best,
And pace them in rhyme so, side by side.
‘Tis something, nay ’tis much: but then,
Have you yourself what ‘s best for men?
Are you—poor, sick, old ere your time—
Nearer one whit your own sublime
Than we who never have turn’d a rhyme?
Sing, riding ‘s a joy! For me, I ride.

And you, great sculptor—so, you gave

A score of years to Art, her slave,
And that’s your Venus, whence we turn
To yonder girl that fords the burn!
You acquiesce, and shall I repine?
What, man of music, you grown gray
With notes and nothing else to say,
Is this your sole praise from a friend,
‘Greatly his opera’s strains intend,
But in music we know how fashions end!’
I gave my youth: but we ride, in fine.
Who knows what ‘s fit for us? Had fate
Proposed bliss here should sublimate
My being—had I sign’d the bond—
Still one must lead some life beyond,
Have a bliss to die with, dim-descried.
This foot once planted on the goal,
This glory-garland round my soul,
Could I descry such? Try and test!
I sink back shuddering from the quest.
Earth being so good, would heaven seem best?
Now, heaven and she are beyond this ride.
And yet—she has not spoke so long!
What if heaven be that, fair and strong
At life’s best, with our eyes upturn’d
Whither life’s flower is first discern’d,
We, fix’d so, ever should so abide?
What if we still ride on, we two
With life for ever old yet new,
Changed not in kind but in degree,
The instant made eternity,—
And heaven just prove that I and she
Ride, ride together, for ever ride?

Critical Analysis:
 “The Last Ride Together” was first published in 1855 in his collection Men and Women.
It is a dramatic monologue.The poem explores the complex emotions of a lover who is facing
rejection. It delves into themes of love, loss, acceptance, and the enduring power of memory. The
poem is notable for its poignant imagery, evocative language, and the psychological depth of its
speaker. Browning skilfully captures the bittersweet experience of unrequited love, making “The
Last Ride Together” a timeless exploration of human emotions.
The poem, “The Last Ride Together” explores different themes such as fate and
acceptance, human striving and uncertainty, nature of time and experience and power of love and
companionship. It also discusses the feminist theory, psychoanalytical theory and symbolist
theory.
The theme of fate and acceptance percolates through the poem as the speaker resigns himself
to his perceived fate of unrequited love. In spite of his efforts and hopes, he accepts the
inevitable failure of his love and accepts his situation. For example, in lines like “Since nothing
all my love avails” and “My whole heart rises up to bless / Your name in pride and
thankfulness,”. The speaker comes to terms with the reality of his circumstances and expresses
gratitude for the experience, despite the outcome.
The theme of human striving and uncertainty isexplored by Browning in this poem, as the
speaker reflects on the unpredictable nature of life and the futility of certain endeavours.
Through lines like “What need to strive with a life awry?” and “What if heaven be that, fair and
strong,” the poem delves into the uncertainties of love, success, and the pursuit of happiness.
Another prominent theme in the poem is the ephemeral nature of time and experience. This
theme is evident in lines such as “We, fix’d so, ever should so abide?” and “Earth being so good,
would heaven seem best?”. The speaker grapples with the idea of seizing the present moment
and cherishing it despite its being not permanent.
The theme of love and companionship appear as significant themes in the poem as the
speaker yearns for one last ride together with his beloved. Despite the challenges and
uncertainties, they face, the bond between the speaker and his beloved remains a source of
strength and solace. This theme is exemplified in lines like “And this beside, if you will not
blame; / Your leave for one more last ride with me,” where the speaker expresses a deep longing
for unity and connection, even in the face of adversity.
The literary theories explored in the poem are as follows:
 The poem reflects the patriarchal society of the contemporary time, where the speaker’s lover
is portrayed as a passive and submissive character. The speaker makes the decisions for both of
them “I said—Then, dearest, since ’tis so, / Since now doth lie thy only chance”. This reinforces
the idea that women were not given agency in their relationships and were expected to follow the
decisions of the male partners.
The speaker’s obsession with the last ride and his lover’s presence can be seen as a
manifestation of his unconscious desires and fears. His repetition of “the last ride” and
“together” suggests a deep-seated need for control and unity in the face of possible separation.
This repetition also reveals his anxiety about losing his lover and his attempts to hold on to their
time together.
While studying the poem from the symbolist theory, the ride itself can be seen as a symbol of
the couple’s relationship, with the speaker describing it as “our last ride” and “the last of youth”.
The ride represents the ups and downs of their time together, and the speaker’s desire to hold on
to it symbolizes his desire to cling to their love. The poem also uses natural imagery, such as the
“chestnut” and “beech” trees, to symbolize the couple’s growth and decay.
The poem is full of figures of speech. Some of the literary devices used in this poem are-
Imagery: “All billowy-bosom’d, over-bow’d / By many benedictions—sun’s”
Metaphor: “My soul / Smooth’d itself out, a long-cramp’d scroll”
Simile: “The petty done, the undone vast”
Hyperbole: “What if heaven be that, fair and strong”
Symbolism: “This foot once planted on the goal”
Repetition: “Ride, ride together, for ever ride”
Rhetorical Question:“Who knows what ‘s fit for us?”

Task:
A) Answer the following questions in one word/ phrase/ sentence.
1. What is the name of the painter who painted the picture of the last Duchess ?
2. With whom is the Duke speaking to ?
3. How does the last Duchess behave with the common people ?
4. What is the gift of the Duke to the Duchess she doesn’t care about ?
5. Where did the duchess ride the white mule in My Last Duchess ?
6. What does the Duke mean by saying “all smiles stopped” ?
7. Which request does the lover make to his beloved?
8. What is the form of the poems My Last Duchess and The Last Ride Together ?

B) Answer the following questions in about 600 words each:

1. Discuss the social structure discussed in the poem, My Last Duchess.
2. How does the Duke describe the last Duchess ?
3. Critically appreciate the poem, My Last Duchess.
4. Discuss the technique of dramatic monologue in the poem, The Last Ride Together.
5. How does Browning reveal the philosophy of love in the poem, The Last Ride Together ?
6. Critically appreciate the poem, The Last Ride Together.
C) Write short notes on the following:
1. The character of the Last Duchess.
2. The attitude of the rejected lover in The Last Ride Together.
3. The significance of the speaker’s repetition of “the last ride” and “together”
Check Your Progress:
Answers to the Question A)
1.Fra Pandolf2. The emissary 3. Frankly and openly 4. 900-years-name and hierarchy
5. Round the terrace 6. She died (he made the smile stop) 7. To allow a last ride together 8.
Dramatic Monologue.

1.4.Christina Rossetti

The Victorian poet Christina Rossetti wrote "Song (When I am dead, my dearest)" in 1848 at the
age of 18, though it wasn't published until 1862 in her collection Goblin Market and Other
Poems. The poem focuses on death and mourning, with the speaker urging a loved one not to
waste too much time grieving for her when she dies. Instead, the speaker tells this person to
move on with life: while the speaker isn't exactly sure what happens after death, she does seem
sure that she won't notice whether or not the living remember her.

2. When I am Dead My Dearest

“Song (When I am dead, my dearest)”

When I am dead, my dearest,

Sing no sad songs for me;
Plant thou no roses at my head,
Nor shady cypress tree:
Be the green grass above me
With showers and dewdrops wet;
And if thou wilt, remember,
And if thou wilt, forget.

I shall not see the shadows,

1I shall not feel the rain;
I shall not hear the nightingale
Sing on, as if in pain:
And dreaming through the twilight
That doth not rise nor set,
Haply I may remember,
And haply may forget.
Summary:

The poet appeals the loved ones in the poem to be king and loving to her when she is alive and
can feel the emotions. When she’s no longer alive, he shouldn’t sing any sorrowful songs for
her. After her death, theyplant roses or shade-giving cypress trees by her headstone which mean
nothing to her. So, when she’s alive, he should treat her nicely. The grass above the tomb should
be wet with rain and dew, that is natural growth. And ifthey remember her, let them remember.
And if they forget, her, let them forget. After her death, she will neither feel any emotion of
gloominess nor feel the rain. She won't hear the nightingale singing as if it were hurting. When
she’s dreaming in that half-light of death, which that doesn't grow brighter or fade into
darkness, maybe she’ll remember, and maybe she'll forget.
So, it is her earnest request to them to be good to her only when she is alive. The futility of the
delayed repentance is highlighted in the poem very poignantly.
Autobiographical Context
In 1843, Rossetti's father fell ill and was unable to continue teaching and supporting the
family. Rosetti was left at home to take care of her father, though she herself fell ill in 1845. This
illness was diagnosed as a heart condition at the time, though a different doctors believed her
symptoms were psychosomatic and that she was dealing with mental illness. In any case,
according to her brother William in a posthumous preface to her poetry, she went from being a
vivacious and passionate girl to a formal, controlled, and restrained adult.
These poemsreveal Rossetti’s preoccupation with her poor health and her fear that she
would die an early death. England reinvented itself under Queen Victoria, and while this time
period prompted a great deal of expansion and innovation, it also saw the return to traditional
family values. Women were expected to conform to strict expectations regarding everything
from education to sexuality and marriage. Maybe as a response, female writers such as Rosetti
began to write about their own lives, affirming the importance and meaningfulness of women’s
experiences.

Critical Analysis:
The poem begins with the speaker addressing a loved one who would mourn her if she
were to die. With a striking lack of sentimentality, the speaker instructs this person not to grieve
her when the time comes. This person should “Sing no sad songs” to mark the speaker’s passing,
nor plant “roses” and “cypress tree[s]” (plants often planted to commemorate the dead) by the
speaker’s grave.Instead, all the speaker wishes is that above her grave is green grass, wet with
rain and dew. In other words, nothing special, natural ! This growing grass reflects the natural
world moving on above the speaker's grave, unaffected by her passing. From symbolic point of
view, the poem also suggests that the speaker hopes her beloved will likewise move on—that this
person will focus on living rather than on mourning the dead.The speaker goes on to say that
whether she is remembered or forgotten doesn’t really matter, given that she won’t be around to
notice. After death, the speaker will no longer “see the shadows,” “feel the rain,” nor “hear the
nightingale” singing.
Whether this is because her spirit will have moved on to better things or because she has
simply ceased to exist, the speaker doesn't anticipate a lingering attachment to this world.
Instead, the speaker imagines death as “dreaming through [a] twilight / That doth not rise nor
set”—a kind of eternal sleep, in which she’ll be unaware of what’s happening on earth.
The speaker also doesn’t know whether she’ll be able to remember life on earth while in
this endless slumber. The speaker ends the poem by saying they may “Haply [...] remember” or
“haply [...] forget” the things that happened while she was alive. With the word “haply,” that
means ‘by chance or luck’, implies that the speaker isn’t sure what will become of
her own memories after she dies. In a sense, she’s telling her beloved that it’s okay to forget her
without knowing for certain that the forgetting will be mutual.
 The poem ultimately suggests that the mysteriousness of death justifies not wasting what
little time one has on earth. It’s important not to expend too much energy on those who won't be
around to appreciate it.The poem begins with the speaker addressing someone "dear" to her.
This loved one, the speaker says, should "Sing no sad songs" in the event of the speaker's
death. It isn't clear why the speaker is thinking about death, but what is immediately clear is her
lack of sentimentality on the subject. She doesn't want her loved one to feel obligated to mourn
her.Ironically enough, the speaker uses a song to implore her "dearest" not to sing for her once
she's died, almost as if she is mourning her own death in advance. Perhaps, then, she I
little sentimental after all!
As this poem has a subtitle- "song," it makes sense that its language is rhythmic and musical.
These lines are written in ballad meter, a bouncy meter made up of alternating lines
of iambic tetrameter and trimeter.
When I | am dead, | my dearest,
Sing no | sad songs | for me;
Symbols in the poem:
Roses and the Cypress Tree
The roses and cypress trees in the poem symbolize traditional mourning—the typical ways in
which the living go about commemorating the dead. Roses and cypress trees are also alive. They
also represent the idea that the mourning rituals people partake cannot reach the dead.
Green Grass
The "green grass" here symbolizes the way that life carries on in the face of death. Such grass
will grow and thrive above the speaker's grave, and this speaks to the way that the world will
keep on turning after the speaker dies.
The Nightingale
The nightingale (a kind of songbird) has been a symbol of lament (a passionate expression of
grief, sorrow, or mourning) in classical literature since the ancient Greeks first associated it with
Philomela.

 Winter: My Secret

"Winter: My Secret" is Christina Rossetti's strange, teasing, playful tale of the power of mystery.
The poem's speaker tantalizes her listener with the idea that she's got a big secret, one she'll
never tell. The more she insists that she wants her privacy, the more fascinated her listener gets.
This, the poem hints, is precisely what the speaker is hoping for. Rossetti first published this
poem in her important 1862 collection Goblin Market and Other Poems.

Winter: My secret

I tell my secret? No indeed, not I:

Perhaps some day, who knows?
But not today; it froze, and blows, and snows,
And you're too curious: fie!
You want to hear it? well:
Only, my secret's mine, and I won’t tell.
Or, after all, perhaps there's none:
Suppose there is no secret after all,
But only just my fun.
To-day's a nipping day, a biting day;
In which one wants a shawl,
A veil, a cloak, and other wraps:
I cannot ope to everyone who taps,
And let the draughts come whistling through my hall;
Come bounding and surrounding me,
Come buffeting, astounding me,
Nipping and clipping through my wraps and all.
I wear my mask for warmth: who ever shows
His nose to Russian snows
To be pecked at by every wind that blows?
You would not peck? I thank you for good will,
Believe, but leave that truth untested still.

Spring's an expansive time: yet I don’t trust

March with its peck of dust,
Nor April with its rainbow-crowned brief showers,
Nor even May, whose flowers
One frost may wither through the sunless hours.

Perhaps some languid summer day,

When drowsy birds sing less and less,
And golden fruit is ripening to excess,
If there's not too much sun nor too much cloud,
And the warm wind is neither still nor loud,
Perhaps my secret I may say,
Or you may guess.

Summary
 The speaker of this poem has a secret, and she knows how to use it. On a long cold winter
day, she finds both pleasure and clout in teasing a friend who's desperate to know what her secret
might be (or if indeed she has a secret "after all"). A secret, this poem suggests, can give its
keeper power; ironically enough, refusing to share a secret and insisting on one's privacy might
be an excellent way of capturing and holding attention.
This poem's speaker dances her secret around in front of her listener's eyes like a cat toy.
Every time they beg her to tell them what the big secret is, she whisks it away, insisting that "my
secret's mine, and I won't tell." When that trick starts to wear off, the speaker changes tack,
saying, "suppose there is no secret after all"—until her listener is hooked again. The speaker
even suggests that she might play this game for months and months. It's winter now, she
notes; maybe by summer she'll be willing to tell all—that is, if "there's not too much sun nor too
much cloud," if the weather is just right.
The speaker's prolonged toying with her listener suggests that she's discovered that
nothing makes a person so fascinating as a secret they won't reveal. All across the poem, her
apparent desire for privacy comes across more as an ironic bid for attention. Secrets have power,
the poem suggests—but only so long as they remain secret.
The speaker's images of secrecy as layers of clothing might also hint that the speaker's
desire for her listener's attention has a flirtatious edge. Revealing her secret, in her opinion, as
symbolism suggests, would be like undressing. Perhaps she and the listener both feel the power
and the charm of that possibility!

Critical Analysis

‘Winter: My Secret’ was published in Rossetti’s first collection, Goblin Market and
Other Poems. This collection consisted of non-devotional poetry rather than religious verses on
which Rossetti concentrated in her later publications. The most typical thing about this poem is
Rossetti’s innovative experimentation with form of imagery, and metaphors, a trait for which she
is known.The poem has surprised the contemporary and modern critics as well as readers, as
there is no apparent secret to which the poem can be related, and Rossetti’s poem resists
revealing its theme of secret. While there are many interpretations and speculations associated
with this poem, there exists no definitive explanation of the secret the narrator is so closely
guarding.
 The first stanza of the poem, brings to us its premise: the speaker gets herself/himself
engaged in a form of dialogue with her listener and, though we only hear the speaker’s side of
this dialogue, we can understand that the listener is begging the speaker persistently, to disclose a
particular secret. The opening line ‘I tell my secret? No indeed, not I’, means that she is
responding to an undisclosed listener who has asked her to reveal or disclose her secret. The
speaker, however, refuses to do so: she claims that the day is too cold for her to reveal her secret,
and rejects the listener playfully but a little impatiently. She is playful and coy suggesting that
she may ‘some day’ be willing to tell all, but ‘not today’, rather unusually citing the cold weather
as the reason. She accuses the listener of being ‘too curious’ to know what she is hiding and
demonstrates her growing impatience by uttering the oath ‘fie’ in response to the listener’s
pestering.
In the second stanza, the speaker once again becomes mocking and coy, when she says
that she may not even have a secret ‘after all’ and she is only having ‘fun’ by teasing the listener
into thinking that there is one. The remainder of the stanza then once again focuses on the
weather, and describes the cold as ‘nipping’ and ‘biting’, requiring her to wear layers of clothes
for warmth. It is here that the speaker’s metaphorical use of the cold becomes clear: it is likened
to the persistent curiosity of the listener, who offendsher with pleas and questions.
Her clothing –her ‘wraps’ afford a kind of safety, not only from the cold, but from the
prying eyes of onlookers who are waiting to know her secret. The suggestion that she wears her
‘mask for warmth’ indicates that it offers comfort to her, as she can hide behind it and avoid
revealing herself. Her secret forms part of her identity, which she prefers keeping hidden beneath
the disguising ‘cloak’ and ‘mask’. She thinks that by disclosing her secret, she would be
revealing too much of herself.
The door and the hallway in this stanza are also used as a metaphor: the inquiries
knocking at the door represent those who would have access or insight to her inner self, which
she is not willing to reveal. She asserts that she ‘cannot open to everyone who taps’ or, in other
words, that she cannot reveal her true self or her secrets simply to anyone. The cold draughts that
‘come whistling thro’ (her) hall’, ‘surrounding’ her, describe her uneasiness with and weakness
to the penetrating curiosity of the enquirers.
She insists that her desire to protect her privacy is only natural: after all, she says, ‘who
ever shows/His nose to Russian snows’, by which she means that it is foolish and possibly risky
to expose your inner self to the cold scrutiny of others, so that they may ‘peck’ at you. The
speaker thanks to the listener for his/her ‘good will’ in this regard, but would rather not put this
claim to the test.
The third stanza, continuing with the seasonal imagery, has a description of winter to
spring, which the speaker describes as ‘an expansive time’. She here refers to the new life and
the abundance of growth that characterize spring in the natural world – the blossoms of flowers
and the birth of animals. Generally, spring is usually portrayed in a positive light in poetry, but
the speaker describes it as a season not trustworthy, as it is too changeable and unsettled. March
or early spring is made unpleasant by the ‘peck of dust’ raised by winds. April, meanwhile, is
characterized by thunderstorms, whereas the flowers which bloom in May are easily killed by a
late frost and ‘sunless hours’.
In connection with the last two lines of the previous stanza, this third stanza refers to the
changeability and unreliability of human nature. Though spring holds the promise of
pleasantness and beauty – just as the listener promises not to ‘peck’ at or judge her should she
reveal her secret – such promises cannot be relied upon. Just as the beauties of spring can be
marred by changes in the weather, so too can human nature reveal itself to be ugly and fickle,
despite the best of intentions.
The fourth stanza of the poem, the speaker reveals that summer is the season in which she
is most likely to reveal her secret. Being free of the ‘wraps’ she is forced to wear in winter, she is
in danger of revealing more of herself than before; however, this does not seem to cause her any
anxiety: the imagery used in this stanza is temperate and calm, not suggestive of any sort of
excess or urgency.
The day itself is described as moderate, neither too cloudy not too sunny, too still nor too
windy, and even the birds are quiet. It is against the backdrop of this temperate setting, the
speaker suggests, that she will be able to reveal her secret. If you read it along with the previous
stanzas, this could suggest that it is only when the enquirer’s desperation to know her secret is
tempered, and diminished, that she will feel comfortable revealing it.The poem is in the form of
a dramatic monologue.

Task:
A) Answer the following questions in one word/ phrase/ sentence.
1. What is the theme of the poem‘When I am Dead My Dearest’ ?
 2. What does the poet tell the dearest not to do after her death ?
3. What will she not experience after her death ?
4. How should be the grass on her grave ?
5. Whatis the form of the poem, Winter: My Secret ?
6. How is April characterized by the poet to the listener?
7. In which collection was ‘Winter: My Secret’ published byRossetti ?
B) Answer the following questions in about 600 words each:
1. Discuss the themes of the poem‘When I am Dead My Dearest’ in detail.
2. How does Rossetti uses symbols in the poem, ‘When I am Dead My Dearest’ ?
3. Critically appreciate the poem, ‘When I am Dead My Dearest’.
4. Discuss the technique of dramatic monologue in the poem, Winter: My Secret.
5. How does Rossettidiscuss the Nature in the poem, Winter: My Secret ?
6. Critically appreciate the poem,Winter: My Secret .
C) Write short notes on the following:
1. Use of Symbols in the poem ‘When I am Dead My Dearest’ .
2. The attitude of the speaker in the poem, ‘Winter: My Secret’.
3. The style of the poetry of Christina Rossetti.
Check Your Progress:
Answers to Question A)
1. Mysteriousness of death 2. Sing no sad songs 3. Nightingale singing 4. Wet with rain and
dew 5. Dramatic Monologue6. April has its rainbow-crowned brief showers 7. Goblin
Market and Other Poems

1.5. Dante Gabriel Rossetti

Dante Gabriel Rossetti (born May 12, 1828, London, England—died April 9, 1882,
Birchington-on-Sea, Kent): He was an English painter and poet who helped found the Pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood, a group of painters treating religious, moral, and medieval subjects in a
non-academic manner. Dante Gabriel was the most celebrated member of the Rossetti family.
Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti, generally known as Dante Gabriel Rossetti, was an
English poet, illustrator, painter, and translator, and member of the Rossetti family. He was the
founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848 with William Holman Hunt and John Everett
Millais. Rossetti was later to be the main inspiration for a second generation of artists and writers
influenced by the movement, most notably William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. His work
also influenced the European Symbolists and was a major precursor of the Aesthetic movement.
Rossetti's art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism. His early poetry
was influenced by John Keats and William Blake. His later poetry was characterised by the
complex interlinking of thought and feeling, especially in his sonnet sequence, The House of
Life. Poetry and image are closely entwined in Rossetti's work. He frequently wrote sonnets to
accompany his pictures, spanning from The Girlhood of Mary Virgin and Astarte Syriaca, while
also creating art to illustrate poems such as Goblin Market by the celebrated poet Christina
Rossetti, his sister.

 A Match with the Moon

WEARY already, weary miles to-night

I walked for bed: and so, to get some ease,
I dogged the flying moon with similes.
And like a wisp she doubled on my sight
In ponds; and caught in tree-tops like a kite;
And in a globe of film all liquorish
Swam full-faced like a silly silver fish;—
Last like a bubble shot the welkin's height
Where my road turned, and got behind me, and sent
My wizened shadow craning round at me,
And jeered, “So, step the measure,—one two three!”
And if I faced on her, looked innocent.
But just at parting, halfway down a dell,
She kissed me for good-night. So you'll not tell.

Summary

This poem, a sonnet, employs imaginative images to compare the full moon to various
objects as he opens his desire to ‘dog[ged] the flying moon with similes’. He has encountered on
a weary traveller's journey. It reflects the playful and at the same time whimsical style of
Rossetti's early works in which he contrasts with the more introspective tone of his later poetry.
As criticised by the critics, the poem has a whimsical tone that captures the romanticist spirit of
the time, with its emphasis on nature and the imagination.
Critical Analysis:
 The poem has a similar tone like a dramatic monologue in which he speaks with some
listener. He tells him/ her how ‘he dogged the flying moon with similes’. The verb ‘to dog’ is
perhaps aimlessly chasing something with barking. He, here, chases the full moon and finds her
different moods or shapes. In a pond, she is doubled. On the tree-tops, she is like the kites. In a
globe of film all liquorish, she swam full-faced like a silly silver fish. He sees her also as ‘a
bubble shot the welkin's height/ where my road turned, and got behind me, and sent/ (his) My
wizened shadow craning round at me. She played with him with jeers, “So, step the measure,—
one two three!”. And if he faced on her, she looked innocent. After playing for a while, she
parted. And‘at parting, halfway down a dell, / She kissed me for good-night.’ The line-“So you'll
not tell” makes the poem a dramatic monologue. He discloses his secret of the night with moon
to the listener and feels assured that he/ she will not tell anyone.
The similes in the poem are of wisp, kite, liquorish globe, silver fish, and bubble which
compare the moon with different objects. The moon is personified as a playmate or a beloved in
the last two lines. She is innocent. The silver fish is also personified as a silly one. The poem can
be described as a Nature poem that delves into the beauty of the night and the moon.

1.6. G. M. Hopkins
Gerard Manley Hopkins (28 July 1844 – 8 June 1889): He was an English poet
and Jesuit priest. Robert Bridges published his poems after his death which placed him among
the leading English poets. His concept of sprung rhythm – established him as an innovator, as did
his praise of God through vivid use of images and nature.By 1930 Hopkins's work was seen as
one of the most original literary advances of his century. It intrigued such leading 20th-century
poets as T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender and Cecil Day-Lewis.
Before Hopkins, most Middle English and Modern English poetry was based on a
rhythmic structure followed the Norman side of English literary heritage. This structure is based
on repeating "feet" of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place
on each repetition. In the opinion of Hopkins, this structure was called "running rhythm", and
although he wrote some of his early verse in running rhythm, he became fascinated with the
older rhythmic structure of the Anglo-Saxon tradition. Beowulf was the most famous example of
it.
Hopkins created his own rhythmic structure called sprung rhythm. Sprung rhythm is
structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four
syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. So, Hopkins's
sprung rhythm can be seen as anticipating much of free verse. His work has no great affinity with
either of the contemporary Pre-Raphaelite and neo-romanticism schools. He only follows their
descriptive love of nature and he is often seen as a precursor to modernist poetry, or as a bridge
between the two poetic eras.

 I wake and I feel the fell of dark and not day

I wake and feel the fell of dark, not day.

What hours, O what black hours we have spent
This night! what sights you, heart, saw; ways you went!
And more must, in yet longer light's delay.
With witness I speak this. But where I say
Hours I mean years, mean life. And my lament
Is cries countless, cries like dead letters sent
To dearest him that lives alas! away.

I am gall, I am heartburn. God's most deep decree

Bitter would have me taste: my taste was me;
Bones built in me, flesh filled, blood brimmed the curse.
Selfyeast of spirit a dull dough sours. I see
The lost are like this, and their scourge to be
As I am mine, their sweating selves; but worse.

Summary

The poem begins with the speaker who is stating that he suffered a restless night. He was
alone with his heart in the dark, waiting for the light. It becomes clear that this wait for the light
is something that occurs at all hours of the day. He has waited not for days, but for years, for his
entire life. God has yet to show himself and burn off the darkness in and around the speaker’s
mind and heart.
In the last six lines, he explains how he is in the inescapable situation. The beliefs he
debates, and the internal depression he suffers, all reside within his body. All he can taste is his
own internal “bitter taste,” as if in a constantly repeating cycle. The poem concludes with the
speaker accepting that compared to the non-believers he has the good taste.
‘I wake and feel the fell of dark, not day’by Hopkins is a Petrarchan sonnet that is
separated into one set of eight lines and another set of six. The lines are also structured with a
consistent rhyme scheme. It follows the pattern of ABBAABBA CCDCCD. Hopkins has written
a number of different sonnet-like elements in this piece, but the subject matter stands out. This
piece is filled almost completely with despair which is unusual for sonnets. The speaker starts
vaguely, then goes into great detail about the poor state of his life.
This piece is considered to be one of Hopkins’ “terrible sonnets,” in whichhe deals with
the dark subject matter. Many of his poems, express feelings of alienation from society and from
God. There is a series of questions running through these texts. Often Hopkins expresses his own
frustration with, and depressions about, God. This may be called a religious poem which deals
with the subject of the belief in the God.
There are two quatrains in the octave. They develop the speaker’s mental and emotional
state. The first quatrain speaksabout one terrible sleepless night and the second reveals that this
night is one of many in a depressing period.
The volta, or turn between the octave and the sestet, does not occur in this piece until the
last two lines. The final couplet presents a poignant contrast to the initial ideas of this poem.
Hopkins’ speaker realizes, that he has it much better than others after complaining about his own
life for twelve lines. The speaker believes in God, and that fact improves his life. For those who
do not, he knows they are in “worse” situations.
Task:
A) Answer the following questions in one word/ phrase/ sentence.
1. Which figure of speech does Dante Gabriel Rossettiuse in the poem‘A Match With the
Moon’?
2. How is the moon seen by Dante Gabriel Rossetti on the tree-tops ?
3. What does the shadow say while playing ?
4. What does the poet request the listeners in the end ?
5. What is the form of the poem ?
6. Which structure of the poetry was invented by Hopkins ?
7. Why is the poem ‘I wake and I feel the fell of dark, not day’called a ‘terrible sonnet’ ?
8. What is the rhyme scheme of the sonnet, ‘I wake and I feel the fell of dark, not day’ ?
B) Answer the following questions in about 600 words each:
1. Discuss use of figures of speech in the poem, ‘A Match with the Moon’.
2. How does Dane Gabriel Rossetti use dramatic monologue in ‘A Match with the
Moon’?
 3. Critically appreciate the poem, ‘‘I wake and I feel the fell of dark, not day’’.
4. Discuss the suffering of the poet reflected in the poem, ‘I wake and I feel the fell of
dark, not day’.
C) Write short notes on the following:
1. Use of similesin the poem ‘A Match with the Moon’ .
2. Thetheme of the poem,‘I wake and I feel the fell of dark, not day’.
Check Your Progress:
Answers to Question A)
2. Similes 2. Like kite 3. “So, step the measure,—one two three!” 4. Not to tell the secret to
anyone 5. Dramatic Monologue 6. Sprung Rhythm 7. Because of the dark subject matter
8.ABBAABBA CCDCCD
2.5. W.B. Yeats

William Butler Yeats (1865–1939): He was born in Dublin, Ireland, on June 13, 1865. He
was born in an Anglo-Irish Upper Class. So, he involved himself with the Celtic Revival, a
movement that was against the cultural influences of English rule in Ireland during the
Victorian Age. This movement upheld the spirit of Ireland's native heritage. Yeats drew
inspiration from the Irish mythology and folklore. Yeats met an Irish revolutionary woman
who was famous for her nationalist politics and her beauty called Maud Gonne in 1889.
Though not married with her, Maud Gonne remained a dominant figure in his poetry despite
herrejection. He was influenced by the conservatism of his American counterparts in London,
T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. After 1910, his work got strongly influenced by Pound and had
more modern imagery. Yeats continuously wrote on the traditional verse forms and
mysticism. He was appointed as a senator of the Irish Free State in 1922. He was a
playwright who was one of the founders of the famous Abbey Theatre in Dublin and one of
the greatest poets. He was a Nobel Prize in recipient in 1923. He died in 1939 at the age of
seventy-three. His famous poems are Leda and the Swan, Death, The Second Coming, He
wishes for the Cloths of Heaven, Long-Legged Fly, An Irish Airman Foresees His Death,
Sailing to Byzantium, Easter 1916, The Lake Isle of Innisfree Among School Children etc.,
One of the most successful play of Yeats was The Countess Cathleen.

 Sailing to Byzantium- W. B. Yeats

I
That is no country for old men.
The young In one another's arms, birds in the trees, —
Those dying generations—at their song,
The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,
Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long
Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.
Caught in that sensual music all neglect
Monuments of unageing intellect.
II
An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,
Nor is there singing school but studying
Monuments of its own magnificence;
And therefore I have sailed the seas and come
To the holy city of Byzantium.
III
O sages standing in God's holy fire
As in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And be the singing-masters of my soul.
Consume my heart away; sick with desire
And fastened to a dying animal
It knows not what it is; and gather me
Into the artifice of eternity.
IV
Once out of nature I shall never take
My bodily form from any natural thing,
But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make
Of hammered gold and gold enamelling
To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;
Or set upon a golden bough to sing
To lords and ladies of Byzantium
Of what is past, or passing, or to come.

Summary:

In the first stanza, the speaker speaks about the country (Ireland) that he has left. He
says that it is ‘no country for old men.’ The poet means that Ireland or this earth is not the
right place for old men because all the people caught in a sensual music which makes them
neglect the ageless artistic achievements of the intellect. So, the speaker describes old men as
‘Monuments of unageing intellect.’ The young men and women, the lovers are embraced in
one another’s arm. During ‘all summer long’ period, the birds on the trees are singing,
salmon fishes and mackerel fishes inhabit the seas. All these creatures the ‘fish, flesh and
fowl’ which sing the sensual song belong to the dying generation. This ‘sensual music’
makes the young neglect the old.
The second stanza says that an old man is a ‘paltry thing,’ an unimportant object in that
country (Ireland). An old man is considered as a torn coat hung upon a stick. He says that
until his soul can clap its hands and sing the newly learnt song which has to become louder
and louder because the physical powers of the old man has worsened. As a result of the
difficulty in finding the right place for his soul to be educated in that country, the poet
decides to sail across seas and go to the holy city of Byzantium.
In the third stanza, the speaker addresses the sages ‘standing in God’s holy fire / As in the
gold mosaic of a wall,’ and asks them to be his soul ‘singing-masters.’ Addressing the sages
standing in God's holy fire in Byzantium, the poet compares the sages to figures standing in
the gold mosaic works, inlaid work of coloured marble or glass of a wall. He requests them
to climb down from their position (wall) in a spiral movement and become the educator of
his soul. He wants his soul can to learn the right kind of song. He hopes they will consume
his heart away, for his heart ‘knows not what it is’ . . . it is ‘sick with desire / And fastened to
a dying animal.’ The speaker wishes to be included ‘Into the artifice of eternity.’ The
narratordesires that once a person has purified or consumed his heart, it will be easier for him
to gather into the artifice of eternity. In other words, the narrator wants to become part of
those things which are beyond the cycle of birth and death.
In the fourth stanza, the speaker says that once he has died and taken out of the natural
world, he will no longer adopt his ‘bodily form’ of any other ‘natural thing.’ But wishes
himself to be born as a singing bird made up of hammered gold, by the Grecian goldsmiths.
“To keep a drowsy Emperor awake,” or set upon a tree of gold “to sing / To lords and ladies
of Byzantium / Or what is past, or passing, or to come.” Once the narrator is out of this cycle
of nature of being ‘begotten, born and dying,’ he will break all contact with natural things
i.e., with the physical world. Instead of taking his bodily form from any natural thing he shall
take a form that was hammered into golden shape with golden enamelling by Grecian
goldsmiths. The Grecian goldsmiths made a golden bird that could sing to a sleepy Emperor
and keep him awake. He also wants to be that golden bird gathered into the artifice of
eternity, so that he is perched upon a golden bough (branch) in the court of Byzantium. That
would enable him to sing of all times- past, present and future (of what is past, or passing or
to come) to the Lords and Ladies of Byzantium. This song of the poet will be different from
the sensual music of dying generations and will sing of monuments of unageing intellect.

Critical Analysis

Sailing to Byzantium written in 1926. This poem is an absolute evidence of the

Yeats’ wholehearted interest in that historic city of Byzantium and his interests in its art and
culture. The title,‘Sailing to Byzantium’ suggests a journey to a distant, imaginary land
where the poet achieves magical union with beautiful and eternal works of art. Byzantium is
the old name of Constantinople or Istanbul, which was the capital of the Eastern Roman
Empire. It was very famous for its advanced culture, mosaic art and metal enamelling.
Sailing to Byzantium is written in an old verse form consisting of four stanzas of
eight-line each consisting of iambic pentameter and rhymed in a scheme with two trios of
alternating rhyme followed by a couplet that has a rhyme scheme of abababcc. It is one of the
greatest poems of Yeats and one of the most inspirational works of the twentieth century. It is
included in Yeats’ single poetry collection The Tower (1928). Yeats speaks about the pain of
the old age. Even when the heart is ‘fastened to a dying animal’ called the body, the
imaginative power and spiritual power are required by everyone to remain alive as an
individual. So,the speaker decides to leave the country of the youth and travel to Byzantium.
The sages in that city’s famous gold mosaics could become the ‘singing-masters’ of his soul.
He expects that the sages in that country will appear in fire and take him away from his body
into an existence outside time.There, like a great work of art, he could exist in ‘the artifice of
eternity.’ In the astonishing final stanza of the poem, he declares that once he is out of his
body, he will never again reappear in the form of any natural thing. He wishes to become a
golden bird, sitting on a golden tree, singing of the past (‘what is past’), the present (that
which is ‘passing’), and the future (that which is ‘to come’). Yeats has an attraction of the
artificial and considers it superior to the natural. It is one of the most prevalent themes in the
poem.
Alliteration is found abundantly in the poem, for example ‘Fish, flesh or fowl’;
‘begotten, born’; ‘singing school but studying;’ ‘sages standing’; ‘Grecian goldsmiths’;
‘lords and ladies’; ‘past, or passing’ etc., Assonance is found in the expressions like ‘salmon-
falls,’ ‘the mackerel-crowded,’ ‘clap its hands,’ ‘gold mosaic,’ etc., Caesura is a literary
device when a line has punctuation in midway and where the reader has to pause for example
the line ‘Whatever is begotten, born, and dies’ needs adequate pause when reading it. The
whole poem is a metaphorical journey sailing to the ultimate city of Byzantium. The specific
metaphors seen in the poem are the ‘dying animal’ meaning the physical body, ‘tattered coat
upon a stick’ meaning a thin old man and ‘country’ meaning the real world. Personification is
a literary technique of giving a human status to objects or things like ‘Soul clap its hands and
sing,’ the soul is personified as a human.
Sailing To Byzantium is an ottava rima poem, that has stanzas with eight lines and a
rhyme scheme of ‘abababcc.’ There are full rhymes like ‘song and long’; ‘thing and sing’ etc.
There are some slant rhymes like ‘sees and dies’; ‘dress and magnificence’ etc. They bring
both agreement and disagreement to certain parts of the poem. The rhyming couplets (a pair
of successive line with rhyming words) with full rhyme ‘neglect and intellect’ ‘me and
eternity’ bringing definite closure of the thoughts.

 Second Coming

Turning and turning in the widening gyre

The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.
Surely some revelation is at hand;
Surely the Second Coming is at hand.
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi
Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
A shape with lion body and the head of a man,
A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
 Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?
Summary:
"The Second Coming" is one of the most famous poems by W.B. Yeats. As it was
written in 1919, after the end of World War I, it poignantly describes a deeply mysterious
and powerful alternative to the Christian idea of the Second Coming. Jesus had
prophesied his return to the Earth as a savior announcing the Kingdom of Heaven. The
first stanza of the poemdescribes a world of chaos, confusion, and pain. The second,
being longer stanza, describes the speaker’s vision of the future, but this vision replaces
Jesus's heroic return with what seems to be the arrival of a surreal beast. Having distinct
imagery and vivid description of the collapse of the society, "The Second Coming" is
also one of Yeats's most celebrated poems.

Critical Analysis:

The poem portrays decay of of human civilisation because of modern materialism,

over ambition and greed.It also presents a nightmarish apocalyptic scenario. The speaker
describes human beings’ increasing loss of self-control and tendency towards violence
and anarchy. The surreal images in the poem create an unsettling atmosphere that suggest
a world on the edge of destruction.
Though the poem is metaphorically complex, it has a relatively simple message.It
basically predicts that humanity is about to end, and the civilization is about to be
undone. Yeats wrote this poem right after World War I which was a global catastrophe
that killed millions of people.
With the above background, thechallengingimagery in the first stanza makes more
sense. The “falconer,” represents that the control of humanity on its world, has lost its
“falcon” in the turning “gyre”, the giant wheel or some spiral instrument. It also suggests
how the modern world has distanced people from nature. In any case, it’s clear that
whatever connection once linked the metaphorical falcon and falconer has broken, and
now the human world is in the whirlwind of chaos.
Put in other words, the supposed arc ofprogress of humanity has been an illusion.
As a result, the promises of modern society—of safety, security, and human dignity—
have proven empty. And in their place, grotesque perversion of the “Second Coming”, a
 horrific creature has emerged, promised by Christianity. Jesus Christ is supposed to
return to the earth and invite true believers to heaven as a second coming. However,
this Second Coming is clearly not Jesus, but instead a “rough beast” that humanity itself
has given birth to.
With this final image of the beast, the poem indicates that while in the 2,000
yearshumanity was thought to get more civilized after Christ's birth, in reality people
have been sowing the seeds of their own destruction all along. So, this “rough beast” is
now “pitilessly” slouching toward the birthplace of Jesus.
Thus, “The Second Coming” offers an unsettling take on Christian morality,
suggesting that it is not the stable and reliable force that people believe it to be. The poem
has clear allusion to the biblical Book of Revelation from the start. Jesus returns to Earth
to save the worthy. According to the Bible, this is expected to happen when humanity
reaches the end times witnessing wars, famine, destruction and hatred. The poem
suggests that the end times are already happening, because humanity has lost all sense of
morality—and perhaps that this morality was only an illusion to begin with.

Task:
A) Answer the following questions in one word/ phrase/ sentence.
1. Who has no importance in the poem Sailing to Byzantium?
2. What type of poem is Sailing to Byzantium?
3. Whatdoes the art works teach the speaker in the poem Sailing to Byzantium?
4. What does the poet want to become after death in the poem Sailing to Byzantium?
5. When was the poem, Second Coming written ?
6. What is the state of humanity in the 20th century?
7. Who arrives instead of the arrival of Jesus Christ ?
B) Answer the following questions in about 600 words each:
1. Give a detailed note on the background themes in the poem, Sailing to Byzantium.
2. Discuss the dilemma of the speaker in the poem, Sailing to Byzantium.
3. Biblical references in the poem, Second Coming.
4. Portrayal of modern society in the poem, Second Coming.
C) Write short notes on the following:
 1. The artistic excellence in Byzantium, in the poem, Sailing to Byzantium.
2. Analyse various poetic devices seen in the poem, Sailing to Byzantium.
3. The contrast between Material and spiritual world.
Check Your Progress:
Answers to Question A)
` 1. Old age people 2.ottava rima poem3. The song of eternity 4.to become a golden bird,
sitting on a golden tree5.after the end of World War I 6.Converted into a rough beast
7. A rough beast

WAR POETS:

Poetry written about the experiences in the Wars is called War Poetry. Many
poets have written about the experience of war since the Greeks. However, the young
soldier poets of the First World War established it as a literary genre. Their combined
voice have defined the texts of Twentieth Century Europe.It has become part of the
mythology of nationhood, and an expression of both historical consciousness and
political conscience. The war poetry says something about what we are, and what we
want to be, as a nation.
In British literature, there are two streams- Pro-War Poetry which glorifies the
wars as the opportunities for sacrificing for the nation, to express patriotism. The poetry
of Rupert Brooke is of this type. His poetry reflects a more traditional and idealized view
of war.The other poetry reflects a transition from early romantic influences towards
a gritty, realistic style forged in the trenches. They express futility of wars. The problems
can be solved even by discussion not only through war. Some of the post-war poets are-
John Allan Wyeth, Wilfred Owen, Robert Graves, Siegfried Sassoon, David Jones, Ivor
Gurney, Rupert Brooke, Edward Thomas, Isaac Rosenberg, Eugenio Montale, etc.
War poetry is not necessarily ‘anti-war’. It is, however, about the very large
questions of life: identity, innocence, guilt, loyalty, courage, compassion, humanity, duty,
desire, death. Its response to these questions, and its relation of immediate personal
experience to moments of national and international crisis, gives war poetry an extra-
literary importance. Owen wrote that even Shakespeare seems ‘vapid’ after Sassoon: ‘not
of course because Sassoon is a greater artist, but because of the subjects’.
 While Owen’s early work, his wartime poetry, stark and often angry, became a
powerful voice for a generation disillusioned by war. He employed satire and direct
language to express his anti-war sentiments, shocking the public with graphic depictions
of the horrors he witnessed.
Sassoon's work remains relevant today for its unflinching portrayal of the
psychological and physical toll of war. His influence can be seen in the work of later war
poets like Wilfred Owen, with whom he shared a close friendship, and Robert Graves,
who similarly explored the realities of combat. Sassoon's legacy lies in his commitment
to truth-telling, offering a timeless testament to the enduring cost of war on both
individuals and society.

1.6.Rupert Brooke

Rupert Chawner Brooke (3 August 1887 – 23 April 1915): He was an English poet
known for his idealistic war sonnets written during the First World War. Especially "The
Soldier" is his most famous poem. He made friends among the Bloomsbury group of
writers, some of whom admired his talent while others were more impressed by his good
looks. He also belonged to another literary group known as the Georgian Poets and was
one of the most important of the Dymock poets, associated with
the Gloucestershire village of Dymock where he spent some time before the war. He met
Robert Frost and Edward Thomas in the group. He also lived at the Old
Vicarage, Grantchester, which stimulated one of his best-known poems, named after the
house, written with homesickness while in Berlin in 1912. While travelling in Europe, he
prepared a thesis, entitled "John Webster and the Elizabethan Drama", which earned him
a fellowship at King's College, Cambridge, in March 1913. Brooke came to public
attention as a war poet early the following year, when The Times Literary
Supplement published two sonnets on 11 March; the latter was then read from the pulpit
of St Paul's Cathedral on Easter Sunday (4 April).

 The Soldier

If I should die, think only this of me:

That there’s some corner of a foreign field
That is for ever England. There shall be
In that rich earth a richer dust concealed;
A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware,
Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam;
A body of England’s, breathing English air,
Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home.
And think, this heart, all evil shed away,
A pulse in the eternal mind, no less
Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England given;
Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her day;
And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness,
In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.

Summary

"The Soldier" is a poem by Rupert Brooke written during the first year of the First World
War (1914). It is a deeply patriotic and idealistic poem that expresses a soldier's love for
his homeland—in this case England, which is portrayed as a kind of nurturing paradise.
Indeed, such is the soldier's bond with England that he feels his country to be both the
origin of his existence and the place to which his consciousness will return when he dies.
The poem was a hit with the public at the time, capturing the early enthusiasm for the
war. Nowadays, the poem is seen as somewhat naïve, offering little of the actual
experience of war. That said, it undoubtedly captures and distils a particular type of
patriotism.
The poet says, if he dies in the war, he wants to be remembered in a particular
way. He wishes to tell how the far-off land on which he dies, will have a small piece of
England forever. That piece of the earth will be enriched by his dead body. And because
his body is made from dirt born in England; England created him and gave him
consciousness. It also gave him her blooming plants to fall in love with, and gave himhis
sense of freedom. His body belongs to England and has always breathed English air. The
rivers of England have cleansed him, and he was blessed by England's sun.
He wishes to consider the way in which his soul, through death, will be made
pure. His consciousness will return to the immortal consciousness like a beating pulse,
and return the beautiful thoughts that England gave him. He'll return the sights and
sounds of his home country. He further wishes to return to the beautiful dreams that were
as happy as England's daytime and to the laughter shared with English friends. And he'll
return England's gentleness, which lives in the English minds that are at peace under the
English sky ‘the English heaven where I will be at peace too when I die’.

Critical Analysis

“The Soldier” explores the strong bond between a patriotic British soldier and his
homeland. Through this soldier’s passionate discussion of his relationship to England, the
poem implies that people are formed by their home environment and culture, and that
their country is something worth defending with their life. Indeed, the soldier sees
himself as owing his own identity and happiness to England—and accordingly is willing
to sacrifice his life for the greater good of his nation. This is, then, a deeply patriotic
poem, implicitly arguing that nations have their own specific character and values—and
that England’s are especially worthy of praise.
Most people might fear death, particularly whichwar can bring. However, the
speaker of “The Soldier” is ready to die because he believes that he would be doing it for
his dear homeland. The speaker doesn’t want people to grieve his death. He sees that his
potential death, in some “foreign field” will make a small piece of the world “for ever
England.” That’s because he sees himself as a representation of his nation. Accordingly,
dying somewhere in the “foreign land” leaves a small part of the home nation in that
foreign land. Nationhood, then, is portrayed inseparable from a person’s identity—even
when they die.
The speaker feels that he owes his identity itself primarily to his country. It was
the personified England that “bore” and “shaped” him, nourished him with sun (ironic,
given the often gloomy weather!) and air, and cleansed him with “water.” Much of
the sonnet’s octave—the eight-line stanza—is devoted to creating a sense of England as a
pastoral, idyllic, and even Eden-like place. The poem has images of rivers, flowers, earth,
air, and sun, is part of an attempt to transform nationhood from a human concept to
something more fundamental and natural, as though the land is ingrained with the
character of its people and vice versa.
In fact, this nationhood is so deeply rooted in the people who feel it extending
beyond the earthly realm. Even the heaven that the poetintends to go to is specifically an
“English heaven.” In part, that’s because the speaker’s idea of heaven is a projection of
 England—apart from being a kind of natural and nurturing mother, England is already a
kind of heaven. Indeed, the poem presents England and heaven to be interchangeable—as
described above, everything about England is supposedly pure and nourishing.
The poem is the War poem that favours the wars. The war provides an
opportunity to express one’s love for the nation. So, there is nothing in the poem about
the horrors of war. Indeed, there is very little of the realities of war at all. This perhaps
explains why the poem has inspired strong reactions ever since its publication. It was
immensely popular when it was published in 1914, but this was before the true horrors of
the First World War had been fully revealed, a time when the war was still tinged with an
air of excitement, anticipation, and, of course, patriotism. In the decades that followed,
some critics saw Brooke’s poetry as woefully naïve and sentimental. Either way, the
poem is a powerful expression of patriotic desire and belief in the bond between people
and their homeland.

1.7.Siegfried Sassoon

Siegfried Sassoon was an English poet, writer, and soldier honoured for bravery
in World War I. His war poems are characterized by their unflinching honesty and fierce
criticism of the political errors and meaningless patriotic influence that perpetuated the
conflict. Sassoon’s instinctual depictions of trench warfare exposed the horrific realities
of the front lines, opposing the romanticized notions of heroism prevailing at the time.

 The General
“Good-morning, good-morning!” the General said
When we met him last week on our way to the line.
Now the soldiers he smiled at are most of 'em dead,
And we're cursing his staff for incompetent swine.
“He's a cheery old card,” grunted Harry to Jack
As they slogged up to Arras with rifle and pack.

But he did for them both by his plan of attack.

Summary:

The poem speaks about the war situation in which the general greets his troops as they
arrive in Belgium and northern France ready to fight. The fact of the last week warfare was that
already, most of the soldiers were dead, and those men who survivedwere cursing the general
and his fellow officers for their incompetence.
One of the soldiers, Harry, says to another, Jack, that the general is surprisingly cheery
given that he is marching his men into the fight. The poem ends with Sassoon telling us that both
Harry and Jack were killed at Arras, a city in northern Franc, as a direct result of the general’s
battle plans.

Critical Analysis:

In this poem, we see Siegfried Sassoon using traditional rhyme and metre with simple,
direct language. However, with a minimum of alteration, he attains the maximum technical
effect.‘The General’ comprises just two stanzas, the first with six lines and the second of which
is a single line. The last line creates the maximum force as the deaths of Harry and Jack comes to
us in that stark, simple statement that the general ‘did for them both’.
That last line stands out all the more just as the soldiers are undefended and are
senselessly sent to the slaughter. The general’s misguided plan of attack has a result of being
isolated in this way.
Because there are four ‘Anapaests’(type of metre) in each line, ‘The General’ is written
in anapaestic tetrameter. This anapaestic metre, along with the jovial ‘Good morning’ with which
Sassoon opens the poem, convey the general’s misplaced sense of optimism about the war and
his responsibilities. The reference to Arras concerns the battle of April and May 1917 in which
many British soldiers lost their lives, including the poet, Edward Thomas.This specific reference
to a battle in the First World War, in a poem. The war, adds an extra poignancy and anger to the
lines, since it highlights the gulf between the general’s own assessment of the war and its actual
human cost.

1.8.Wilfred Owen

Wilfred Owen is regarded by many critics as the greatest poet of the First World
War, known for his verse about the horrors of trench and gas warfare. He had been writing
poetry for some years before the war in his teens, himself dating his poetic beginnings to a stay
at Broxton by the Hill. Owen's poems had the benefit of strong patronage, and his poetry was a
combination of Sassoon's influence, support from Edith Sitwell, and the preparation of a new and
fuller edition of the poems in 1931 by Edmund Blunden that ensured his popularity, coupled with
a revival of interest in his poetry in the 1960s which plucked him out of a relatively exclusive
readership into the public eye. Though he had plans for a volume of verse, for which he had
written a "Preface", he never saw his own work published apart from those poems he included
in The Hydra, the magazine he edited at Craiglockhart War Hospital, and "Miners", which was
published in The Nation.

 Anthem for Doomed Youth

What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?

— Only the monstrous anger of the guns.
Only the stuttering rifles' rapid rattle
Can patter out their hasty orisons.
No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells;
Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs,—
The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells;
And bugles calling for them from sad shires.
What candles may be held to speed them all?
Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes
Shall shine the holy glimmers of goodbyes.
The pallor of girls' brows shall be their pall;
Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds,
And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.

Summary:

"Anthem for Doomed Youth" was written by British poet Wilfred Owen in 1917. Owen
was in the hospital recovering from injuries and trauma resulting from his military service during
World War I. The poem laments the loss of young life in war and describes the sensory horrors
of combat. It takes particular issue with the official pomp and ceremony that surrounds war. The
title of the poem "Anthem", arguing that church bells, prayers, and choirs are inadequate tributes
to the realities of war. It is perhaps Owen's second most famous poem, after "Dulce et Decorum
Est."
What church bells will ring for the young men slaughtered like farm animals? Instead,
these young men just hear the fearsome rage of firing guns. The only prayers they get are the
quick and jarring rhythms of rifle fire. These men will have no inappropriate rituals in their
names, whether prayers or bell-ringing. No voice will mourn them, except the choirs—the high-
pitched and hellish noises of falling artillery. Bugles will call for the young men from sad
hometowns and villages.
 Are the candles lit to help the dying soldiers in their passage from life to death sufficient?
Instead of young boys holding these faint lights, the soldiers' eyes will show the fading light of
life as they say their goodbyes to the world. Instead of drapes over their coffins, the soldiers will
be remembered by the grief-stricken faces of women and girls. Instead of flowers, perhaps the
dead will be honored by peace and diplomacy—by more patience in the world. The end of every
day will also be a kind of ritual, as those who live on after the war draw down their window
blinds.

Critical Analysis:

“Anthem for Doomed Youth” is a poem about World War I, whichcaused the deaths of
around 17 million people worldwide. Written by WWI combatant Wilfred Owen while
recovering from the trauma of battle, the poem makes a clear statement: war is a hellish and
futile waste of human life. It is, then, a kind of protest poem—subverting the usual use of
“anthem” as a symbol of nationalism i.e. taking undue pride in your home nation, into an anti-
war message.
From start to finish, the poem foregrounds the wastefulness of war. The reader gets a
clear idea how the war hollows out society, particularly in its relentless destruction of young
men. In the war, men are disposable, their deaths merely part of the price of war. That’s why, in
the poem’s very first line, these men are compared to “cattle.” These men are like farmed
animals, brought into life only to grow big enough for their own slaughter. Furthermore, the
poem makes no attempt to glorify war or paint these men as heroic or noble. It doesn’t say that
they’re not these things, but instead makes the case that these traits—heroism and nobility—are
rendered practically irrelevant by the sheer brutality of the conflict.
Instead of garnishing the poem with examples of bravery, the poem is full of the daily
realities of battle. There are guns, the relentless fire of rifles, and wailing shells falling overhead.
All of these are portrayed as hellish and terrifying. The guns fire in “monstrous anger” and the
shells scream like “shrill, demented choirs.”
The latter image of the choirs is especially important. War is often presented along
nationalistic lines, with young men encouraged to fight for their countries out of a sense of
patriotism. Indeed, in one of Owen’s other famous poems, he ironically quotes the Roman poet
Horace: “Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori”. It means “it is sweet and right to die for one’s
country”. But the members of this choir don’t sing the soldiers' national anthem—they sing a
bloodthirsty, banshee-like cry of war. The poem makes the point that these men, fed to the war
like nameless cattle, will never return home anyway—their actual national anthem is no longer
relevant. The bugles will call “for them from sad shires” but this call will forever be unanswered.
Ultimately, the poem, “Anthem for Doomed Youth” appeals the reader not to romanticize war.
Though it’s a lyrical and beautiful poem, its power comes from the way in which it brings the
horrors of war to life. War is held up to the light, exposed as futile, horrific, and tragic.

Task:
A) Answer the following questions in one word/ phrase/ sentence each.
1. What is War Poetry?
2. What type of war poem is “The Soldier’ by Rupert Brooke?
3. Where will the soldier’s soul go after his death ?
4. How does the General greet the soldiers ?
5. What are the names of the soldiers in the poem, The General ?
6. What happens to Jack and Harry in the end ?
7. What are the men killed in the war compared to ?
B) Answer the following questions in around 600 words each.
1. Why is the soldier happy to die ?
2. How does Sassoon present the mismanagement of the war situation by the general ?
3. How does Owen portray the warfare in the poem ‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’ ?
C) Write short notes on the following:
1. Glorification of war in the poem, ‘The Soldier’
2. The horror of the war in the poem, ‘The General’
3. Futility of the romanticizing of the war in the poem, Anthem for Doomed Youth
Check Your Progress:
Answers to Question A)
1. Account of the war in poetry 2. War poem glorifying the wars 3. English Heaven 4.
“Good Morning.. Good Morning” in a happy mood 5. Jack and Harry 6.Killed in the war
7. cattle
_________________________________________________________________________
Reference for further study:
Albert, Edward. History of English Literature, OUP, 2014.Print.
Boulton, Marjorie. The Anatomy of Poetry (Routledge Revivals).Routledge, 2013. Print.