ADVANCED ENGLISH MANUAL

BY MARTA B. SANTAELLA

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WELCOME INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the Advanced English Manual!

Congratulations on reaching this exciting stage in your language learning journey!

This manual is designed to take you beyond the basics and dive into the more intricate and nuanced
aspects of English. You’ve already mastered essential language skills, and now it’s time to take your
proficiency to new heights. What you will learn here is a sophisticated extension of everything you’ve
already studied, but with clear explanations and plenty of practice to ensure your success.

You’ll encounter complex sentence structures, nuanced uses of tenses, advanced conditionals, modal
verbs in all their forms, and a deep dive into the subtleties of reported speech, passive constructions, and
more.

Understanding English also means understanding the culture. This manual will expose you to cultural
references, social norms, and the subtleties of language use in different English-speaking countries,
enhancing your ability to communicate effectively in diverse contexts.

Each chapter will provide you with clear explanations, step-by-step examples, and ample practice exercises
designed to reinforce your learning. You’ll be challenged to apply advanced concepts in real-life situations,
whether you're preparing for an exam, advancing your career, or simply refining your skills for personal
growth.

You are more than capable of mastering this level, and we’re here to guide you every step of the way.

For further doubts, please, contact the teacher:

marta.blanco@thepower.education

Let’s begin!

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INDEX
Each unit contains specific grammar rules and structures. Down below each one, you’ll find exercises to put
into practice everything you’ve learned along the way.

This manual consists of:

Introduction

C1 Level: (past and perfect tenses, countable & uncountable nouns, comparison) __________ 4

- UNIT 1. Time Clauses _______________________________________________________ 29

- UNIT 2. Modal Verbs ________________________________________________________ 33

- UNIT 3. Future Arrangements _________________________________________________ 42

- UNIT 4. Discourse markers, Participle Clauses _____________________________________ 52

- UNIT 5. Verb Complementation, Gerund _________________________________________ 60

- UNIT 6. Conditionals and Inversion ____________________________________________ 67

- UNIT 7. Avoiding Repetition ___________________________________________________ 75

- UNIT 8. Reported speech, Punctuation Rules ______________________________________ 84

- UNIT 9. Passive tense, personal and impersonal __________________________________ 92

- UNIT 10. Word Formation _____________________________________________________ 99

- UNIT 11. Common mistakes ___________________________________________________ 108

- UNIT 12. Cleft sentences _____________________________________________________ 131

- UNIT 13. Similes, metaphors and idioms _________________________________________ 138

- UNIT 14. Inversion with negative adverbials ______________________________________ 148

- UNIT 15. Relative clauses ____________________________________________________ 154

FINAL TEST - 50 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS.

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PAST TENSES

Both past simple and past continuous describe actions or situations in the past, but they are used
differently depending on the context.

Here’s how we’re going to break it down:

The past simple is used to describe actions that started and finished in the past. These actions are seen as
complete and not ongoing.

Affirmative: Subject + past tense verb (e.g., walked, played, studied)

●​ I walked to the store.

Negative: Subject + did not (didn't) + base verb.

●​ I didn’t walk to the store.

Question: Did + subject + base verb?

●​ Did you walk to the store?

Finished actions in the past:

●​ I visited Paris last year.

Actions in a sequence:

●​ She entered the room, turned on the light, and sat down.

Specific time in the past:

●​ He called me at 8 p.m.

The past continuous describes actions that were ongoing at a particular time in the past. It often sets the
scene or shows that an action was in progress.

Affirmative: Subject + was/were + verb(-ing).

●​ I was walking to the store.

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Negative: Subject + was/were not (wasn’t/weren’t) + verb(-ing).

●​ I wasn’t walking to the store.

Question: Was/Were + subject + verb(-ing)?

●​ Were you walking to the store?

An action in progress at a specific time:

●​ At 7 p.m., I was watching TV.

Two actions at the same time:

●​ While I was reading, she was cooking.

An ongoing action interrupted by another action:

●​ I was walking to the store when it started raining.

Setting the scene in storytelling:

●​ The wind was blowing, and the leaves were falling.

ASPECT PAST SIMPLE PAST CONTINUOUS

Focus Completed actions Actions in progress

Time Reference Specific points or completed Specific times during which

events actions were ongoing

Interruption Describes the action that Describes the action being

interrupts (It rained) interrupted (I was walking)

Sequences Useful for listing actions one Useful for simultaneous or

after another background actions

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Action vs. Ongoing Action:

●​ I watched TV last night. (past simple, complete action)

●​ I was watching TV at 8 p.m. (past continuous, action in progress)

Interruption:

●​ I was reading when the phone rang.

○​ Past continuous: ongoing action (was reading).
○​ Past simple: action that interrupts (the phone rang).

Parallel Actions:

●​ She was singing while he was playing the guitar.

KEYS TO IDENTIFY EACH

Look for time markers:

●​ Past simple: yesterday, last week, in 2010, at 8 p.m.

●​ Past continuous: while, when, as, at that moment.

Remember the interruption rule:

●​ Past continuous = background action (I was running).

●​ Past simple = interrupting action (I tripped).

Practice with storytelling:

●​ Use past continuous for the background (It was raining).

●​ Use past simple for events (I slipped on the wet pavement).

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses (past simple or past
continuous):

1.​ While I __________ (walk) to school, I __________ (see) a strange animal.

2.​ She __________ (cook) dinner when the phone __________ (ring).
3.​ The children __________ (play) in the garden while their parents __________ (talk) inside.
4.​ He __________ (fall) asleep while he __________ (watch) TV.
5.​ We __________ (drive) to the beach when it suddenly __________ (start) raining.
6.​ When I __________ (open) the door, they __________ (dance) in the living room.
7.​ I __________ (drop) my bag while I __________ (run) to catch the bus.
8.​ The students __________ (study) hard when the fire alarm __________ (go) off.
9.​ She __________ (write) an email when her computer __________ (crash).
10.​ While the cat __________ (sleep), the dog __________ (steal) its food.

Complete the text with the correct form of the verbs in parentheses (past simple or past continuous):

Yesterday evening, I __________ (walk) home from work when I __________ (notice) something unusual.
A man __________ (stand) on the corner, and he __________ (look) very worried. As I __________ (get)
closer, he __________ (approach) me and __________ (ask) for help.

Apparently, while he __________ (wait) for the bus, someone __________ (steal) his bag. He __________
(not see) the thief because he __________ (talk) on the phone at the time. I __________ (offer) to call the
police, and while we __________ (wait) for them to arrive, he __________ (tell) me more about what
happened.

The police __________ (arrive) quickly and __________ (take) his statement. By the time they
__________ (leave), the man __________ (feel) a bit calmer. It was a strange evening, but I’m glad I
__________ (stop) to help.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses (past simple or past
continuous):

1.​ While I was walking (walk) to school, I saw (see) a strange animal.
2.​ She was cooking (cook) dinner when the phone rang (ring).
3.​ The children were playing (play) in the garden while their parents were talking (talk) inside.
4.​ He fell (fall) asleep while he was watching (watch) TV.
5.​ We were driving (drive) to the beach when it suddenly started (start) raining.
6.​ When I opened (open) the door, they were dancing (dance) in the living room.
7.​ I dropped (drop) my bag while I was running (run) to catch the bus.
8.​ The students were studying (study) hard when the fire alarm went (go) off.
9.​ She was writing (write) an email when her computer crashed (crash).
10.​ While the cat was sleeping (sleep), the dog stole (steal) its food.

Complete the text with the correct form of the verbs in parentheses (past simple or past continuous):

Yesterday evening, I was walking (walk) home from work when I noticed (notice) something unusual. A
man was standing (stand) on the corner, and he looked (look) very worried. As I got (get) closer, he
approached (approach) me and asked (ask) for help.

Apparently, while he was waiting (wait) for the bus, someone stole (steal) his bag. He did not see (not see)
the thief because he was talking (talk) on the phone at the time. I offered (offer) to call the police, and
while we were waiting (wait) for them to arrive, he told (tell) me more about what happened.

The police arrived (arrive) quickly and took (take) his statement. By the time they left (leave), the man was
feeling (feel) a bit calmer. It was a strange evening, but I’m glad I stopped (stop) to help.

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PERFECT TENSES
You’ve come a long way already and now it’s time to go over the perfect tenses. Do you know how many
there are? What do we use them for? Let’s refresh our memories.

This tense is quite tricky because you can either use it for unfinished actions or finished ones.
It can show that something happened at an unspecified time in the past or that it started in the past and
continues to the present.

The structure is quite simple:

Subject + has/have + past participle

●​ "I have eaten"

●​ "She has gone."

Here’s the positive form, take a look, please note the shortened form in parentheses:

-​ I have worked (I’ve worked)

-​ You have worked (you’ve worked)
-​ She has worked (she’s worked)
-​ He has worked (he’s worked)
-​ It has worked (it’s worked)
-​ We have worked (we’ve worked)
-​ They have worked (they’ve worked)

The negative is really simple too:

-​ I have not worked (I haven’t worked)

-​ You have not worked (you haven’t worked)
-​ She has not worked (she hasn’t worked)
-​ He has not worked (he hasn’t worked)
-​ It has not worked (it hasn’t worked)
-​ We have not worked (we haven’t worked)
-​ They have not worked (they haven’t worked)

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To make a question:
-​ Have I worked?
-​ Have you worked?
-​ Has she worked?
-​ Has he worked?
-​ Has it worked?
-​ Have we worked?
-​ Have they worked?

UNFINISHED ACTIONS

We use this tense when we want to talk about unfinished actions that started in the past and
continue to the present. We use it to say ‘how long’ and we need ‘since’ / ‘for’. We often use stative verbs.

●​ ‘I’ve known my parents-in-law since 2003’

●​ ‘They’ve lived in India for 10 years’
●​ ‘I have worked here for 1 year’

"Since" and "for" are both used to talk about time, but they have different meanings and uses.
"Since" is used to indicate a specific point in time when something began.

●​ "I have lived here since 2010." (2010 is the specific starting point)
●​ "She has been studying since morning." (morning is the starting time)

"For" is used to indicate a duration of time or how long something has been happening.

●​ "I have lived here for ten years." (the duration is ten years)
●​ "He has been working here for six months." (the duration is six months)

FINISHED ACTIONS

We must follow the following structure: Subject + has/have + past participle

For example:

●​ ‘I have completed the project’

●​ ‘I have been to Japan’
●​ ‘They have never eaten seafood’
●​ ‘It’s the best film I’ve ever seen’

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We could also introduce a time word, such as ‘this month’ or ‘today’

●​ ‘They haven’t seen each other this week’

●​ ‘I’ve drunk 4 cups of wine today’
●​ ‘We have already argued twice today!’

WATCH OUT! We can’t never use present perfect with a finished time word!

NOT - ‘I’ve seen him yesterday’.

"Yet," "still," "already," and "just" are used in the present perfect tense to give more detail about the timing
and status of actions. Here’s how to use each one:

"Yet," used in negative sentences and questions to indicate that something hasn’t happened up to the
present time.

For example:

Negative: "I haven’t finished my homework yet." (It’s expected to be done, but it isn’t.)

Question: "Have you called her yet?" (Asking if the action has happened so far.)

"Still," used to indicate that something is continuing or hasn’t changed up to the present moment.

●​ "I still haven’t received the package." (I expected to receive it, but I haven’t yet.)
●​ "She is still working on the project." (She began working on it in the past, and she continues to do
so.)

"Already," used to indicate that something has happened sooner than expected.

●​ "I have already eaten lunch." (I ate lunch earlier than anticipated.)
●​ "They have already finished the report." (They completed it sooner than expected.)

"Just," used to indicate that something happened very recently.

●​ "I have just seen the movie." (I saw the movie a short time ago.)
●​ "She has just finished her homework." (She completed it moments ago.)

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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Once again, we introduce the progressive tense in another way. At first, this may seem like a complicated
tense to form but it really is very simple.

Unfinished actions which started in the past and continue to the present. We often use this
with ‘for’ or ‘ since’
●​ ‘I’ve been watching you all day’
●​ ‘We’ve been living together since January’
●​ ‘She’s been waiting for the train 2 hours’
It goes without saying that we CANNOT use this tense with stative verbs.
YES - ‘I’ve been here for hours’.
NO - ‘I’ve been being here for hours’.

"How long," "recently," and "lately" are used in English to talk about time, but they serve different
purposes.

●​ ‘I’ve been eating very healthy recently’

●​ ‘They’ve been living together while they wait to sign the divorce’
●​ ‘He’s been watching some horror movies lately’
Actions that have recently stopped (though the action can be unfinished) and have a result,
which we can often ‘see, hear, or feel’, in the present. We DO NOT use a time word here either.

●​ ‘My head hurts so much, I’ve been studying all evening’

●​ ‘I’ve been running, so I’m sweating’
●​ ‘It’s been raining so tree leaves are green again’

PAST PERFECT

Last but certainly not least, we must know about the past form of the perfect tense.
The past perfect is a verb tense used to talk about something that happened before something else. That
certain something, also happened in the past.

Subject + had + past participle

Let’s take a look at these examples to understand better:

●​ "She had finished her homework before dinner."

●​ "They hadn’t seen that movie before last night."
●​ "Had you ever visited Paris before your trip last year?"

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We’ll unfold each tense thoroughly:

Here’s the positive form:

-​ I had worked (I’d worked)

-​ You had worked (you’d worked)
-​ She had worked (she’d worked)
-​ He had worked (he’d worked)
Here’s the negative form:

-​ I had not worked (I hadn’t worked)

-​ You had not worked (you hadn’t worked)
-​ She had not worked (she hadn’t worked)
-​ He had not worked (he hadn’t worked)
-​ It had not worked (it hadn’t worked)
-​ We had not worked (we hadn’t worked)
-​ They had not worked (they hadn’t worked)

Here’s the question form:

-​ Had I worked?
-​ Had you worked?
-​ Had she worked?
-​ Had he worked?
-​ Had it worked?
-​ Had we worked?
-​ Had they worked?

A finished action before a second point in the past. We usually use the past perfect to make it clear which
action happened first.

●​ ‘When we arrived, the movie had started’

●​ ‘I wasn’t hungry because I had eaten dinner before’
●​ ‘It had snowed in the night, so the bus didn’t come’

We also use it to talk about unreal or imaginary things in the past. In the same way that we use the past
simple to talk about imaginary things in the present, we use the past perfect to talk about imaginary things
in the past.

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This is common in the third conditional and after ‘wish’

●​ ‘I wish I had met you sooner’

●​ ‘If I had known you were ill, I would have visited you’
●​ ‘She wouldn’t have passed the exam if she hadn’t studied so much’

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

We use the past perfect continuous to refer to an ongoing action that ended before another action took
place in the past.

As with all continuous tenses, when we use the past perfect continuous, we’re focusing on the action itself.

●​ ‘I had been looking for a job for a few months when I found this position’.
●​ ‘The workers had been unloading the truck when the storm started’.

We create sentences by using ‘had been’ and the main verb in the -ing form.
Here’s the positive form:

-​ I had been working (I’d been working)

-​ You had been working (you’d been working)
-​ She had been working (she’d been working)
-​ He had been working (he’d been working)
-​ It had been working (it’d been working)
-​ We had been working (we’d been working)
-​ They had been working (they’d been working)

Here’s the negative form:

-​ I had not been working (I hadn’t been working)

-​ You had not been working (you hadn’t been working)
-​ She had not been working (she hadn’t been working)

Here’s the question form:

-​ Had I been working?

-​ Had you been working?
-​ Had she been working?

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses: present perfect, past perfect,
or future perfect.

1.​ By the time we arrived at the cinema, the movie __________ (already/start).
2.​ I __________ (never/see) such a beautiful sunset before!
3.​ She __________ (finish) her homework before her friends came over.
4.​ By this time next year, they __________ (graduate) from university.
5.​ He __________ (live) in London for ten years before moving to New York.
6.​ We __________ ( just/arrive) when the phone started ringing.
7.​ You __________ (not/complete) the project by tomorrow unless you start working now.
8.​ They __________ (already/eat) by the time we joined them at the restaurant.
9.​ I __________ (meet) him several times, but I still don’t remember his name.
10.​ By the end of the week, she __________ (finish) writing her novel.
11.​ They __________ (never/visit) that museum before last summer.
12.​By the time we leave for the airport, I __________ (already/pack) all my bags.
13.​She __________ (always/dream) of becoming an astronaut.
14.​We __________ (not/complete) the task when the deadline was extended.
15.​By the time you finish the book, you __________ (understand) the main themes clearly.

Complete the text with the appropriate form of the verb in parentheses (present perfect, past perfect,
or future perfect).

Over the years, technology __________ (1. change) the way we communicate and work. People
__________ (2. rely) on mobile devices and the internet more than ever before. By the end of this decade,
experts predict that technology __________ (3. revolutionize) industries like healthcare and education.

In the past, many companies __________ (4. struggle) to keep up with rapid changes. However,
businesses that __________ (5. adopt) new technologies early have often gained a competitive
advantage.

Recently, several groundbreaking advancements __________ (6. emerge) in artificial intelligence and
renewable energy. For instance, scientists __________ (7. develop) innovative ways to store solar energy,
making it more efficient than before.

By 2030, many cities __________ (8. transition) to using clean energy sources entirely. This shift
__________ (9. not/be) possible without years of research and investment. Meanwhile, individuals
__________ (10. benefit) from improved healthcare and smarter cities as these technologies evolve.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses: present perfect, past perfect,
or future perfect.

1.​ By the time we arrived at the cinema, the movie had already started.
2.​ I have never seen such a beautiful sunset before!
3.​ She had finished her homework before her friends came over.
4.​ By this time next year, they will have graduated from university.
5.​ He had lived in London for ten years before moving to New York.
6.​ We had just arrived when the phone started ringing.
7.​ You will not have completed the project by tomorrow unless you start working now.
8.​ They had already eaten by the time we joined them at the restaurant.
9.​ I have met him several times, but I still don’t remember his name.
10.​By the end of the week, she will have finished writing her novel.
11.​ They had never visited that museum before last summer.
12.​ By the time we leave for the airport, I will have already packed all my bags.
13.​ She has always dreamed of becoming an astronaut.
14.​ We had not completed the task when the deadline was extended.
15.​ By the time you finish the book, you will have understood the main themes clearly.

Complete the text with the appropriate form of the verb in parentheses (present perfect, past perfect,
or future perfect).

Over the years, technology has changed (1. change) the way we communicate and work. People
have relied (2. rely) on mobile devices and the internet more than ever before. By the end of this
decade, experts predict that technology will have revolutionized (3. revolutionize) industries like
healthcare and education.

In the past, many companies had struggled (4. struggle) to keep up with rapid changes. However,
businesses that had adopted (5. adopt) new technologies early have often gained a competitive
advantage.

Recently, several groundbreaking advancements have emerged (6. emerge) in artificial

intelligence and renewable energy. For instance, scientists have developed (7. develop)
innovative ways to store solar energy, making it more efficient than before.

By 2030, many cities will have transitioned (8. transition) to using clean energy sources entirely.
This shift would not have been (9. not/be) possible without years of research and investment.
Meanwhile, individuals have benefited (10. benefit) from improved healthcare and smarter cities
as these technologies evolve.

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COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Pronouns replace nouns, and they can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. However, the
type of pronoun you use depends on whether the noun being replaced is countable or uncountable.

Countable nouns: These refer to things that can be counted. They have singular and plural forms.
Pronouns for countable nouns often indicate quantity (e.g., many, a few, several).

Example: apple, car, chair, idea

Uncountable nouns: These refer to things that cannot be counted individually or are seen as a whole.
They don’t have plural forms.
Pronouns for uncountable nouns reflect amounts (e.g., much, a little).

Example: water, sugar, advice, happiness

Here are pronouns specifically used with countable nouns:

Some (in affirmative sentences):

●​ I have some apples in my bag.

Any (in questions or negatives):

●​ Do you have any books?

●​ She doesn’t have any ideas.

Many:

●​ There aren’t many chairs in the room.

A few:

●​ I only have a few friends in this city.

Several:

●​ He brought several gifts to the party.

Each and every (for singular countable nouns):

●​ Each student has a book.

●​ Every car must pass the inspection.

These pronouns work well with uncountable nouns:

Some (in affirmative sentences):

●​ I have some water left.

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Any (in questions or negatives):

●​ Do you have any information about the event?

●​ She doesn’t have any milk.

Much:

●​ We don’t have much sugar.

A little:

●​ There is a little juice in the fridge.

A bit of (informal):

●​ Can I have a bit of advice?

Certain pronouns can be used for both types, depending on the context:

All:

●​ All the books are on the table. (countable)

●​ All the water was used for cooking. (uncountable)

Some:

●​ I need some pencils. (countable)

●​ I need some sugar. (uncountable)

None:

●​ None of the students arrived on time. (countable)

●​ None of the money was spent. (uncountable)

A lot of:

●​ There are a lot of people here. (countable)

●​ There is a lot of rain today. (uncountable)

ASPECT COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE

Examples many, a few, several, each much, a little, a bit of

Plurals Yes No

Quantifiers Indicate amount Indicate number

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Let’s write down a few more examples to get a clearer vision:

Countable Nouns:

●​ I have many friends in this town.

●​ She bought a few apples at the market.
●​ Do you have any chairs we can use?

Uncountable Nouns:

●​ He doesn’t have much time to finish his homework.

●​ Could you give me a little advice?
●​ There isn’t any sugar left in the jar.

Both Countable and Uncountable:

●​ There is a lot of noise outside. (uncountable)

●​ There are a lot of cars on the road today. (countable)

QUANTIFIERS

In English, we tend to use quantifiers if we want to talk about specific amounts of things.
The use of many / much, for example, is wide and very useful but it’s important to know when do we use
each.

We use many before plural countable nouns and much before uncountable nouns. We usually use them in
negative sentences and questions, not affirmative ones.

●​ ‘There isn’t much milk left’.

●​ ‘Were there many guests at her wedding?’.

When making questions, it’s very simple. We need to add how many and how much to ask about quantity.

●​ ‘How many countries have you been to?’

●​ ‘How much time will it take you to get ready?’

As we have previously seen, these quantifiers aren’t used for affirmative sentences but, we do use too
much / too many for affirmative ones, take a look at this.

●​ ‘There’s too much sugar in the cake’.

●​ ‘We read too many books’.

Now, we use a lot of or lots of before both, plural (countable) and uncountable nouns. We normally use
them in affirmative sentences.

●​ ‘His children spend a lot of time watching TV’.

●​ ‘We took lots of photos together during our trip’.

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If we’re we refer to small quantities, that’s when we use (a) few before plural (countable) nouns and (a)
little or a bit of before uncountable nouns.

●​ ‘We have a few things to do tonight’.

●​ ‘She works very little, she’s a lucky girl’.
●​ ‘Can I have a bit of salt, please?’

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

Using countable pronouns with uncountable nouns:

●​ Incorrect: I have many water.

●​ Correct: I have much water.

Using plural forms with uncountable nouns:

●​ Incorrect: She gave me some advices.

●​ Correct: She gave me some advice.

Confusing "a few" and "a little":

●​ Use a few for countable nouns: A few books are missing.

●​ Use a little for uncountable nouns: A little milk is left.

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences with the correct pronoun from the options provided.

1.​ There isn’t __________ (many / much) water left in the bottle.
2.​ I only have __________ (a few / a little) coins in my pocket.
3.​ Can you give me __________ (some / a few) information about the project?
4.​ There are __________ (a lot of / much) people at the concert tonight.
5.​ He doesn’t have __________ (many / much) friends in this city.
6.​ I’d like to add __________ (a bit of / a few) sugar to my coffee.
7.​ We need __________ (several / a lot of) chairs for the meeting.
8.​ There was __________ (a little / a few) milk in the fridge, so I made tea.
9.​ I haven’t got __________ (any / a few) questions about the lesson.
10.​ She bought __________ (several / much) books at the store yesterday.

Complete the text with the correct pronouns from the options provided.

Last weekend, I went shopping with my friends. We visited __________ (many / much) shops because we
wanted to find the perfect gifts for a birthday party. I saw __________ (several / much) interesting items,
but most of them were too expensive.

After shopping, we stopped at a café for a break. I ordered a coffee with __________ (a little / a few) sugar,
and my friend asked for __________ (some / any) cake. The waiter told us they didn’t have __________
(many / much) cake left, but they could serve __________ (a bit of / a few) cookies instead.

While we were eating, I realized I needed __________ (some / several) advice about what to wear to the
party. My friend suggested I check __________ (a few / a little) stores nearby for inspiration.

When I got home, I noticed I hadn’t spent __________ (any / a lot of) money, which made me feel good
about the day!

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences with the correct pronoun from the options provided.

1.​ There isn’t much water left in the bottle.

2.​ I only have a few coins in my pocket.
3.​ Can you give me some information about the project?
4.​ There are a lot of people at the concert tonight.
5.​ He doesn’t have many friends in this city.
6.​ I’d like to add a bit of sugar to my coffee.
7.​ We need several chairs for the meeting.
8.​ There was a little milk in the fridge, so I made tea.
9.​ I haven’t got any questions about the lesson.
10.​ She bought several books at the store yesterday.

Complete the text with the correct pronouns from the options provided.

Last weekend, I went shopping with my friends. We visited many shops because we wanted to find the
perfect gifts for a birthday party. I saw several interesting items, but most of them were too expensive.

After shopping, we stopped at a café for a break. I ordered a coffee with a little sugar, and my friend asked
for some cake. The waiter told us they didn’t have much cake left, but they could serve a few cookies
instead.

While we were eating, I realized I needed some advice about what to wear to the party. My friend
suggested I check a few stores nearby for inspiration.

When I got home, I noticed I hadn’t spent any money, which made me feel good about the day!

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COMPARISON
Comparatives are used to compare two people, places, things, or ideas, highlighting differences or
similarities in degree. At an advanced level, we dive deeper into nuances, irregularities, and complex
structures beyond basic forms like "bigger" or "more interesting."

Comparatives are formed in three main ways depending on the structure of the adjective or adverb.

We’re going to start from the beginning, developing each one thoroughly.

ADJECTIVES

It’s the most common way to make comparisons in English. An adjective is a word that
describes a noun, it can be a person, an idea or a place.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE

Green Greener

Intelligent More intelligent

Big Bigger

Tall Taller

Deep Deeper

Smart Smarter

Powerful More powerful

One-Syllable Adjectives

Add -er to the adjective:

●​ small → smaller, tall → taller

If the adjective ends in a single vowel followed by a consonant, double the final consonant:

●​ big → bigger, hot → hotter

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Multi-Syllable Adjectives

Use more before the adjective:

●​ interesting → more interesting, expensive → more expensive

Exceptions: Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y change -y to -ier:

●​ happy → happier, easy → easier

Adverbs

For one-syllable adverbs, add -er:

●​ fast → faster

For multi-syllable adverbs, use more:

●​ carefully → more carefully

EQUAL COMPARISONS

When we compare two things that are the same in a certain quality. We usually use the word "as" to show
this kind of comparison.

We use "as + adjective + as" to compare.

●​ ‘The cat is as fluffy as the dog’

This means both the cat and the dog have the same level of fluffiness. So, when you want to say two things
are equal in a certain way, just use that structure!

NEGATIVE COMPARISONS

These ones show that one thing is not as good or as much of a quality as another. We often use "not as +
adjective + as" for this.

"Not as + adjective + as."

●​ “The bike is not as fast as the car”

Which basically means the bike doesn't have the same speed as the car.

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IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES

These adjectives don't follow the usual rules for forming comparatives. Instead, they have unique forms,
just as the famous irregular verbs that we all love.

Let’s take a look at the common ones:

●​ good → better
●​ bad → worse
●​ far → farther/further
●​ little → less

Good: comparative: Better

●​ "This book is better than that one."

Bad: comparative: Worse

●​ "This situation is worse than before."

Far: comparative: Farther or Further

●​ "This road is farther than the other one."

Little: comparative: Less

●​ "She has less time than he does."

Much or Many: comparative: More

●​ "There are more apples in that basket."

I’m going to teach you some keys to memorize these rules faster! Since irregular forms don’t follow a
pattern, it’s best to memorize them.

Some words may have slightly different meanings depending on context (like "farther" for distance and
"further" for additional or more abstract concepts).

These irregular forms are commonly used in everyday conversation and writing, so recognizing and using
them correctly is important.

AVOID DOUBLE COMPARISONS

NO: “The speed skater was more faster than the ice skater.”

YES: “The speed skater was faster than the ice skater.”

NO: “Julio was more better than Jonah in soccer.”

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YES: “Julio was better (better than) Jonah in soccer.”

SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

They help us express that one thing is the most or least in a group.

One-syllable adjectives:

Add -est.

"tall" becomes "tallest."

●​ "She is the tallest in her class."

Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y:

Change the -y to -i and add -est.

"happy" becomes "happiest."

●​ "This is the happiest moment of my life."

Two-syllable adjectives not ending in -y and three or more syllable adjectives:

Use most before the adjective.

"beautiful" becomes "the most beautiful."

●​ "This is the most beautiful place I've ever seen."

Using superlative adjectives can help you describe things in a more impactful way.

COMPARISONS WITH ADVERBS

Adverbs describe how actions are performed and can also be compared to show differences in the degree
or manner of an action. These comparisons follow specific rules depending on the type of adverb.

If I want to compare how two things happen, I can add the word ‘more’ or ‘less’ before the adverb to make
a comparison.

●​ He plays the piano much better than she does.

●​ The train arrived slightly earlier today.
●​ The more carefully you study, the better you will perform.

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the comparative adjective in parentheses.

1.​ This exam is __________ (difficult) than the last one we took.
2.​ My house is __________ (big) than yours.
3.​ She is __________ (smart) than her sister.
4.​ The weather today is __________ (bad) than it was yesterday.
5.​ This movie is __________ (interesting) than the one we watched last week.
6.​ His explanation was __________ (clear) than hers.
7.​ The new phone is __________ (expensive) than the previous model.
8.​ The more I study, the __________ (easy) the test becomes.
9.​ Your shirt is __________ (nice) than mine.
10.​ I find learning languages __________ (exciting) than other subjects.

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the irregular comparative adjective in parentheses.

1.​ This test was __________ (good) than the one we took last week.
2.​ Her performance was __________ (bad) than I expected.
3.​ I think this car is __________ (far) than the one we saw earlier.
4.​ He’s __________ (young) than his cousin.
5.​ The weather today is __________ (bad) than it was yesterday.
6.​ She works __________ (hard) than anyone else in the team.
7.​ The movie was __________ (good) than I thought it would be.
8.​ This situation is __________ (worse) than the previous one.
9.​ The journey was __________ (long) than we anticipated.
10.​ This coffee tastes __________ (better) than the one I had this morning.

27
EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the comparative adjective in parentheses.

1.​ This exam is more difficult than the last one we took.
2.​ My house is bigger than yours.
3.​ She is smarter than her sister.
4.​ The weather today is worse than it was yesterday.
5.​ This movie is more interesting than the one we watched last week.
6.​ His explanation was clearer than hers.
7.​ The new phone is more expensive than the previous model.
8.​ The more I study, the easier the test becomes.
9.​ Your shirt is nicer than mine.
10.​ I find learning languages more exciting than other subjects.

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the irregular comparative adjective in parentheses.

1.​ This test was better than the one we took last week.
2.​ Her performance was worse than I expected.
3.​ I think this car is farther than the one we saw earlier.
4.​ He’s younger than his cousin.
5.​ The weather today is worse than it was yesterday.
6.​ She works harder than anyone else in the team.
7.​ The movie was better than I thought it would be.
8.​ This situation is worse than the previous one.
9.​ The journey was longer than we anticipated.
10.​ This coffee tastes better than the one I had this morning.

28
UNIT 1 TIME CLAUSES
Welcome to the beginning of this riveting adventure we’re about to go on. The previous sections we’ve
seen were simply a little refreshment to help you get started on solid ground.

From now on, the following units will be your guide in case of needing to solve doubts that may arise as we
practice the roots of the language. Without any further ado, let’s get to work.

TIME CLAUSES
We’re sure that this term may sound a bit strange now but it will ring a bell once we start going over what’s
about. In English, we use time clauses to talk about when things take place, based on an action or event .
The verb in each time clause can be either in present or past tense.

They help us understand the timing of events in relation to each other. These clauses usually begin with
conjunctions such as "when," "after," "before," "until," "while," "as soon as," or "once."

It’s easier to understand better if seen these clauses applied to multiple situations, such as:

●​ “When I arrive, we will start dinner.”

●​ “After she finishes her project, she will relax.”
●​ “I will call you before I leave.”

Time clauses cannot stand alone; they depend on the main clause for meaning. They basically help clarify
the order of events and can appear at the beginning or end of a sentence.

Although they have a subject, verb and object, none of these are complete ideas, as they simply point to a
time. This is because when we form a time clause, the adverb of time joins two ideas.

●​ “She will be rich. She will succeed in selling all of her books.”
●​ “She will be rich after she succeeds in selling all of her books.”
●​ “She will be rich when she succeeds selling all of her books.”

NOTE, that the time clause is no longer in the future tense. Time clauses must be adjusted for certain
grammar rules. So watch out for clauses starting with adverbs of time!

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GRAMMAR RULES

The way of forming time clauses is simple, with the same word order, though time clauses use some
particular tense rules.

Time clauses only use different rules for future tenses; when talking about past or present events, you can
generally use regular tenses for time clauses.

●​ “Before we cook dinner, we wash our hands.”

●​ “They came home after they finished work.”
●​ “I had dinner before I watched the movie.”

However, we use the present tenses to talk about future times.

●​ “He will finish watching the movie after he eats dinner.”

●​ “I might practice my listening skills until my friend’s lesson has finished.”

NOTE, don’t repeat the future tense in clauses with adverbs of time. As you can see in the two examples
above, when two clauses are joined by adverbs of time the future form shouldn’t be repeated.

TIME CLAUSES AND CONDITIONALS

Time clauses are often compared to ‘if’ clauses. This makes sense because when discussing the future,
the clauses are grammatically very similar to the first conditional.

●​ “You will see the baby when they get here.”

●​ “You will see the baby if they get here.”
●​ “If it rains, we will stay inside until the storm passes.”
●​ “I will help you with your homework when you finish your chores.”
●​ “We can go for a walk as soon as the sun comes out, if the weather improves.”
●​ “If you study hard, you will do well on the exam when it takes place next week.”

30
EXERCISES

Choose the correct form to complete the sentences below

1. I will give / would give you an answer when I have one.

2. I’ll call you as soon as I arrive / will arrive.
3. If you don’t find him, you should call / would call.
4. He won’t stop until he gets / will get what he wants.
5. Do you go / will you go if I give you the address?

Complete the time clauses with verbs in brackets

1. Don’t panic. I’ll be ready as soon as you ______ (be)

2. I promise that we’ll stay here till your sister _________ (return)
3. Derek, I’ll let you know as soon as the party ___________ (start)
4. The moment summer _______(be) here, the garden will be so beautiful!
5. We will wait for you outside the shopping center until you _______ (be) back.

Combine time clauses with conditionals

1.​ If you finish your report, I will review it __________ (when/after) you send it to me.
2.​ We’ll go to the beach __________ (if/when) it stops raining.
3.​ If she studies hard, she will feel confident __________ (before/when) the exam starts.
4.​ I’ll make dinner __________ (after/if) you come home from work.
5.​ If you wait for me, I’ll be there __________ (until/when) you arrive.
6.​ They will call you __________ (as soon as/if) they get to the hotel.
7.​ If I see him, I’ll let you know __________ (when/if) I find out more information.
8.​ We can start the meeting __________ (if/as soon as) everyone is present.
9.​ If you don’t hurry, we will leave __________ (before/until) you get here.
10.​ I will send you the details __________ (when/if) I finish writing the report.

31
EXERCISES SOLVED

Choose the correct form to complete the sentences below

1. I will give you an answer when I have one.
2. I’ll call you as soon as I arrive.
3. If you don’t find him, you should call.
4. He won’t stop until he gets what he wants.
5. Will you go if I give you the address?

Complete the time clauses with verbs in brackets

1. Don’t panic. I’ll be ready as soon as you are.

2. I promise that we’ll stay here till your sister returns.
3. Derek, I’ll let you know as soon as the party starts.
4. The moment summer is here, the garden will be so beautiful!
5. We will wait for you outside the shopping center until you are back.

Combine time clauses with conditionals

1.​ If you finish your report, I will review it when you send it to me.
1.​ We’ll go to the beach if it stops raining.
2.​ If she studies hard, she will feel confident before the exam starts.
3.​ I’ll make dinner after you come home from work.
4.​ If you wait for me, I’ll be there when you arrive.
5.​ They will call you as soon as they get to the hotel.
6.​ If I see him, I’ll let you know when I find out more information.
7.​ We can start the meeting as soon as everyone is present.
8.​ If you don’t hurry, we will leave before you get here.
9.​ I will send you the details when I finish writing the report.

32
UNIT 2 MODAL VERBS
These types of verbs are used along with a main verb to indicate ability, necessity, possibility, and
permission. In sentences containing modal verbs, the main verb typically takes the infinitive form. Modal
verbs come before main verbs and never change form.

Here’s a thorough breakdown:

Can: Expresses ability or possibility.

●​ She can swim. (ability)

●​ It can rain later. (possibility)

Could: The past form of "can," used for ability in the past, polite requests, or possibilities.

●​ I could play piano when I was younger. (past ability)

●​ Could you help me, please? (polite request)

May: Indicates permission or a possibility.

●​ You may leave the room. (permission)

●​ It may snow tonight. (possibility)

Might: A weaker form of "may," indicating a lower probability.

●​ We might go to the party. (possibility)

●​ I might go to her wedding but I still don’t know. (possibility)

Must: Indicates necessity or strong obligation.

●​ You must wear a seatbelt. (necessity)

●​ She must be at least 18 to vote. (requirement)

Shall: Used to express future actions or offers, primarily in formal contexts.

●​ I shall return by noon. (future action)

●​ Shall we dance? (offer)

Should: Indicates advice, recommendation, or obligation.

●​ You should see a doctor. (advice)

●​ We should finish this project by Friday. (recommendation)

33
Will: Expresses future actions or promises.

●​ I will call you tomorrow. (future action)

●​ I will help you with that. (promise)

Would: Used for polite requests, hypothetical situations, or past habits.

●​ Would you like some tea? (polite request)

●​ If I had time, I would travel more. (hypothetical)

WATCH OUT, modal verbs do not take "to" before them (e.g., “to can” is incorrect) and cannot be used in
continuous forms (e.g., “canning” is incorrect).

Also, Modal verbs do not change form based on the subject (e.g., "He can," "They can," both use "can").

And last but certainly not least, to form the negative, you simply add "not" after the modal verb (e.g., "You
must not go," "She cannot swim").

Modal verbs are versatile and help convey various nuances in meaning. Understanding their use enhances
both written and spoken communication by allowing you to express different levels of certainty, obligation,
and permission.

NEED / NEEDN’T

The modal verb "need" and its negative form "needn't" express necessity and lack of necessity,
respectively.

●​ “You need to study for the exam.”

●​ “I need a break after working all day.”
●​ “You needn't worry about the exam; you’re well-prepared.”
●​ “She needn't bring anything; we have enough supplies.”

NOTE, need is often used to express a requirement or necessity, while needn't indicates that something is
not required.

Needn't is often used in informal contexts; in formal writing, "need not" may be preferred.

Understanding these modal verbs can help clarify your communication regarding obligations!

34
BE ABLE TO / BE ALLOWED TO

The phrases "be able to" and "be allowed to" are modal expressions that convey different meanings
related to ability and permission.

Here’s a detailed explanation of each:

"Be able to" is used to express ability or capability in the present, past, or future. It is often used when
referring to specific instances of ability.

●​ “I am able to speak three languages.”

●​ “She’s able to swim 3 hours a day.”
●​ “They are able to understand all the inscriptions.”
●​ “She was able to finish the project on time.”
●​ “I will be able to help you next week.”
●​ “He is not able to attend the meeting.”
●​ “Are you able to solve this problem?”

On the other hand, "be allowed to" is used to express permission or the absence of it. It indicates whether
someone has the right or is permitted to do something.

●​ “You are allowed to use your phone in class.”

●​ “They were allowed to go on the trip last year.”
●​ “You will be allowed to participate in the event.”
●​ “She is not allowed to drive until she gets her license.”
●​ “Are we allowed to take pictures here?”

Key difference, be able to focuses on capability and skill; be allowed to focuses on permission and rules.

OUGHT TO

The modal verb "ought to" is used to express duty, obligation, or advisability. It is similar in meaning to
"should" but can carry a slightly stronger moral or ethical connotation.

●​ “You ought to study for the exam.”

●​ “You ought not to ignore your health.”
●​ “Ought we to leave now?”

NOTE, similar to "should": "Ought to" and "should" can often be used interchangeably, but "ought to" may
sound slightly more formal or emphatic in some contexts. It expresses advice, moral obligations, or
expectations.

35
BE SUPPOSED TO / BE MEANT TO

The phrases "be supposed to" and "be meant to" both convey expectations or intentions, but they have
slightly different nuances.

●​ “You are supposed to wear a uniform at school.”

This indicates an expectation based on rules.

●​ “He was supposed to call me yesterday.”

This indicates that there was an expectation for him to call, but it did not happen.

●​ “They are going to be supposed to attend the meeting next week.

This indicates an expectation for future behavior.

"Be meant to" refers to the intended purpose or significance of something. It often indicates that
something has a specific role, function, or expectation associated with it.

●​ “This tool is meant to help you complete the task more easily.”

This indicates the intended purpose of the tool.

●​ “The meeting was meant to discuss the project details.”

This suggests that the meeting had a specific intention that may or may not have been fulfilled.

●​ “The new policy is meant to improve employee satisfaction.”

This indicates an intended effect of the policy.

Key difference between these two is that be supposed to often conveys obligation, expectation, or rules
about what should happen, whereas be meant to focuses on purpose, intention, or the intended outcome
of something.

HAD BETTER / HAD BETTER NOT

"Had better" is a phrase used to give strong advice or warning. It suggests that something is advisable or
necessary to avoid negative consequences.

Advice: It implies that doing something is the best option.

●​ “You had better study for the test”

It’s a good idea to study; otherwise, you might not do well.

36
WATCH OUT! It can indicate that there might be negative outcomes if the advice is not followed.

●​ “You had better leave now if you want to catch the bus.”

If you don’t leave now, you might miss the bus.

NOTE, "had better" is a way to give strong advice or warnings about what someone should do to avoid
problems. It’s more urgent than simply saying "should."

MEANINGS OF ‘GET’

"Get" is a very flexible verb that can mean obtaining, receiving, becoming, understanding, arriving,
causing, deceiving, or fetching, depending on the context. Its various uses make it a common and
essential part of everyday language!

The verb "get" has many meanings and uses in English, making it quite versatile. We’re going to dive into
them:

●​ “I need to get some groceries.”

To obtain or buy something.

●​ “ Did you get my message?”

To receive something, like a message or gift.

●​ “It’s starting to get cold outside.”

To change state or condition (to become).

●​ “I don’t get what you mean.”

To understand something.

●​ “What time will you get home?”

To arrive at a place.

●​ “Can you get him to help us?”

To cause someone to do something.

●​ “Don’t let him get you.”

To trick or deceive someone.

●​ “Can you get me a glass of water?”

To go and bring something back.

37
EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb

1.​ You __________ (must/can) wear a helmet while riding a bike for safety.
2.​ She __________ (should/might) join us for dinner if she finishes her work on time.
3.​ They __________ (mustn't/shouldn't) talk during the exam; it's against the rules.
4.​ If it rains tomorrow, we __________ (will/can) stay inside and watch a movie.
5.​ You __________ (may/must) leave early if you have an appointment.
6.​ He __________ (could/should) play the piano when he was a child.
7.​ We __________ (might/mustn't) need to take an umbrella; it looks like it could rain.
8.​ You __________ (can/ought to) finish your homework before going out to play.
9.​ If you see her, you __________ (should/must) tell her about the meeting.
10.​ You __________ (may/can) borrow my book if you promise to return it.

Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb

Maria has always dreamed of traveling the world. She believes that she __________ (can/must) make this
dream come true. Next year, she __________ (might/should) go on a trip to Europe if she saves enough
money.

Before she leaves, she __________ (has to/might) learn a few basic phrases in different languages. Her
friend told her that knowing how to say "hello" and "thank you" __________ (could/must) make a big
difference when meeting new people.

Maria knows she __________ (shouldn't/mustn't) forget her passport and tickets. She also thinks that she
__________ (can/must) pack lightly to make traveling easier.

When she arrives in a new city, she __________ (might/should) take a guided tour to learn more about the
culture. Finally, she hopes she __________ (will/may) share her experiences with friends and inspire them
to travel too.

38
Fill in the gaps with the correct form of ‘get’

1.​ I need to __________ (get) some groceries after work.

2.​ Can you __________ (get) me a glass of water, please?
3.​ She is trying to __________ (get) better at playing the piano.
4.​ We finally __________ (get) to the concert after a long drive.
5.​ He always __________ (get) up early to exercise before work.
6.​ Did you __________ (get) the message I sent you yesterday?
7.​ They are planning to __________ (get) married next year.
8.​ You should __________ (get) your homework done before going out.
9.​ I couldn’t __________ (get) my car started this morning.
10.​ If you want to be successful, you need to __________ (get) used to working hard.

39
EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb

1.​ You must wear a helmet while riding a bike for safety.
2.​ She might join us for dinner if she finishes her work on time.
3.​ They mustn't talk during the exam; it's against the rules.
4.​ If it rains tomorrow, we will stay inside and watch a movie.
5.​ You may leave early if you have an appointment.
6.​ He could play the piano when he was a child.
7.​ We might need to take an umbrella; it looks like it could rain.
8.​ You ought to finish your homework before going out to play. (Note: "should" is also acceptable
here.)
9.​ If you see her, you should tell her about the meeting.
10.​ You can borrow my book if you promise to return it.

Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb

Maria has always dreamed of traveling the world. She believes that she can make this dream come true.
Next year, she might go on a trip to Europe if she saves enough money.

Before she leaves, she has to learn a few basic phrases in different languages. Her friend told her that
knowing how to say "hello" and "thank you" can make a big difference when meeting new people.

Maria knows she mustn't forget her passport and tickets. She also thinks that she should pack lightly to
make traveling easier.

When she arrives in a new city, she might take a guided tour to learn more about the culture. Finally, she
hopes she will share her experiences with friends and inspire them to travel too.

40
Fill in the gaps with the correct form of ‘get’

1.​ I need to get some groceries after work.

2.​ Can you get me a glass of water, please?
3.​ She is trying to get better at playing the piano.
4.​ We finally got to the concert after a long drive.
5.​ He always gets up early to exercise before work.
6.​ Did you get the message I sent you yesterday?
7.​ They are planning to get married next year.
8.​ You should get your homework done before going out.
9.​ I couldn’t get my car started this morning.
10.​ If you want to be successful, you need to get used to working hard.

41
UNIT 3 FUTURE ARRANGEMENTS
In this following unit we will see the different arrangements the future tense in the English language has.

Once again, we’ll go over them to refresh our memory but if you need further context or more detailed
notes on how these tenses are formed, it can all be found in the B2 level manual.

Future arrangements in English refer to plans or commitments made for a specific time in the future. The
choice of structure can depend on whether the plan is already decided, spontaneous, or scheduled. It's
important to be clear about the time and nature of the arrangement to avoid confusion.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The present continuous tense is often used in English to talk about future arrangements or plans,
especially when the plans are already decided and usually involve other people. This way helps convey a
sense of certainty and planning for the future.

Here’s how it works:

Subject + am/is/are + verb-ing

●​ "I am meeting my friends for dinner on Friday."

●​ "She is giving a presentation next week."
●​ "We are flying to New York tomorrow."

NOTE, usually includes a specific time or date (e.g., "on Friday," "next week").

BE GOING TO

Commonly used in English to express future arrangements, especially when the intention has been
decided before speaking. It indicates that the plan was made before the moment of speaking.

It often includes a time frame, which helps clarify when the arrangement will occur.

Here’s the structure we use:

Subject + am/is/are + going to + base form of the verb

●​ "I am going to visit my grandparents next weekend."

●​ "They are going to start a new project next month."
●​ "Look at those clouds! It is going to rain." (Prediction based on evidence)

42
FUTURE CONTINUOUS

The future continuous tense is used in English to describe actions that will be ongoing at a specific point in
the future. It emphasizes the duration or continuity of an action.

Here’s a thorough explanation:

Subject + will be + verb-ing

Here are some examples with their different uses:

●​ "I will be studying at 8 PM tonight."

To indicate that an action will be in progress at a particular time in the future.

●​ "Will you be joining us for dinner?"

To ask about someone’s plans in a polite way.

●​ "They will be traveling to London next week."

To describe actions that are expected to happen at a certain time in the future.

●​ "It will be getting darker by 6 PM."

To make predictions about what will be happening at a certain time in the future.

More often than not, it’s much easier to get it with an appropriate context, such as:

-​ Time frame: "At this time tomorrow, I will be flying to New York."
-​ Asking about plans: "Will you be working late tonight?"
-​ Duration: "Next month, we will be living in our new house for a year."

The future continuous tense essentially provides clarity about what will be happening at a specific time,
emphasizing continuity and duration.

PRESENT SIMPLE

The present simple tense can be used to express future arrangements, particularly for scheduled events,
timetables, or fixed plans.

Here’s a thorough explanation:

Subject + base form of the verb

Once again, we’ll unfold the different uses within particular contexts so you understand much better:

●​ "The train leaves at 9 AM."

43
Often used for events that are fixed or scheduled, typically involving public transportation, official
programs, or routines.

●​ "The conference starts on Monday."

It is used for events that are part of a timetable or calendar.

●​ "The meeting begins at 3 PM."

Used when the arrangement is definite and unlikely to change.

●​ "The show opens next Friday and runs until the end of the month."

When referring to a sequence of events or actions that are planned.

-​ Transportation: "The bus arrives at noon."

-​ Work Schedule: "The team meets every Wednesday at 10 AM."
-​ School Schedule: "Classes start next week."

The present simple tense is an effective way to discuss future arrangements, especially those that are
scheduled or fixed.

FUTURE ‘WILL’

The word "will" is commonly used in English to express various meanings related to the future.

"Will" is a versatile modal verb used to express future intentions, predictions, promises, requests, and more.
Its meaning can vary depending on the context, making it an essential part of English communication about
future events.

Using "will" is a straightforward way to discuss future events, intentions, and predictions.

Subject + will + base form of the verb

Here are the different uses of "will":

●​ "I will help you with your homework."

To express a decision or intention made at the moment of speaking.

●​ "It will rain tomorrow."

To make predictions about future events or situations.

●​ "I will call you later."

44
To make a promise or offer to someone.

●​ "Will you please pass the salt?"

To make a polite request.

●​ "The sun will rise in the east."

To state facts or events that are certain to happen in the future.

●​ "He will probably arrive late."

To make assumptions or speculations about situations.

●​ "I will go to the gym every Saturday."

To describe repeated actions that will occur in the future.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

The future perfect simple tense is used in English to describe actions that will be completed before a
specified time in the future.

This tense allows speakers to emphasize the completion of actions and to express expectations clearly,
making it essential for effective communication about future plans and timelines.

Subject + will have + past participle of the verb

Here’s a more detailed explanation:

●​ "By next year, I will have graduated from university."

To indicate that an action will be finished before a certain point in the future.

●​ "By 2025, we will have lived here for ten years."

To emphasize the duration of an action up to a specific future time.

●​ "I believe she will have completed the project by Friday."

To express expectations about what will have been completed at a future date.

45
Here are some examples within a certain context:

-​ Planned completion: "They will have finished the report by the end of the week."
-​ Milestones: "By the time you arrive, I will have already eaten dinner."
-​ Future goals: "By the time he turns 30, he will have traveled to 20 countries."

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The future perfect continuous tense is used to describe actions that will have been ongoing for a specific
duration of time by a certain point in the future.

It emphasizes both the duration of an action and its completion before a future time.

Subject + will have been + verb-ing (participle)

●​ "By next month, I will have been working here for five years."

To indicate that an action will have been in progress for a certain duration by a specific time in the future.

●​ "When she arrives, we will have been waiting for over an hour."

To highlight the ongoing nature of an action that is expected to continue until a certain point in the future.

●​ "I believe that by the end of the project, we will have been collaborating for six months."

To express expectations about how long an action will have continued up to a future point.

Some more context:

-​ Job: "By the time I finish my degree, I will have been studying for four years."
-​ Personal issues: "Next week, we will have been living in this city for a decade."
-​ Event planning: "By the time the event starts, they will have been preparing for several days."

FUTURE TIME CLAUSES

They are dependent clauses that indicate when an action will take place in the future.

They often begin with conjunctions like "when," "as soon as," "after," "before," "until," and "if."

By using conjunctions, speakers can clearly convey relationships between different events in the future.
Understanding how to construct and use these clauses effectively enhances clarity and precision in
communication.

These clauses provide context for the timing of the main clause and are essential for constructing
sentences about future events.

46
Future time clause + main clause

●​ "I will call you when I arrive."

●​ "We will start the meeting as soon as everyone arrives."
●​ "She will go to the gym after she finishes work."
●​ "I will finish my homework before I watch TV."
●​ "I will wait until you come."
●​ "If it rains, we will cancel the picnic."

47
EXERCISES

Fill in the correct future tense - will / going to / present continuous

1.​ They _______ (drive) to New York tomorrow morning.

2.​ I hope the weather ________ (be) nice.
3.​ I offered him this job. I think he ________ (take) it.
4.​ I promise I _________ (not tell) your secret to anyone.
5.​ Take your umbrella with you. It _________ (rain).
6.​ They ________ (play) cards this evening.
7.​ I ________ (go) to the cinema tomorrow.
8.​ They _______ (fly) to Seattle next summer holidays.
9.​ I ________ (invite) 50 people to the party, and I hope everyone _______ (come).
10.​ That exercise looks difficult. I _______ (help) you.

Fill in with appropriate future time clauses. You can use conjunctions like "when," "as soon as," "after,"
"before," "until," and "if."

1.​ I will start cooking dinner _________ I finish my work.

2.​ We’ll go for a walk _________ it stops raining.
3.​ She will send you the report _________ she completes it.
4.​ I’ll call you _________ I arrive at the station.
5.​ We will wait here _________ you come back.
6.​ _________ you finish your homework, we can watch a movie.
7.​ He’ll buy a new car _________ he saves enough money.
8.​ They will start the meeting _________ everyone is present.
9.​ I will clean the house _________ I have some time.
10.​ _________ it is sunny tomorrow, we will have a picnic in the park.

48
Complete the second sentence to match the meaning of the first.

1.​ I will call you tomorrow.​

I will call you ___.
2.​ She is going to study law at university.​
She plans to study law ___.
3.​ They will finish the project next week.​
The project will be finished ___.
4.​ He always goes to the gym in the morning.​
He goes to the gym ___.
5.​ We are having a party on Saturday.​
There is a party ___.
6.​ I will help you with your homework.​
I will assist you ___.
7.​ They are leaving for vacation next month.​
They will go on vacation ___.
8.​ I am meeting my friend for lunch.​
I will meet my friend ___.
9.​ She loves to read mystery novels.​
She enjoys reading ___.
10.​ We will go hiking if the weather is nice.​
We will go hiking ___.

49
EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the correct future tense - will / going to / present continuous

1.​ They are driving to New York tomorrow morning.

2.​ I hope the weather will be nice.
3.​ I offered him this job. I think he will take it.
4.​ I promise I won’t tell your secret to anyone.
5.​ Take your umbrella with you. It is going to rain.
6.​ They are going to play cards this evening.
7.​ I am going to the cinema tomorrow.
8.​ They are flying to Seattle next summer holidays.
9.​ I am inviting 50 people to the party, and I hope everyone will come.
10.​ That exercise looks difficult. I will help you.

Fill in with appropriate future time clauses. You can use conjunctions like "when," "as soon as," "after,"
"before," "until," and "if."

1.​ I will start cooking dinner after I finish my work.

2.​ We’ll go for a walk as soon as it stops raining.
3.​ She will send you the report when she completes it.
4.​ I’ll call you when I arrive at the station.
5.​ We will wait here until you come back.
6.​ If you finish your homework, we can watch a movie.
7.​ He’ll buy a new car when he saves enough money.
8.​ They will start the meeting after everyone is present.
9.​ I will clean the house when I have some time.
10.​ If it is sunny tomorrow, we will have a picnic in the park.

50
Complete the second sentence to match the meaning of the first.

1.​ I will call you tomorrow.​

I will call you the day after today.
2.​ She is going to study law at university.​
She plans to study law in the future.
3.​ They will finish the project next week.​
The project will be finished by next week.
4.​ He always goes to the gym in the morning.​
He goes to the gym every morning.
5.​ We are having a party on Saturday.​
There is a party this Saturday.
6.​ I will help you with your homework.​
I will assist you with your homework.
7.​ They are leaving for vacation next month.​
They will go on vacation in a month.
8.​ I am meeting my friend for lunch.​
I will meet my friend at lunch.
9.​ She loves to read mystery novels.​
She enjoys reading mystery novels.
10.​ We will go hiking if the weather is nice.​
We will go hiking provided the weather is nice.

51
UNIT 4 DISCOURSE MARKERS
Discourse markers are words or phrases used to guide the flow of conversation or writing. They help to
organize thoughts, manage information, and show relationships between ideas.

They are crucial for crafting more nuanced, cohesive, and sophisticated arguments in both written and
spoken English.

Discourse markers are primarily used to:

-​ Structure conversations and writing: They introduce new topics, transition between ideas, or
signal the relationship between them.
-​ Manage interaction: They can indicate agreement, disagreement, emphasis, or hesitation.
-​ Clarify meaning: They help speakers or writers ensure their message is understood.
-​ Add nuance: They indicate tone, intention, or the degree of certainty.

Let’s go over some examples to understand better:

Additive Discourse Markers

These markers are used to add information, continue a point, or introduce similar ideas.

●​ "The new project will be challenging. In addition, we must consider the budget constraints."
●​ "She’s an excellent communicator. Furthermore, she’s very detail-oriented."

Common Additive Markers:

●​ Moreover, besides, also, in addition, further, what's more, as well, not only...but also

Contrastive Discourse Markers

Used to contrast or present an opposing idea.

●​ "The proposal seemed practical. However, we need more data to support it."
●​ "She enjoys working in teams. On the other hand, she also values her personal space."

Common Contrastive Markers:

●​ However, although, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, yet, despite, even though,
whereas

52
Causal Discourse Markers

These indicate cause and effect, reasons, or consequences.

●​ "The project was delayed because of technical issues."

●​ "We must act quickly. Otherwise, we’ll miss the deadline."

Common Causal Markers:

●​ Because, due to, as a result, therefore, thus, consequently, for this reason, hence, so

Summarizing and Concluding Discourse Markers

These are used to summarize or conclude ideas, often signaling the end of a section or argument.

●​ "In conclusion, all the evidence points to a need for change."

●​ "To summarize, we’ve discussed the challenges and solutions."

Common Summarizing and Concluding Markers:

●​ In conclusion, to summarize, in short, to put it briefly, ultimately, in sum, all in all

Emphatic Discourse Markers

These markers highlight a point or add emphasis to an idea.

●​ "The new policy is absolutely essential for the company’s growth."

●​ "He was incredibly efficient during the meeting."

Common Emphatic Markers:

●​ Indeed, absolutely, in fact, of course, surprisingly, especially, above all

Concessive Discourse Markers

These markers are used to acknowledge something contrary to the main argument, yet continue the point.

●​ "I understand your concerns. Nevertheless, we must move forward with the plan."
●​ "Although the results were mixed, we can still learn a lot from them."

Common Concessive Markers:

●​ Although, even though, despite, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, but, though

53
Clarification and Elaboration Discourse Markers

Used to explain or elaborate on a point, providing further detail or restating the idea in another way.

●​ "He didn’t do well on the test. In other words, he needs more practice."
●​ "This issue needs to be addressed immediately. That is to say, we should prioritize it in the next
meeting."

Common Clarification Markers:

●​ In other words, that is to say, to clarify, namely, specifically, such as, i.e., namely

Sequential Discourse Markers

These markers are used to show order or sequence of ideas, events, or actions.

●​ "First, we need to collect the data. Then, we’ll analyze the results."
●​ "I’ll discuss the background, next we’ll look at the methodology, and finally, we’ll consider the
outcomes."

Common Sequential Markers:

●​ First, second, next, then, finally, subsequently, afterwards, to begin with

You might be wondering when to use these discourse markers, I’ll tell you when:

Use discourse markers to guide your reader or listener through your argument. They should help organize
thoughts logically and improve clarity.

Discourse markers can manage the tone of a conversation and indicate politeness, hesitation, or formality:

●​ "I’m not entirely sure, but perhaps we could consider an alternative approach."
●​ "We’ll have to make a decision soon, I suppose."

These are used in spoken discourse to manage pauses or to soften statements.

●​ "I’ve been thinking about the issue, and, well, it seems complicated."
●​ "It’s, you know, a bit more difficult than expected."

54
Here are a few more examples:

●​ "The company has shown significant progress. Nevertheless, there are still some areas that
require attention."
●​ "We can’t ignore the results. That is to say, we must address these challenges immediately."
●​ "She’s done well with her responsibilities. In contrast, her colleague has struggled with similar
tasks."
●​ "The team did a fantastic job. In conclusion, they have exceeded all expectations."
●​ "He’s always been a strong candidate. For example, his leadership skills have been outstanding."

55
EXERCISES

Complete the sentences with the appropriate discourse marker from the list below. You can use each
discourse marker once or as needed.​
however, therefore, for example, in conclusion, although, in addition, nevertheless, on the other hand, thus,
moreover, to sum up, despite, first, as a result, that is to say

1.​ She studied hard for the exam; __________, she did not get the grade she was expecting.
2.​ The restaurant had great reviews. __________, the food was disappointing.
3.​ The team has made significant progress in the last year. __________, there are still some
challenges to address.
4.​ We need to consider the cost of the project. __________, we must also evaluate the potential
benefits.
5.​ The results were unexpected. __________, they indicate a need for further research.
6.​ The weather forecast predicts rain tomorrow. __________, we should prepare for outdoor
activities today.
7.​ The company has seen a significant increase in sales this quarter. __________, customer
satisfaction has remained stable.
8.​ I don't usually like science fiction movies. __________, I found that one quite interesting.
9.​ The new product is a success in the market. __________, there have been some technical issues
to resolve.
10.​ I have already given you my opinion. __________, you need to make your own decision.
11.​ The conference was insightful and engaging. __________, I believe there’s more room for
improvement next year.
12.​ She was exhausted. __________, she decided to finish the report before going to bed.
13.​ The new software offers several advantages. __________, it may take time for the team to adjust
to the new system.
14.​ We must address the budget constraints first. __________, we can focus on the timeline.
15.​ The weather was terrible. __________, they went hiking anyway.

56
Complete the text below with the appropriate discourse markers. Use the discourse markers provided
as needed.​
however, therefore, for example, in conclusion, although, in addition, nevertheless, on the other hand, thus,
moreover, to sum up, despite, first, as a result, that is to say

In recent years, online education has gained significant popularity. (1) __________, many argue that it
cannot replace the traditional classroom experience. (2) __________, there are several benefits to online
learning that cannot be overlooked. Online courses offer flexibility in terms of timing and location, which
allows students to learn at their own pace. (3) __________, students can access a variety of materials and
resources from all over the world. For (4) __________, online courses often include interactive elements
such as forums and video discussions that enhance the learning experience.

(5) __________, there are some drawbacks. Some students may feel isolated when studying remotely and
miss the social interaction that comes with face-to-face learning. (6) __________, online education tends
to lack the immediate feedback that a teacher can provide in a traditional classroom setting. (7)
__________, some people argue that the quality of online courses may not be as high as in-person
classes. (8) __________, online education is more cost-effective, making it accessible to a broader range
of students. (9) __________, it is often more convenient for those who have full-time jobs or family
commitments.

(10) __________, while online education has its disadvantages, it remains a viable option for many
students. (11) __________, the ongoing advancement of technology means that the gap between online
and traditional education is continually shrinking.

(12) __________, we can conclude that online learning offers great opportunities, especially when
combined with traditional classroom experiences.

57
EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences with the appropriate discourse marker from the list below. You can use each
discourse marker once or as needed.​
however, therefore, for example, in conclusion, although, in addition, nevertheless, on the other hand, thus,
moreover, to sum up, despite, first, as a result, that is to say

1.​ She studied hard for the exam; however, she did not get the grade she was expecting.
2.​ The restaurant had great reviews. Nevertheless, the food was disappointing.
3.​ The team has made significant progress in the last year. However, there are still some challenges
to address.
4.​ We need to consider the cost of the project. In addition, we must also evaluate the potential
benefits.
5.​ The results were unexpected. As a result, they indicate a need for further research.
6.​ The weather forecast predicts rain tomorrow. Therefore, we should prepare for outdoor activities
today.
7.​ The company has seen a significant increase in sales this quarter. Moreover, customer satisfaction
has remained stable.
8.​ I don’t usually like science fiction movies. On the other hand, I found that one quite interesting.
9.​ The new product is a success in the market. Nevertheless, there have been some technical issues
to resolve.
10.​ I have already given you my opinion. That is to say, you need to make your own decision.
11.​ The conference was insightful and engaging. In conclusion, I believe there’s more room for
improvement next year.
12.​ She was exhausted. Nevertheless, she decided to finish the report before going to bed.
13.​ The new software offers several advantages. However, it may take time for the team to adjust to
the new system.
14.​ We must address the budget constraints first. First, we can focus on the timeline.
15.​ The weather was terrible. Despite that, they went hiking anyway.

58
Complete the text below with the appropriate discourse markers. Use the discourse markers provided
as needed.​
however, therefore, for example, in conclusion, although, in addition, nevertheless, on the other hand, thus,
moreover, to sum up, despite, first, as a result, that is to say

In recent years, online education has gained significant popularity. (1) However, many argue that it cannot
replace the traditional classroom experience. (2) Nevertheless, there are several benefits to online
learning that cannot be overlooked. Online courses offer flexibility in terms of timing and location, which
allows students to learn at their own pace. (3) In addition, students can access a variety of materials and
resources from all over the world. For (4) example, online courses often include interactive elements such
as forums and video discussions that enhance the learning experience.

(5) On the other hand, there are some drawbacks. Some students may feel isolated when studying
remotely and miss the social interaction that comes with face-to-face learning. (6) Moreover, online
education tends to lack the immediate feedback that a teacher can provide in a traditional classroom
setting. (7) Thus, some people argue that the quality of online courses may not be as high as in-person
classes. (8) That is to say, online education is more cost-effective, making it accessible to a broader range
of students. (9) As a result, it is often more convenient for those who have full-time jobs or family
commitments.

(10) First, while online education has its disadvantages, it remains a viable option for many students. (11) In
conclusion, the ongoing advancement of technology means that the gap between online and traditional
education is continually shrinking.

(12) To sum up, we can conclude that online learning offers great opportunities, especially when combined
with traditional classroom experiences.

59
UNIT 5 VERB COMPLEMENTATION
Verb complementation in English refers to the way certain verbs require or allow additional elements to
complete their meaning.

These complements can take various forms, such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, clauses, or phrases.
Understanding verb complementation is crucial for constructing grammatically correct sentences.

Verb complementation is an essential aspect of English grammar, involving the use of various types of
complements to provide complete meanings for verbs. By mastering this concept, you can improve both
your writing and speaking skills.

Understanding verb complementation helps in:

-​ Constructing grammatically correct sentences: Knowing which complements are needed with
certain verbs ensures proper sentence structure.
-​ Enhancing clarity and meaning: Complements provide necessary details that clarify the action or
state described by the verb.

We’re going to unfold each type with examples so it’s easier to understand:

Direct objects, many verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning.

●​ "She reads a book." (Here, "a book" is the direct object of the verb "reads.")

Indirect objects, some verbs take both a direct object and an indirect object.

●​ "He gave her a gift." ("her" is the indirect object, and "a gift" is the direct object.)

Subject complements, some verbs, often linking verbs, are followed by a subject complement that
describes or identifies the subject.

●​ "She is a teacher." ("a teacher" is the subject complement that describes "she.")

Object complements, these follow and provide more information about the direct object.

●​ "They elected him president." ("president" is the object complement that describes "him.")

Prepositional phrases: Some verbs are followed by prepositional phrases that add detail.

●​ "He arrived at the station." ("at the station" is a prepositional phrase complementing the verb
"arrived.")

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Clauses, some verbs can take a clause as a complement.

●​ "I believe that she is right." ("that she is right" is a clause complementing the verb "believe.")

INFINITIVE

Verb complementation with infinitives involves using the base form of a verb (the infinitive) to complete the
meaning of certain verbs.

It’s also a key aspect of English grammar that helps convey intentions, desires, and actions.

The infinitive form of a verb is the base form preceded by "to".

Subject + Verb + (Object) + Infinitive

When used as a complement, it typically follows certain verbs to indicate purpose, intention, or action.

Desire:

●​ "I want to go to the party."

Intention:

●​ "She plans to study abroad."

Permission:

●​ "He allowed me to leave early."

Advice:

●​ "They suggested to start early."

Ability:

●​ "He can play the guitar."

NOTE, when the subject of the main verb and the infinitive is the same, the infinitive does not need "to" in
some cases.

●​ "I saw him leave." (Here, "leave" is the bare infinitive without "to.")

Some verbs can take either an infinitive or a gerund (verb + -ing) with different meanings.

●​ "I stopped to smoke." (I paused my activity to smoke.) vs. "I stopped smoking." (I quit the habit of
smoking.)

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GERUND

Gerunds are versatile and can be used in various ways within sentences. They help convey actions and
activities while functioning as nouns.

A gerund is formed by adding “-ing” to the base form of a verb, and it functions as a noun in a sentence.

Here’s a breakdown of gerunds, their uses, and how they work:

Gerund: The "-ing" form of a verb used as a noun.

●​ "Swimming is fun." (Here, "swimming" acts as the subject of the sentence.)

We’re going to dive deeper into the different uses of the gerund in English:

Subjects: Gerunds can act as the subject of a sentence.

●​ Running is good for your health.

Objects: Gerunds can function as the direct object of a verb.

●​ She enjoys reading books.

After prepositions: Gerunds often follow prepositions.

●​ He is interested in learning Spanish.

Subject complements: Gerunds can follow linking verbs to describe the subject.

●​ Her favorite hobby is painting.

Compound nouns: Gerunds can be part of compound nouns.

●​ a swimming pool, a writing desk.

Some verbs are typically followed by gerunds.

●​ Enjoy: I enjoy cooking.

●​ Consider: She considered moving to a new city.
●​ Avoid: He avoids talking about politics.
●​ Finish: They finished working on the project.

62
EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with either a gerund or an infinitive. Use the verbs in parentheses to complete each
sentence.

1.​ I enjoy _____ (swim) in the ocean during summer.

2.​ She plans _____ (visit) her grandmother next weekend.
3.​ They suggested _____ (take) a different route to avoid traffic.
4.​ He promised _____ (call) me later tonight.
5.​ I can’t stand _____ (listen) to that song anymore.
6.​ She forgot _____ (bring) her lunch to work.
7.​ We discussed _____ (move) to a new city next year.
8.​ He hopes _____ (get) a promotion soon.
9.​ I love _____ (read) books before going to bed.
10.​ They decided _____ ( join) the gym to get fit.

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of verb complementation. Use either a noun, gerund, or infinitive
to complete each sentence.

1.​ She decided _____ (take) the job offer after all.
2.​ I enjoy _____ (read) books in my free time.
3.​ They suggested _____ (go) for a walk after dinner.
4.​ He promised _____ (help) me with my homework.
5.​ We avoided _____ (talk) about politics during dinner.
6.​ The teacher encouraged us _____ (participate) in the competition.
7.​ She can't stand _____ (wait) in long lines.
8.​ He seems _____ (be) very happy with his new job.
9.​ I look forward to _____ (see) you at the conference.
10.​ They expect _____ (finish) the project by next week.
11.​ She loves _____ (dance) at parties.
12.​ He avoided _____ (mention) the incident during the meeting.
13.​ They agreed _____ (meet) at the café later.
14.​ I can't help _____ (feel) nervous before a presentation.
15.​ The children enjoyed _____ (play) outside during the summer.

63
Fill in using the appropriate verb complementation (gerunds or infinitives).

Last weekend, I decided _____ (1) go hiking with my friends. We planned _____ (2) start early in the
morning to avoid the heat. Before we left, I remembered _____ (3) pack plenty of water and snacks. My
friend Sarah loves _____ (4) take photos, so she brought her camera along.

As we were hiking, we stopped _____ (5) enjoy the beautiful views. I can’t help _____ (6) feel amazed by
nature's beauty. We also took some time _____ (7) relax and have lunch.

At one point, we heard someone _____ (8) shout for help. We immediately rushed over, hoping _____ (9)
assist whoever was in trouble. Luckily, it turned out _____ (10) just a prank, but it certainly made our
adventure more exciting!

64
EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the blanks with either a gerund or an infinitive. Use the verbs in parentheses to complete each
sentence.

1.​ I enjoy swimming in the ocean during summer.

2.​ She plans to visit her grandmother next weekend.
3.​ They suggested taking a different route to avoid traffic.
4.​ He promised to call me later tonight.
5.​ I can’t stand listening to that song anymore.
6.​ She forgot to bring her lunch to work.
7.​ We discussed moving to a new city next year.
8.​ He hopes to get a promotion soon.
9.​ I love reading books before going to bed.
10.​ They decided to join the gym to get fit.

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of verb complementation. Use either a noun, gerund, or infinitive
to complete each sentence.

1.​ She decided to take the job offer after all.

2.​ I enjoy reading books in my free time.
3.​ They suggested going for a walk after dinner.
4.​ He promised to help me with my homework.
5.​ We avoided talking about politics during dinner.
6.​ The teacher encouraged us to participate in the competition.
7.​ She can't stand waiting in long lines.
8.​ He seems to be very happy with his new job.
9.​ I look forward to seeing you at the conference.
10.​ They expect to finish the project by next week.
11.​ She loves dancing at parties.
12.​ He avoided mentioning the incident during the meeting.
13.​ They agreed to meet at the café later.
14.​ I can't help feeling nervous before a presentation.
15.​ The children enjoyed playing outside during the summer.

65
Fill in using the appropriate verb complementation (gerunds or infinitives).

1.​ to go
2.​ to start
3.​ to pack
4.​ to take
5.​ to enjoy
6.​ to feel
7.​ to relax
8.​ shouting
9.​ to assist
10.​ to be

66
UNIT 6 CONDITIONALS
Conditionals in English are used to express relationships between conditions and their consequences.
They help communicate possibilities, hypothetical scenarios, and the outcomes of specific situations.

At an advanced level, they can be categorized into several types, each with specific nuances and uses:

-​ Zero conditional, to express general truths or scientific facts.

If + present simple, present simple

●​ “If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.”

-​ First conditional, to talk about real and possible future situations.

If + present simple, will + base verb

●​ “If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home.”

-​ Second conditional, to discuss hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future.

If + past simple, would + base verb

●​ “If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.”

-​ Third conditional, to reflect on past situations that didn’t happen.

If + past perfect, would have + past participle

●​ “ If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.”

-​ Mixed conditionals, to show a present result of a past condition or vice versa.

Combines elements of the second and third conditionals.

●​ “ If I had taken that job (past), I would be living in New York now (present).”
-​ Inverted conditionals.

Often used in formal writing; the “if” can be omitted.

●​ “Had I known about the meeting, I would have attended.”

-​ Conditional clauses + modal verbs, to express necessity, possibility, or permission in different
tenses.

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If + subject + modal verb + base verb

●​ “ If you should see him, please tell him to call me.”

NOTE, conditionals can also be formed with other tenses or modals to express different degrees of
certainty or time.

●​ “If you could have chosen any career (hypothetical past), what would it have been?”

The choice of conditional depends on the time frame and reality of the situation, so remember to always
pay attention to verb forms; they determine the meaning and structure of the conditional.

When it comes to their uses, they are used to express relationships between conditions and their
consequences. They help communicate possibilities, hypothetical scenarios, and the outcomes of specific
situations.

-​ 1st conditional, used to discuss real and likely future events.

●​ “If it rains, I will bring an umbrella.”

-​ 2nd conditional, used for unreal or unlikely present or future scenarios.

●​ “ If I were rich, I would travel the world.”

-​ 3rd conditional, used to talk about past situations that did not happen and their hypothetical
results.
●​ “ If I had known, I would have come earlier.”

-​ Mixed conditionals, used to express a present result of a past condition or vice versa.
●​ “ If I had taken that job, I would be happier now.”

Conditional structures can also suggest or offer possibilities.

●​ “If you need help, just let me know.”

And they can also express advice based on certain conditions.

●​ “If you want to improve, practice every day.”

Overall, they allow for more nuanced communication, linking ideas and providing context for actions and
events.

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ALTERNATIVES TO ‘IF’

In English, there are several alternatives to "if" that can be used to introduce conditional clauses or express
conditions.

Unless, indicates a condition that must be avoided for the main clause to happen.

●​ “I won't go to the party unless you come with me.”

Provided (that) / providing (that), specifies a condition that must be met for the main clause to occur.

●​ “You can borrow my car provided (that) you return it by 5 PM.”

As long as, emphasizes a condition that needs to be fulfilled.

●​ “You can stay out late as long as you call me when you arrive.”

In case, indicates a precautionary condition.

●​ “Take an umbrella in case it rains.”

Whether or not, expresses a condition that does not affect the outcome.

●​ “I’ll go to the event whether or not you join me.”

In the event that, a more formal way to express a condition.

●​ “In the event that the meeting is canceled, I will notify everyone.”

Otherwise, indicates what will happen if the condition is not met.

●​ “Study hard; otherwise, you won't pass the exam.”

Supposing (that), used to introduce a hypothetical situation.

●​ “Supposing (that) we won the lottery, what would we do?”

Should, used to express a condition in a more formal or literary way.

●​ “Should you need any assistance, please let me know.”

Should you wish, a formal alternative for introducing a condition.

●​ “Should you wish to withdraw your application, please inform us.”

69
I WISH

The phrase "I wish..." is used in English to express a desire for something that is not true, is unlikely, or is
contrary to reality. This structure serves as a powerful way to express desires about the present, past, or
future, often reflecting feelings of regret or longing.

It can convey feelings of regret, longing, or hypothetical scenarios.

When expressing a desire for a present condition that is not true, the second conditional form is typically
used.

I wish + subject + past simple.

●​ "I wish I were taller."

This implies that the speaker is not tall and desires to be so.

To express regret about something that happened (or did not happen) in the past, the third conditional form
is used.

I wish + subject + past perfect.

●​ "I wish I had studied harder for the exam."

This indicates regret about not studying hard in the past.

For future scenarios, "I wish" is less commonly used, but it can be framed with "would" to express a desire
for something to change.

I wish + subject + would + base verb.

●​ "I wish it would stop raining."

This expresses a desire for the rain to stop in the future.

Using "I wish" can convey deep feelings of regret or longing for a different reality.

●​ "I wish my family lived closer."

This reflects a desire for more proximity and connection.

In some contexts, especially formal writing, "were" is preferred over "was" after "I wish," reflecting the
subjunctive mood.

●​ "I wish it were possible to turn back time."

70
EXERCISES

Fill in the gaps with second and third conditional.

1.​ If I _____ (study) harder, I _____ (be) in a better job now.

2.​ If she _____ (be) more organized, she _____ (not/miss) the deadline last week.
3.​ If we _____ (go) to the party, we _____ (know) more people now.
4.​ If he _____ (be) more confident, he _____ (can/present) his ideas more effectively yesterday.
5.​ If they _____ (listen) to my advice, they _____ (be) happier today.
6.​ If I _____ (be) you, I _____ (take) that opportunity when it arose.
7.​ If we _____ (plan) the trip better, we _____ (enjoy) our vacation right now.
8.​ If she _____ (be) more adventurous, she _____ (try) skydiving last summer.
9.​ If I _____ (remember) his birthday, I _____ (celebrate) with him today.
10.​ If they _____ (be) more committed, they _____ (finish) the project on time last month.

Fill in, focusing on mixed conditionals.

1.​ If I _____ (know) you were in town, I _____ (invite) you to dinner last night.
2.​ If she _____ (be) more careful, she _____ (not/make) that mistake last week.
3.​ If they _____ (study) harder, they _____ (pass) the exam this semester.
4.​ If I _____ (take) that job offer, I _____ (be) living in a different city now.
5.​ If he _____ (listen) to the advice, he _____ (be) in a better situation right now.
6.​ If we _____ (leave) earlier, we _____ (not/miss) the flight last time.
7.​ If she _____ (be) more patient, she _____ (understand) the situation better now.
8.​ If I _____ (not/forget) my keys, I _____ (not/be) locked out yesterday.
9.​ If they _____ (practice) more, they _____ (perform) better in the competition now.
10.​ If you _____ (ask) me earlier, I _____ (help) you with your project.

71
Fill in, focusing on inverted conditionals.

1.​ Had I known about the meeting, I _____ (attend).

2.​ Were she to ask for help, I _____ (be) happy to assist.
3.​ Had they prepared better, they _____ (pass) the exam.
4.​ Were it not for the rain, we _____ (go) hiking today.
5.​ Had he listened to my advice, he _____ (avoid) that mistake.
6.​ Were I in your position, I _____ (take) that opportunity.
7.​ Had we left earlier, we _____ (not/miss) the train.
8.​ Were she to call, I _____ (answer) immediately.
9.​ Had you studied harder, you _____ (succeed) in the test.
10.​ Were they more diligent, they _____ (finish) the project on time.

Fill in using alternatives to "if."

1.​ You can join us for the trip _____ you can arrange for your own transportation.
2.​ I’ll help you with your project _____ you need assistance.
3.​ Bring an umbrella _____ it starts to rain during the picnic.
4.​ You can use my laptop _____ you treat me to coffee later.
5.​ _____ you have any dietary restrictions, please let me know.
6.​ We’ll head out early _____ we want to catch the sunrise.
7.​ You should wear comfortable shoes _____ we’ll be walking a lot.
8.​ _____ you feel unwell, it’s best to stay home and rest.
9.​ The concert will be canceled _____ the weather doesn’t improve.
10.​ We’ll have a great time _____ everyone brings their favorite snacks

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the gaps with second and third conditional.

1.​ If I had studied harder, I would be in a better job now.

2.​ If she were more organized, she wouldn’t have missed the deadline last week.
3.​ If we had gone to the party, we would know more people now.
4.​ If he were more confident, he could have presented his ideas more effectively yesterday.
5.​ If they had listened to my advice, they would be happier today.
6.​ If I were you, I would have taken that opportunity when it arose.
7.​ If we had planned the trip better, we would be enjoying our vacation right now.
8.​ If she were more adventurous, she might have tried skydiving last summer.
9.​ If I had remembered his birthday, I would be celebrating with him today.
10.​ If they were more committed, they could have finished the project on time last month.

Fill in, focusing on mixed conditionals.

1.​ If I had known you were in town, I would have invited you to dinner last night.
2.​ If she had been more careful, she would not have made that mistake last week.
3.​ If they studied harder, they would pass the exam this semester.
4.​ If I had taken that job offer, I would be living in a different city now.
5.​ If he had listened to the advice, he would be in a better situation right now.
6.​ If we had left earlier, we would not have missed the flight last time.
7.​ If she were more patient, she would understand the situation better now.
8.​ If I had not forgotten my keys, I would not have been locked out yesterday.
9.​ If they practiced more, they would perform better in the competition now.
10.​ If you had asked me earlier, I would have helped you with your project.

73
Fill in, focusing on inverted conditionals.

1.​ Had I known about the meeting, I would have attended.

2.​ Were she to ask for help, I would be happy to assist.
3.​ Had they prepared better, they would have passed the exam.
4.​ Were it not for the rain, we would go hiking today.
5.​ Had he listened to my advice, he would have avoided that mistake.
6.​ Were I in your position, I would take that opportunity.
7.​ Had we left earlier, we would not have missed the train.
8.​ Were she to call, I would answer immediately.
9.​ Had you studied harder, you would have succeeded in the test.
10.​ Were they more diligent, they would finish the project on time.

Fill in using alternatives to "if."

1.​ You can join us for the trip provided you can arrange for your own transportation.
2.​ I’ll help you with your project in case you need assistance.
3.​ Bring an umbrella in case it starts to rain during the picnic.
4.​ You can use my laptop as long as you treat me to coffee later.
5.​ Should you have any dietary restrictions, please let me know.
6.​ We’ll head out early in order to catch the sunrise.
7.​ You should wear comfortable shoes since we’ll be walking a lot.
8.​ In the event that you feel unwell, it’s best to stay home and rest.
9.​ The concert will be canceled unless the weather doesn’t improve.
10.​ We’ll have a great time as long as everyone brings their favorite snacks.

74
UNIT 7 AVOIDING REPETITION
In the English language, we must avoid repeating words.

It’s perfectly fine to use the first correct word that comes to mind but it’s important to avoid repeating the
same old ones.

Avoiding repetition in English is important for several reasons:

-​ Clarity and precision: Using varied vocabulary helps convey your message more clearly. It
prevents confusion and makes your point more precise.
-​ Engagement: Repetitive language can be monotonous and boring for listeners or readers. A varied
word choice keeps the audience engaged and interested in what you’re saying.
-​ Demonstrating language proficiency: Using a diverse vocabulary showcases your command of
the language, which is particularly important in academic and professional settings.
-​ Expressing nuance: Different words can carry slightly different connotations. Using synonyms
allows you to express subtle differences in meaning or emotion.
-​ Improving writing quality: In writing, varied language enhances the overall quality and flow of the
text, making it more enjoyable to read.

In short, a varied vocabulary enriches communication and helps convey ideas more effectively!

Here’s a simple example illustrating the importance of avoiding repetition:

●​ "The movie was good. The acting was good. The story was good."

The same sentences could be said using different vocabulary but meaning the same, such as:

●​ "The movie was excellent. The acting was outstanding, and the storyline was captivating."

In the first version, the repetition of "good" makes it sound dull. In the improved version, using varied
vocabulary not only makes the description more engaging but also provides a clearer picture of why the
movie was enjoyable.

By using these substitutes effectively, you can create more varied and engaging sentences while
maintaining clarity in your writing or speech.

Now, we are describe a few more situations in which we can illustrate the importance of varied, wider
vocabulary:

●​ "The pasta was good. The sauce was good. The salad was good."

Improved version: "The pasta was delicious, the sauce was rich and flavorful, and the salad was fresh and
crunchy."

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PRONOUNS

In English, there are several types of substitutes for nouns that can help avoid repetition and enhance
clarity.

Personal pronouns: he, she, it, they

●​ "Sara loves her cat. She takes care of it every day."

Possessive pronouns: his, hers, its, theirs

●​ "The book is mine, and this one is yours."

Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those

●​ "I prefer this over that."

SYNONYMS

Using words with similar meanings can substitute for a noun.

●​ "The teacher assigned homework. The instructor provided guidelines."

DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

Using "the," "a," or "an" can refer back to a noun previously mentioned.

●​ "I saw a movie. The movie was fantastic."

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

These nouns can represent a group or collection.

●​ "The team won their match." (instead of repeating "the players")

NOMINALIZATION

Turning verbs or adjectives into nouns to avoid repetition.

●​ "The decision to leave was difficult." (instead of repeating "the decision")

ELLIPSIS

Omitting repeated elements when they are understood from context.

●​ "I like ice cream, and she does too." (the verb "like" is understood)

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SUBSTITUTE NOUNS

Using a general noun to stand in for a specific one.

●​ "The vehicle broke down." (instead of repeating "the car")

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Using "who," "which," or "that" to avoid repeating nouns.

●​ "The author wrote a bestseller. The author is well-known." / can be combined as "The author who
wrote a bestseller is well-known."

CONNECTORS

Also known as transitional phrases or linking words, are used to enhance the flow of writing and speaking
in English. They help to clarify relationships between ideas, indicate the structure of your argument, and
guide the reader or listener through your points.

When connectors are used effectively, they can greatly enhance the clarity and coherence of your
communication, whether in writing or speaking.

ADDITION CONNECTORS

To add information or reinforce ideas.

Furthermore: Adds more information that supports the previous statement.

●​ "The study was comprehensive; furthermore, it included diverse demographics."

Moreover: Similar to "furthermore," it introduces an additional point that strengthens the argument.

●​ "The policy will improve public health; moreover, it will reduce healthcare costs."

In addition: Used to introduce another piece of information.

●​ "In addition to his skills, he brings valuable experience."

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CONTRAST CONNECTORS

To highlight differences or oppose ideas.

However: Introduces a statement that contrasts with or contradicts the previous one.

●​ "The project was expensive; however, it yielded significant benefits."

On the other hand: Presents an alternative perspective or a contrasting idea.

●​ "The solution is efficient; on the other hand, it may not be cost-effective."

Nevertheless: Indicates a contrast but suggests that the previous statement is still valid.

●​ "It was raining; nevertheless, the event continued as planned."

CAUSE AND EFFECT CONNECTORS

To explain the reasons behind a situation or the consequences of an action.

As a result: Indicates that something is the outcome of a particular cause.

●​ "The company implemented new policies; as a result, employee satisfaction increased."

Consequently: Similar to "as a result," it shows the effect of an action.

●​ "She studied hard; consequently, she passed the exam."

Because of: Used to indicate the reason for something.

●​ "The event was canceled because of the storm."

CLARIFICATION CONNECTORS

They help clarify or explain a statement further.

In other words: Rephrases a statement for better understanding.

●​ "The results were inconclusive; in other words, we cannot draw firm conclusions."

78
That is to say: Introduces an explanation or elaboration on the previous point.

●​ "He is a polyglot; that is to say, he speaks several languages fluently."

EMPHASIS CONNECTORS

To highlight the importance of a statement or point.

Indeed: Reinforces a point, often in agreement with a previous statement.

●​ "The findings are significant; indeed, they could change the field."

In fact: Provides strong support for a statement or argument.

●​ "The experiment was successful; in fact, it exceeded our expectations."

SUMMATION CONNECTORS

These connectors summarize or conclude points made previously.

In conclusion: Indicates that you are about to summarize your main points.

●​ "In conclusion, the evidence supports the theory."

To summarize: Used to briefly restate the main ideas.

●​ "To summarize, the project was a success due to effective teamwork."

Overall: Gives a general overview of the preceding information.

●​ "Overall, the results indicate a positive trend."

SEQUENCE CONNECTORS

These connectors indicate the order of ideas or events.

First(ly), Second(ly), Finally: Used to organize points in a clear sequence.

●​ "Firstly, we analyzed the data. Secondly, we formulated a hypothesis. Finally, we tested it."

Next: Indicates the following step in a sequence.

●​ "Next, we will discuss the implications of our findings."

Subsequently: Refers to something that follows in time or order.

●​ "The new policy was implemented; subsequently, we observed changes in behavior."

79
EXERCISES

Rewrite to avoid repetition. Try to vary the language and use connectors, synonyms, or pronouns where
appropriate.

1.​ The movie was amazing. The movie had great special effects.

Rewrite:

2.​ The team played well. The team showed excellent communication.

Rewrite:

3.​ Sarah loves to swim. Sarah spends a lot of time at the pool.

Rewrite:

4.​ The book is interesting. The book provides valuable insights.

Rewrite:

5.​ The garden is beautiful. The garden has a variety of flowers.

Rewrite:

6.​ The presentation was informative. The presentation helped us understand the topic better.

Rewrite:

7.​ John is a skilled chef. John prepares delicious meals.

Rewrite:

8.​ The city is vibrant. The city offers many cultural events.

Rewrite:

9.​ The exercise was challenging. The exercise required a lot of effort.​

Rewrite:

10.​ The festival was fun. The festival had many activities to enjoy.

Rewrite:

80
Fill in the gaps with advanced connectors

The benefits of regular exercise are numerous. (1) ___ improving physical health, it also has significant
mental health benefits. Studies have shown that people who engage in regular physical activity experience
lower levels of stress and anxiety. (2) ___, exercise can boost mood and increase feelings of happiness.

(3) ___ the physical advantages, such as weight management and increased stamina, exercise also
enhances cognitive function. Research indicates that regular workouts can improve memory and
concentration. (4) ___, this makes exercise an essential component for students and professionals alike.

(5) ___ some may argue that finding time to exercise can be challenging, it’s important to recognize that
even short bursts of activity can be beneficial. (6) ___, incorporating physical activity into daily routines,
such as walking or cycling, can lead to significant improvements in overall health.

(7) ___ the evidence supports the importance of exercise, many people still struggle to maintain a
consistent routine. (8) ___, understanding the barriers and finding solutions can help individuals stay
motivated.

81
EXERCISES SOLVED

Rewrite to avoid repetition. Try to vary the language and use connectors, synonyms, or pronouns where
appropriate. ANSWERS MAY VARY

1. The movie was amazing, featuring great special effects.

2. The team played well and demonstrated excellent communication.

3. Sarah loves to swim and spends a lot of time at the pool.

4. The book is interesting, providing valuable insights.

5. The garden is beautiful, showcasing a variety of flowers.

6. The presentation was informative and helped us understand the topic better.

7. John is a skilled chef who prepares delicious meals.

8. The city is vibrant, offering many cultural events.

9. The exercise was challenging and required a lot of effort.

10. The festival was fun, with many activities to enjoy.

Fill in the gaps with advanced connectors ANSWERS MAY VARY

The benefits of regular exercise are numerous. (1) In addition to improving physical health, it also has
significant mental health benefits. Studies have shown that people who engage in regular physical activity
experience lower levels of stress and anxiety. (2) Moreover, exercise can boost mood and increase
feelings of happiness.

(3) Besides the physical advantages, such as weight management and increased stamina, exercise also
enhances cognitive function. Research indicates that regular workouts can improve memory and
concentration. (4) In fact, this makes exercise an essential component for students and professionals alike.

82
(5) Even though some may argue that finding time to exercise can be challenging, it’s important to
recognize that even short bursts of activity can be beneficial. (6) For instance, incorporating physical
activity into daily routines, such as walking or cycling, can lead to significant improvements in overall
health.

(7) Although the evidence supports the importance of exercise, many people still struggle to maintain a
consistent routine. (8) Nonetheless, understanding the barriers and finding solutions can help individuals
stay motivated.

83
UNIT 8 REPORTED SPEECH
Reported Speech is a way of reporting what someone else has said without quoting their exact words. It
involves changing the structure of the sentence to integrate the reported information within your own
speech.

Reported speech requires attention to these details to make sure the meaning and context of the original
statement are preserved correctly.

We are going to follow this basic structure:

Direct speech:

●​ She said, "I am going to the store."

●​ He said, "I will call you later."

Reported speech:

●​ She said that she was going to the store.

●​ He said that he would call me later.

Once we have learned the basic structure, we must know the key changes when reporting someone’s
speech!

TENSE

When converting direct speech to reported speech, the verb tenses usually shift backward in time. This is
known as backshifting.

Present Simple → Past Simple

●​ Direct Speech: She says, "I play tennis."

●​ Reported speech: She says (that) she plays tennis.

Present Continuous → Past Continuous

●​ Direct speech: She says, "I am reading."

●​ Reported speech: She says (that) she is reading.

Present Perfect → Past Perfect

●​ Direct speech: "I have finished my work," he said.

●​ Reported speech: He said (that) he had finished his work.

Past Simple → Past Perfect

●​ Direct speech: "I saw him yesterday," she said.

●​ Reported speech: She said (that) she had seen him yesterday.

84
PRONOUNS

In reported speech, pronouns typically change to match the perspective of the reporter. This is often
necessary to maintain clarity.

●​ Direct speech: "I will help you," she said.

●​ Reported speech: She said (that) she would help me.

TIME EXPRESSIONS

Time expressions in direct speech often need to change when reported.

Some common shifts include:

●​ "today" → "that day"

●​ "tomorrow" → "the next day"
●​ "yesterday" → "the day before"
●​ "now" → "then"
●​ "next week" → "the following week"

Let’s use these time expressions in real life examples:

●​ Direct speech: "I will meet you tomorrow."

●​ Reported speech: He said that he would meet me the next day.

NOTE, in informal speech, the word "that" is often omitted after the reporting verb, but it can still be used
for clarity in formal contexts.

●​ Direct speech: "I am learning English," she said.

●​ Reported speech (with 'that'): She said that she was learning English.
●​ Reported speech (without 'that'): She said she was learning English.

QUESTIONS

When reporting a question, the word order usually changes, and auxiliary verbs like "do" or "did" are
omitted.

●​ Direct speech: "Are you coming to the party?" she asked.

●​ Reported speech: She asked if I was coming to the party.
●​ Direct speech: "Where are you going?" he asked.
●​ Reported speech: He asked where I was going.

85
COMMANDS, REQUESTS AND SUGGESTIONS

In reported speech, commands and requests are usually reported with to + verb, and the verb is in the
base form (infinitive form).

●​ Direct speech: "Close the window," he said.

●​ Reported speech: He told me to close the window.

INDIRECT QUESTIONS

They can have different word order and may require different reporting verbs.

●​ Direct question: “What time is the meeting?”

●​ Indirect question: “Can you tell me what time the meeting is?”

MODALS

Modals can also change in reported speech, but they don't always follow the same "backshift" rule. Some
modals remain the same.

May → might (for permission or possibility)

●​ Direct: May I borrow your car?

●​ Reported: He asked if he might borrow my car.

Might → might (stays the same)

●​ Direct: She might be at home.

●​ Reported: He said (that) she might be at home.

Must → had to (for necessity)

●​ Direct: I must leave now.

●​ Reported: He said (that) he had to leave then.

Shall → should (for future intention or offer)

●​ Direct: I shall help you tomorrow.

●​ Reported: He said (that) he should help me the next day.

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MIXED TENSES

When the direct speech contains more complex sentences, like conditionals or modal verbs, the reporting
sentence might mix tenses.

1st conditional:

●​ Direct: If it rains, I will stay home.

●​ Reported: He said (that) if it rained, he would stay home.

2nd conditional:

●​ Direct: If I were you, I would take the job.

●​ Reported: She said (that) if she were me, she would take the job.

3rd conditional:

●​ Direct: If I had known about the meeting, I would have attended.

●​ Reported: He said (that) if he had known about the meeting, he would have attended.

87
EXERCISES

Convert these following sentences into reported speech

1.​ She said, "I am going to the store."

2.​ Tom asked, "Do you want to join me for lunch?"
3.​ John said, "I have already seen that movie."
4.​ "We will finish the project by Friday," they said.
5.​ She asked, "Can you help me with my homework?"
6.​ "I don't like that restaurant," he said.
7.​ "I will call you when I arrive," she said.
8.​ They said, "We are moving to a new house next week."
9.​ "If it rains, I will stay home," he said.
10.​ She asked, "Where did you go on vacation?"

Convert these following sentences that include time expressions into reported speech

1.​ "I will visit you tomorrow."

2.​ She said, "We will meet next week."
3.​ "I went to the park yesterday."
4.​ "I will call you later today."
5.​ "We saw each other last week."
6.​ "I have never been to Paris."
7.​ "I will talk to you soon."
8.​ "We’ll have the meeting at 3 p.m."
9.​ "I will come to your house this afternoon."
10.​ "They are leaving next month."

88
Fill in the gaps with the correct reported speech form

Tom and Jane were having a conversation when Tom said, "I am planning to visit my grandmother this
weekend." Jane replied, "That's great! I hope you have a wonderful time." Tom then said, "I will let you know
when I get back." Jane replied, "You must tell me all about your trip when you return." After Tom left, Jane
told her brother, "Tom said he __________ (plan) to visit his grandmother this weekend."

Later, Tom texted Jane, saying, "I __________ (arrive) at her house tomorrow morning." Jane told her
brother, "Tom said he __________ (arrive) at his grandmother's house tomorrow."

The next day, Jane heard from Tom again: "I __________ (have) such a great time with my grandmother!"
Jane said, "Tom __________ (have) a wonderful time with his grandmother."

89
EXERCISES SOLVED

Convert these following sentences into reported speech

1.​ Direct speech: She said, "I am going to the store."

Reported speech: She said (that) she was going to the store.

2.​ Direct speech: Tom asked, "Do you want to join me for lunch?"

Reported speech: Tom asked if I wanted to join him for lunch.

3.​ Direct speech: John said, "I have already seen that movie."

Reported speech: John said (that) he had already seen that movie.

4.​ Direct speech: "We will finish the project by Friday," they said.

Reported speech: They said (that) they would finish the project by Friday.

5.​ Direct speech: She asked, "Can you help me with my homework?"

Reported speech: She asked if I could help her with her homework.

6.​ Direct speech: "I don't like that restaurant," he said.

Reported speech: He said (that) he didn't like that restaurant.

7.​ Direct speech: "I will call you when I arrive," she said.

Reported speech: She said (that) she would call me when she arrived.

8.​ Direct speech: They said, "We are moving to a new house next week."

Reported speech: They said (that) they were moving to a new house the following week.

9.​ Direct speech: "If it rains, I will stay home," he said.

Reported speech: He said (that) if it rained, he would stay home.

10.​ Direct speech: She asked, "Where did you go on vacation?"

Reported speech: She asked where I had gone on vacation.

90
Convert these following sentences that include time expressions into reported speech

1.​ She said (that) she would visit me the next day.
2.​ She said (that) they would meet the following week.
3.​ He said (that) he had gone to the park the day before.
4.​ She said (that) she would call me later that day.
5.​ They said (that) they had seen each other the previous week.
6.​ He said (that) he had never been to Paris.
7.​ She said (that) she would talk to me soon. ("Soon" can often remain the same, as it is a relative time
expression.)
8.​ They said (that) they would have the meeting at 3 p.m. (The time doesn't change because it's
specific and still applicable.)
9.​ He said (that) he would come to my house that afternoon.
10.​ They said (that) they were leaving the following month.

Fill in the gaps with the correct reported speech form

Tom and Jane were having a conversation when Tom said, "I am planning to visit my grandmother this
weekend." Jane replied, "That's great! I hope you have a wonderful time." Tom then said, "I will let you know
when I get back." Jane replied, "You must tell me all about your trip when you return." After Tom left, Jane
told her brother, "Tom said he was planning to visit his grandmother this weekend."

Later, Tom texted Jane, saying, "I will arrive at her house tomorrow morning."Jane told her brother, "Tom
said he would arrive at his grandmother's house tomorrow."

The next day, Jane heard from Tom again: "I am having such a great time with my grandmother!" Jane said,
"Tom was having a wonderful time with his grandmother."

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UNIT 9 PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice in English is used when the focus of the sentence is on the action itself or the recipient
of the action, rather than the doer of the action. In other words, in a passive sentence, the object of an
active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.

Learning the difference between the active and passive voice is crucial in order to know how to make
passive sentences correctly.

The basic structure of the passive voice is:

Subject + [appropriate form of the verb "to be"] + past participle of the main verb + (by + agent)

NOTE, the agent (the "doer" of the action) is often omitted if it’s not important or clear from context.

We are going to unfold some examples so we get a clearer vision:

●​ Active: “The chef prepares the meal.”

●​ Passive: “The meal is prepared by the chef.” (The focus is now on the meal, not the chef.)
●​ Active: “The teacher explains the lesson.”
●​ Passive: “The lesson is explained by the teacher.”

CHANGING ACTIVE TO PASSIVE

This process might be a little overwhelming at first but if we remember a few steps along the way, it’ll be
easier than what you originally thought.

1.​ Identify the object of the active sentence. This will become the subject of the passive sentence.
2.​ Use the correct form of the verb "to be" based on the tense of the original sentence.
3.​ Use the past participle of the main verb (the action verb).
4.​ Optional: Add the agent (the doer of the action) using "by," but it’s often omitted when it’s
unnecessary or unknown.

Now, we’re going to see an example and explain it step by step:

●​ “The manager reviews the report.”

1.​ Identify the object: the report (which will become the subject).
2.​ The verb "reviews" is in the present simple, so we use "is" (the present simple form of "to be") in
the passive voice.
3.​ The past participle of "review" is "reviewed".

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Now, let’s convert this example into passive voice:

●​ “The report is reviewed by the manager.”

(If you don't want to include the agent: The report is reviewed.)

TENSE CHANGES

Just like in active voice, the tense of the passive sentence depends on the tense of the active sentence.
Here’s how different tenses work in the passive:

TENSE ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Present simple She writes the letter The letter is written (by her)

Present continuous They are building the house The house is being built (by
them)

Present perfect She has completed the task The task has been completed
(by her)

Past simple He painted the picture The picture was painted (by him)

Past continuous They were cleaning the room The room was being cleaned (by
them)

Past perfect She had read the book The book had been read (by her)

Future simple He will finish the project The project will be finished (by
him)

Modal verbs You must write the report The report must be written (by
you)

Once we have engraved the tense changes, we must learn when do we use passive voice, here are some
common uses:

-​ When the action or the recipient of the action is more important than the agent (doer) of the action.

“The cake was baked by my grandmother.” (The focus is on the cake, not the grandmother.)

-​ When the agent is unknown or irrelevant.

“The house was built in 1920.” (It’s not important who built the house.)

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 -​ When the agent is implied or obvious.

“The report will be submitted tomorrow.” (It's understood that the report will be submitted by
someone, possibly the writer or a student, but the agent is not stated.)

PASSIVE + MODAL VERBS

When the active sentence uses a modal verb (can, must, should, etc.), the passive form uses the
corresponding modal verb + "be" + past participle.

●​ Active: He can solve the problem.​

Passive: The problem can be solved by him.
●​ Active: They should complete the assignment.​
Passive: The assignment should be completed by them.
●​ Active: I might have misunderstood the question.​
Passive: The question might have been misunderstood by me.

IMPERSONAL PASSIVE

In some cases, we use impersonal passives, particularly when there is no clear agent or when the agent is
not specified.

●​ It is said that the event will take place tomorrow.

●​ It was reported that the storm had caused damage.

COMMON MISTAKES

Intransitive verbs: these verbs do not take an object, so they can't be used in the passive voice. For
example, "She sleeps" (no object, so no passive form).

On the other hand, verbs that already have a passive meaning, like "arrive," "happen," or "exist," don't
usually have an active form because they don't involve a clear agent or direct object. These can’t be
converted into passive sentences.

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EXERCISES

Change the following active sentences into passive voice.

1.​ The chef prepares the meal every evening.

2.​ They will complete the project by next week.
3.​ The teacher is explaining the lesson right now.
4.​ Someone has stolen my wallet.
5.​ We built the house in 1990.
6.​ They were painting the fence when I arrived.
7.​ People speak English in many countries.
8.​ She will finish the report by tomorrow.
9.​ The company launched a new product last year.
10.​ I have read that book already.

Change the following passive sentences into active voice.

1.​ The letter was written by Sarah yesterday.

2.​ The project will be completed by the team next week.
3.​ The book has been read by many people.
4.​ The report is being prepared by the secretary at the moment.
5.​ The window was broken by the child.
6.​ The cake is being decorated by the baker right now.
7.​ The song was sung by the choir during the concert.
8.​ The house was built by the workers in 2010.
9.​ The documents have been signed by the manager.
10.​ The room is cleaned by the staff every morning.

Fill in the gaps using the correct passive voice form.

Last year, a new museum (1) __________ (open) in the city center. The museum (2) __________ (design)
by a famous architect, and it (3) __________ (build) in just six months. The exhibits (4) __________
(arrange) by the curators carefully before the grand opening. On the first day, over 500 visitors (5)
__________ (welcome) at the entrance.

Many artifacts (6) __________ (donate) by private collectors, and others (7) __________ (borrow) from
other museums around the world. The collection (8) __________ (display) in a large hall, and many
artworks (9) __________ (show) for the first time in this country. Now, the museum (10) __________ (visit)
by people from all over the world.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Change the following active sentences into passive voice

1.​ Active: The chef prepares the meal every evening.​

Passive: The meal is prepared by the chef every evening.
2.​ Active: They will complete the project by next week.​
Passive: The project will be completed by them by next week.
3.​ Active: The teacher is explaining the lesson right now.​
Passive: The lesson is being explained by the teacher right now.
4.​ Active: Someone has stolen my wallet.​
Passive: My wallet has been stolen (by someone).
5.​ Active: We built the house in 1990.​
Passive: The house was built in 1990.​
(Note: The agent "we" is often omitted because it's not important in this context.)
6.​ Active: They were painting the fence when I arrived.​
Passive: The fence was being painted when I arrived.
7.​ Active: People speak English in many countries.​
Passive: English is spoken in many countries.​
(Notice that the agent "people" is often omitted.)
8.​ Active: She will finish the report by tomorrow.​
Passive: The report will be finished by her by tomorrow.
9.​ Active: The company launched a new product last year.​
Passive: A new product was launched by the company last year.
10.​ Active: I have read that book already.​
Passive: That book has been read by me already.

96
Change the following passive sentences into active voice.

1.​ Passive: The letter was written by Sarah yesterday.​

Active: Sarah wrote the letter yesterday.
2.​ Passive: The project will be completed by the team next week.​
Active: The team will complete the project next week.
3.​ Passive: The book has been read by many people.​
Active: Many people have read the book.
4.​ Passive: The report is being prepared by the secretary at the moment.​
Active: The secretary is preparing the report at the moment.
5.​ Passive: The window was broken by the child.​
Active: The child broke the window.
6.​ Passive: The cake is being decorated by the baker right now.​
Active: The baker is decorating the cake right now.
7.​ Passive: The song was sung by the choir during the concert.​
Active: The choir sang the song during the concert.
8.​ Passive: The house was built by the workers in 2010.​
Active: The workers built the house in 2010.
9.​ Passive: The documents have been signed by the manager.​
Active: The manager has signed the documents.
10.​ Passive: The room is cleaned by the staff every morning.​
Active: The staff cleans the room every morning.

97
Fill in the gaps using the correct passive voice form.

1.​ The new museum (1) was opened in the city center.​
(Past simple passive: The museum was opened last year.)
2.​ The museum (2) was designed by a famous architect.​
(Past simple passive: The museum was designed by the architect.)
3.​ It (3) was built in just six months.​
(Past simple passive: The museum was built in six months.)
4.​ The exhibits (4) were arranged by the curators carefully before the grand opening.​
(Past simple passive: The exhibits were arranged by the curators.)
5.​ Over 500 visitors (5) were welcomed at the entrance.​
(Past simple passive: The visitors were welcomed on the opening day.)
6.​ Many artifacts (6) were donated by private collectors.​
(Past simple passive: The artifacts were donated by collectors.)
7.​ Others (7) were borrowed from other museums around the world.​
(Past simple passive: The artifacts were borrowed from other museums.)
8.​ The collection (8) is displayed in a large hall.​
(Present simple passive: The collection is displayed in the hall.)
9.​ Many artworks (9) are shown for the first time in this country.​
(Present simple passive: The artworks are shown for the first time.)
10.​ Now, the museum (10) is visited by people from all over the world.​
(Present simple passive: The museum is regularly visited.)

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UNIT 10 WORD FORMATION
As in any other language, in order to create the words we know, there’s a previous process called word
formation where words are formed throughout different stages.

PREFIXES

Advanced prefixes in English are affixes (prefixes) added to the beginning of a root word to create a new
word, often changing its meaning or part of speech. Understanding these prefixes can expand your
vocabulary and improve your ability to decipher unfamiliar words.

Often, knowing these advanced prefixes can help you understand the meaning of unfamiliar words in
context.

Dis-

Reversal, removal, or negation.

●​ Disagree (to not agree)

●​ Displace (to remove from its usual position)
●​ Discontent (a lack of contentment)

Trans-

Across, beyond, through, or changing thoroughly.

●​ Transform (to change in form or appearance)

●​ Transport (to carry across or move from one place to another)
●​ Transcontinental (spanning or relating to more than one continent)

Sub-

Under, below, or beneath.

●​ Subterranean (existing or located under the earth)

●​ Submarine (a vessel that operates underwater)
●​ Subpar (below average)

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Pre-

Before, prior to.

●​ Predict (to say what will happen before it occurs)

●​ Preempt (to take action before something else happens)
●​ Preliminary (occurring before the main event)

Re-

Again, back, or in the opposite direction.

●​ Revisit (to visit again)

●​ Reevaluate (to assess again)
●​ Revert (to return to a previous state)

Inter-

Between, among, or jointly.

●​ International (between nations)

●​ Interpersonal (between people)
●​ Interact (to act in a way that affects others)

Auto-

Self, same, or directed from within.

●​ Autonomous (having the freedom to act independently)

●​ Autobiography (a biography written by oneself)
●​ Autograph (a signature, especially of a famous person)

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Anti-

Against, opposite, or opposed to.

●​ Antisocial (against social norms or interactions)

●​ Antibody (a protein produced by the immune system to fight infections)
●​ Antithesis (a direct opposite)

Hyper-

Over, excessive, beyond normal.

●​ Hyperactive (overly active)

●​ Hypertension (high blood pressure)
●​ Hyperbole (exaggerated statements or claims)

Super-

Above, beyond, or superior.

●​ Superhuman (beyond human capabilities)

●​ Superiority (the state of being superior)
●​ Supernatural (beyond the laws of nature)

Ex-

Out of, away from, former.

●​ Exhale (to breathe out)

●​ Exceed (to go beyond)
●​ Ex-president (a former president)

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Poly-

Many.

●​ Polyglot (a person who knows many languages)

●​ Polygon (a shape with many sides)
●​ Polytheism (belief in many gods)

Post-

After, following.

●​ Postpone (to delay or reschedule for after)

●​ Posthumous (occurring after a person’s death)
●​ Postscript (a message added after the main body of a letter)

Neo-

New, recent.

●​ Neologism (a newly coined word or expression)

●​ Neophyte (a new convert or beginner)
●​ Neonatal (relating to newborns)

Un-

Not, opposite of, or reversal.

●​ Unhappy (not happy)

●​ Undo (to reverse an action)
●​ Uncertain (not certain)

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Mis-

Wrongly, badly, or badly done.

●​ Misunderstand (to understand incorrectly)

●​ Misplace (to put in the wrong location)
●​ Misinterpret (to interpret incorrectly)

En- / Em-

To cause to be, or to put into.

●​ Encourage (to give support or confidence to)

●​ Empower (to give authority or power to)
●​ Enlighten (to give someone greater knowledge or insight)

In- / Im-

Not, into, or within.

●​ Impossible (not possible)

●​ Inactive (not active)
●​ Immortal (not subject to death)

Mono-

One, single.

●​ Monologue (a speech or performance by one person)

●​ Monopoly (exclusive control of a product or service)
●​ Monochrome (one color or shades of one color)

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Anti- / Contra-

Against, opposed to.

●​ Antidote (a remedy that counteracts poison)

●​ Contradict (to deny or oppose something)
●​ Antagonistic (showing active opposition or hostility)

Semi-

Half, partial.

●​ Semicircle (half of a circle)

●​ Semiconductor (a material that partially conducts electricity)
●​ Semiannual (occurring twice a year)

SUFFIXES

Suffixes in English are added to the end of a root word to alter its meaning or to form a different part of
speech (e.g., turning a noun into an adjective, a verb into a noun, etc.).

Understanding these advanced suffixes can enhance your vocabulary and help you understand the
structure and meaning of more complex words.

-able / -ible

Capable of, susceptible to, or having the qualities of.

●​ Readable (capable of being read)

●​ Visible (able to be seen)
●​ Tolerable (able to be tolerated)
●​ Accessible (able to be reached or entered)

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-ance / -ence (Latin)

The state or quality of something, often forming a noun from a verb or adjective.

●​ Importance (the state of being important)

●​ Resistance (the ability to resist)
●​ Patience (the ability to wait calmly)
●​ Difference (the quality of being different)

-ant / -ent

Having the quality of, or one who performs an action (often turns verbs into nouns or adjectives).

●​ Resident (one who resides or lives somewhere)

●​ Important (having significance)
●​ Defiant (showing resistance or boldness)
●​ Dependent (relying on something or someone)

-ary / -ery

Related to, connected with, or a place for a specific activity.

●​ Secretary (one who manages administrative tasks)

●​ Customary (based on customs or usual practices)
●​ Missionary (someone sent on a religious mission)
●​ Pioneery (relating to pioneering or exploration)

-dom

State, condition, or domain of being.

●​ Kingdom (the domain or territory ruled by a king)

●​ Freedom (the state of being free)
●​ Wisdom (the quality of being wise)
●​ Boredom (the state of being bored)

105
-er / -or

A person who does something or a thing that performs an action.

●​ Writer (a person who writes)

●​ Actor (a person who performs in plays or films)
●​ Editor (a person who edits)
●​ Governor (a person who governs or rules)

-ess

Female or feminine (typically used to form feminine nouns).

●​ Actress (female actor)

●​ Princess (female prince)
●​ Goddess (female deity)
●​ Waitress (female server)

-ful

Full of, having the qualities of.

●​ Beautiful (full of beauty)

●​ Joyful (full of joy)
●​ Helpful (providing help)
●​ Powerful (full of power)

-ic / -ical

Pertaining to, related to, or characterized by.

●​ Historic (pertaining to history)

●​ Scientific (related to science)
●​ Dramatic (characterized by drama)
●​ Magical (characterized by magic)

106
-ing

Forming present participles, gerunds, or continuous verbs.

●​ Running (the act of moving quickly on foot)

●​ Talking (the act of speaking)
●​ Reading (the act of looking at and interpreting text)
●​ Writing (the act of composing text)

-ism

A practice, system, or ideology; often used to denote a belief, theory, or condition.

●​ Realism (a belief in or depiction of things as they are)

●​ Nationalism (a devotion to one's nation)
●​ Socialism (a political system where the community or state controls production)
●​ Racism (prejudice based on race)

-ist

A person who practices or is a follower of a particular doctrine or belief.

●​ Artist (a person skilled in a particular art form)

●​ Scientist (a person who studies science)
●​ Pianist (a person who plays the piano)
●​ Feminist (a person advocating for gender equality)

-ity / -ty

State or condition of being; often turns adjectives into nouns.

●​ Creativity (the state of being creative)

●​ Unity (the state of being united)
●​ Activity (the condition of being active)
●​ Security (the condition of being secure)

107
-ize / -ise

To make, to become, or to engage in.

●​ Realize (to make real or to become aware)

●​ Organize (to arrange or put in order)
●​ Energize (to give energy to)
●​ Modernize (to make modern)

-less

Without, lacking.

●​ Fearless (without fear)

●​ Careless (without care)
●​ Hopeless (without hope)
●​ Homeless (without a home)

-ly

Characterized by, or in the manner of; often turns adjectives into adverbs.

●​ Quickly (in a quick manner)

●​ Happily (in a happy manner)
●​ Bravely (in a brave manner)
●​ Angrily (in an angry manner)

-ous / -ious

Full of, possessing the qualities of.

●​ Famous (full of fame)

●​ Dangerous (full of danger)
●​ Curious (having the qualities of curiosity)
●​ Ambitious (having the desire to achieve something)

108
-ship

The state or condition of being, or a position.

●​ Leadership (the state of being a leader)

●​ Friendship (the state of being friends)
●​ Citizenship (the state of being a citizen)
●​ Championship (the position of being a champion)

-ward / -wards

In the direction of, or moving towards.

●​ Forward (in the direction ahead)

●​ Toward (in the direction of)
●​ Backward (in the direction behind)
●​ Upward (in the direction of going up)

-some

Characterized by, or causing.

●​ Awesome (causing awe or wonder)

●​ Boredom (causing boredom)
●​ Wholesome (promoting health or well-being)
●​ Troublesome (causing trouble)

WORD CONVERSION

Word conversion in English, also known as zero derivation or functional shift, is the process by which a
word changes its grammatical category without adding any affixes (prefixes or suffixes).

In simple terms, a word can shift from one part of speech to another while retaining its form. This is a
common phenomenon in English, which is known for its flexible word formation and lack of strict
morphological rules compared to many other languages.

109
Let’s dive into some examples of this:

"Google" (noun) → "to google" (verb)

The company name "Google" has been converted into a verb meaning "to search on the Google search
engine."

"Run" (verb) → "a run" (noun)

"Run" as a verb ("to run") can be converted into the noun "run" (e.g., "I went for a run").

"Poor" (adjective) → "the poor" (noun)

"Poor," which describes a state of being, can be used as a noun to refer to people who are impoverished.

"Fast" (adverb) → "fast" (adjective)

The word "fast" originally an adverb (e.g., "She runs fast") can also be an adjective (e.g., "A fast car").

English is a language with relatively simple morphological structures. It tends to allow word classes to shift
freely, especially through changes in usage rather than through inflections or affixes.

As language evolves, words often start to be used in new ways to meet changing communicative needs.
The flexibility of conversion helps create new meanings and keeps the language dynamic.

NOTE, word conversion is particularly common in contemporary, informal English, especially with the rise of
technology (e.g., "to text," "to google").

COMPOUNDS

Word compounds in English are formed when two or more smaller words (usually known as morphemes)
are combined to create a new word with a distinct meaning. This process is one of the most productive
ways of expanding vocabulary in English.

In closed compounds, the words are joined together without any spaces or hyphens.

●​ "toothbrush" (tooth + brush)

●​ "notebook" (note + book)
●​ "snowman" (snow + man)

110
In hyphenated compounds, two words are joined by a hyphen. This is often done when the combination of
words might be difficult to read or understand without the hyphen.

●​ "mother-in-law" (mother + in + law)

●​ "well-being" (well + being)
●​ "runner-up" (runner + up)

Open compounds are words that are written as two separate words but function together as a single
concept.

●​ "high school" (high + school)

●​ "ice cream" (ice + cream)
●​ "post office" (post + office)

Compounds allow speakers and writers to convey complex ideas with just one word. For example,
"postman" (one word) is more efficient than saying "man who delivers posts" (a phrase).

English speakers often create new compound words to express new concepts, allowing for a dynamic and
adaptive vocabulary.

ABBREVIATION

Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases that help save time and space in writing or
speaking. They are widely used in English to simplify communication, especially in informal contexts,
technical language, or professional settings.

They reduce the length of frequently used terms, saving space and making texts easier to read.

They can also establish formality or technical precision, especially in professional or academic contexts.

Acronyms are abbreviations formed from the first letters of a series of words, pronounced as a single word.

●​ NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

●​ LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
●​ SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus)

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Initialisms, similar to acronyms, initialisms are made from the first letters of words, but each letter is
pronounced individually.

●​ FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

●​ DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
●​ ATM (Automated Teller Machine)

Clipped words are created by shortening a longer word, often by removing syllables.

●​ Gym (from gymnasium)

●​ Flu (from influenza)
●​ Lab (from laboratory)

Contractions combine two words into one by omitting certain letters and replacing them with an
apostrophe.

●​ Can’t (can + not)

●​ I’m (I + am)
●​ They’re (they + are)

Blended words combine parts of two (or more) words to create a new word, usually by blending sounds
and meanings.

●​ Brunch (breakfast + lunch)

●​ Motel (motor + hotel)
●​ Smog (smoke + fog)

112
EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with prefixes and suffixes

1.​ The prefix un- means "not" or "opposite of." Adding un- to "usual" creates "__________," meaning
something not typical.
2.​ When you add -ness to the word "kind," it becomes "__________," which is a noun describing the
quality of being kind.
3.​ The prefix re- means "again" or "back." Adding re- to "build" gives us "__________," which means
to build again.
4.​ The suffix -ment can turn verbs into nouns. Adding -ment to "develop" creates "__________,"
which refers to the process of growth or improvement.
5.​ Adding dis- to "appear" forms "__________," meaning to go out of sight.
6.​ The suffix -ful means "full of." When added to "hope," it forms "__________," meaning full of hope.
7.​ The prefix pre- means "before." Adding it to "view" gives the word "__________," which means to
look at something beforehand.
8.​ The suffix -able means "capable of being." When you add -able to "break," it becomes
"__________," meaning that it can be broken.
9.​ Adding mis- to "understood" forms "__________," meaning to understand incorrectly.
10.​ Adding the suffix -ly to an adjective like "quick" turns it into an adverb: "__________."

113
Fill in the blanks with compound words

1.​ A large body of water, such as an ocean, is sometimes called the "__________." (hint: compound
word for a large body of saltwater)
2.​ A place where students go to learn is called a "__________." (hint: compound word for an
educational institution)
3.​ If you travel to work each day from your home, you might be called a "__________." (hint:
compound word for someone who travels daily)
4.​ A light that helps direct traffic on the road is called a "__________." (hint: compound word for an
electronic traffic signal)
5.​ Something used to keep food cold is a "__________." (hint: compound word for an appliance in
the kitchen)
6.​ If you look outside and see the sun setting, you might be watching the "__________." (hint:
compound word for the end of the day)
7.​ A structure that helps people cross a river or road is a "__________." (hint: compound word for a
connecting structure)
8.​ An insect that produces honey is known as a "__________." (hint: compound word for a small,
flying insect)
9.​ When water falls from the sky, it is called "__________." (hint: compound word for precipitation)
10.​ A place to park your car in front of your home is often called a "__________." (hint: compound
word for a paved area for vehicles)

114
Fill in the gaps with suffixes, prefixes, and compound words.

In order to maintain a healthy __________ (1), it’s important to eat well and exercise regularly. Many people
believe that eating __________ (2) food can lead to weight gain and other health problems. Instead, they
prefer __________ (3) meals, which include a variety of fruits and vegetables.

Exercise is also essential for good health. Some people enjoy going to the __________ (4) (compound
word for a place to exercise), while others prefer __________ (5) (compound word for walking outside) in
nature. It’s important to stay __________ (6) and keep moving, even if it’s just for a short time each day.

To get enough rest, people often need to __________ (7) their sleep schedule. Good __________ (8)
habits are necessary for feeling energized throughout the day.

Many people look for ways to be more __________ (9) at work, often by setting clear goals and reducing
__________ (10)tasks. In the end, a balance of diet, exercise, rest, and productivity can lead to a
__________ (11) and satisfying life.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the blanks.

1.​ unusual
2.​ kindness
3.​ rebuild
4.​ development
5.​ disappear
6.​ hopeful
7.​ preview
8.​ breakable
9.​ misunderstood
10.​ quickly

Fill in the blanks with compound words

1.​ seawater
2.​ schoolhouse
3.​ commuter
4.​ stoplight
5.​ refrigerator
6.​ sunset
7.​ bridgeway
8.​ honeybee
9.​ rainfall
10.​ driveway

116
Fill in the gaps with suffixes, prefixes, and compound words.

1.​ lifestyle
2.​ unhealthy
3.​ overcooked
4.​ gymnasium (or gym)
5.​ sidewalk
6.​ active
7.​ readjust
8.​ sleeping
9.​ productive
10.​ unnecessary
11.​ meaningful

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UNIT 11 COMMON MISTAKES
People learning English as a second language often don’t have consistent exposure to native speakers or
natural conversational practice, which can lead to errors in pronunciation, grammar, and idiomatic usage.

English relies on context for clarity, especially in social and cultural situations. For example, expressions like
What’s up? or How’s it going? are informal greetings that don’t translate directly to other languages and
can lead to confusion.

English can be tricky, and even native speakers make common mistakes. Let’s go over the most common
ones:

Confusing “Their,” “There,” and “They’re”

These homophones are easy to mix up. “Their” shows possession (e.g., Their house), “there” refers to a
place (e.g., over there), and “they’re” is a contraction for they are.

Mixing Up “Its” and “It’s”

“Its” is possessive (e.g., The dog wagged its tail), while “it’s” is the contraction for it is or it has (e.g., It’s
raining).

Incorrect Apostrophe Usage

Many add apostrophes for plural forms, like writing apple’s instead of apples. Apostrophes should be used
for possession (e.g., Sarah’s book) or contractions (e.g., don’t), not to make words plural.

Using “Then” Instead of “Than”

Then relates to time (e.g., First, I’ll go to the store, then I’ll come home), while than is used for comparisons
(e.g., She is taller than her brother).

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a descriptive phrase in the wrong part of a sentence, leading to confusion. For
example, She almost drove her kids to school every day implies she almost did it but didn’t. The correct
version is She drove her kids to school almost every day.

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Subject-Verb Agreement Errors

This happens when the verb form doesn’t match the subject, especially with tricky subjects like collective
nouns (e.g., The team is winning vs. The players are winning).

Incorrect Use of “Less” and “Fewer”

“Less” is used for uncountable nouns (e.g., less water), while “fewer” is for countable items (e.g., fewer
people).

Misusing “Affect” and “Effect”

“Affect” is usually a verb meaning to influence (e.g., The weather affects my mood), and “effect” is a noun
meaning a result (e.g., The effect of the medicine was immediate).

Using Double Negatives

English grammar doesn’t allow double negatives for emphasis. Phrases like I don’t need no help should be
corrected to I don’t need any help.

Overusing or Misusing Commas

Commas are tricky because they separate clauses and ideas, but many overuse them (e.g., The cake, was
delicious) or omit them where necessary for clarity (e.g., After dinner we went to the park should be After
dinner, we went to the park).

People make mistakes in English for a variety of reasons, from the complexity of the language itself to
individual factors such as learning background and context.

English changes over time, with new slang, expressions, and uses of words appearing rapidly. This can
make it hard for learners (and even native speakers) to stay up-to-date and use words in ways that fit
modern contexts. Additionally, English in different countries or regions can vary (British vs. American
English), leading to different conventions, spellings, and idioms.

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GRAMMAR MISTAKES

English has a rich variety of verb tenses (e.g., past continuous, present perfect), which can be difficult to
learn and apply correctly, especially for languages that don’t use as many tenses.

The difference between similar tenses like I have done (present perfect) and I did (simple past) is subtle
and may confuse learners. Grammar rules can vary significantly based on context.

Run-On Sentences

Run-ons occur when two or more independent clauses are joined without proper punctuation or
conjunctions. For example, She went to the store she bought milk. This should be corrected with a period,
semicolon, or conjunction: She went to the store, and she bought milk.

Sentence Fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences missing a subject or verb, or they don’t express a complete thought.
For example, Because he was late. This should be revised to: He was late because he missed the bus.

Incorrect Verb Tense

Switching tenses unnecessarily can confuse readers. For example, Yesterday, I go to the store should be
Yesterday, I went to the store.

Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Verbs must match their subjects in number (singular or plural). For example, The list of items are long is
incorrect; it should be The list of items is long because the subject “list” is singular.

Misplaced or Dangling Modifiers

Modifiers should be placed next to the word they describe. A misplaced modifier example is She almost
drove her car to the station every day, implying she didn’t quite drive it. The correct version is She drove
her car to the station almost every day.

Incorrect Use of “Who” and “Whom”

“Who” is used as a subject, while “whom” is used as an object. For example, Who did you invite? should be
Whom did you invite? since “whom” is the object of the verb “invite.”

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Confusing “Me,” “Myself,” and “I”

Many people say John and myself went to the store instead of John and I went to the store. Use “myself”
only for emphasis or when referring back to “I” as in I cooked it myself.

Incorrect Comparisons

Words like “more,” “less,” “fewer,” and “most” should be used properly. For example, She is more taller than
him should be She is taller than him or She is more experienced than him.

Improper Use of “Good” and “Well”

“Good” is an adjective, while “well” is usually an adverb. For example, I did good on the test should be I did
well on the test.

Overuse of Passive Voice

Passive voice isn’t wrong, but overusing it can make sentences unclear. The book was read by me is better
as I read the book.

Incorrect Word Order in Questions

In questions, the auxiliary verb should come before the subject. For example, You are coming to the party?
should be Are you coming to the party?

Redundant Comparisons

Using words like “more” or “most” with words that are already in comparative or superlative form is
incorrect. For example, more better or most fastest should simply be better and fastest.

Using “Lie” vs. “Lay” Incorrectly

“Lie” means to recline, while “lay” means to put something down. For example, I’m going to lay down
should be I’m going to lie down, and Lay the book on the table is correct for putting something down.

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Inconsistent Pronoun References

Pronouns should clearly refer to a specific noun. For example, When Jessica met Sarah, she said she’d call
later is confusing because it’s unclear who “she” refers to. Clarify with When Jessica met Sarah, Jessica
said she’d call later.

Unnecessary Use of “That”

In some cases, “that” can be omitted. For example, I think that he’s right can simply be I think he’s right
without losing meaning.

VOCABULARY MISTAKES

Common vocabulary mistakes in English often stem from similar-sounding words, subtle differences in
meaning, or confusion over usage. People make vocabulary mistakes for several reasons, ranging from the
nuances and irregularities in English to the ways language is acquired and processed.

Many English words have multiple meanings, or polysemy. For instance, bat can refer to a flying mammal or
sports equipment, depending on the context. This can be especially confusing for learners, who may
struggle to select the correct meaning based on context.

English vocabulary is highly context-dependent. Words that are appropriate in one setting may sound
awkward or incorrect in another (e.g., kids vs. children in formal writing). Without full cultural or contextual
awareness, learners often use words that sound unnatural or overly formal or informal.

Here are some frequently mixed-up words and expressions:

“Affect” vs. “Effect”

●​ Affect (verb) means to influence something (e.g., The weather affects my mood).
●​ Effect (noun) is the result of a change (e.g., The effect of the rain was flooding).

“Everyday” vs. “Every day”

●​ Everyday (adjective) describes something ordinary or routine (e.g., These are my everyday shoes).
●​ Every day (phrase) means each day (e.g., I drink coffee every day).

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“Farther” vs. “Further”

●​ Farther refers to physical distance (e.g., The store is farther down the road).
●​ Further is used for figurative or abstract distance (e.g., Let’s discuss this further).

“Imply” vs. “Infer”

●​ Imply means to suggest something indirectly (e.g., He implied that he was not interested).
●​ Infer means to deduce information from what is implied (e.g., I inferred from her tone that she was
upset).

“Lay” vs. “Lie”

●​ Lay requires a direct object and means to put something down (e.g., I lay the book on the table).
●​ Lie does not take an object and means to recline (e.g., I lie down when I’m tired).

“Principal” vs. “Principle”

●​ Principal can refer to the head of a school or a primary amount in finance (e.g., The school
principal spoke at the assembly).
●​ Principle is a fundamental truth or belief (e.g., She is a person of strong principles).

“Ensure” vs. “Insure”

●​ Ensure means to make sure (e.g., Please ensure that the door is locked).
●​ Insure relates to providing financial protection (e.g., I need to insure my car).

“Advice” vs. “Advise”

●​ Advice (noun) is a recommendation (e.g., She gave me good advice).

●​ Advise (verb) means to offer suggestions (e.g., I advise you to be cautious).

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“Than” vs. “Then”

●​ Than is used for comparisons (e.g., She is taller than him).

Exposure to slang and informal language, especially in social media and texting, can create confusion
about standard vocabulary. Words may take on different or incorrect meanings over time, and people may
mistakenly adopt these informal meanings in formal settings.

PRONOUNCIATION MISTAKES

English pronunciation can be challenging, and many people—both native speakers and learners—make
common mistakes due to the language’s irregularities, regional differences, and unique sounds.

People often make pronunciation mistakes in English due to a combination of language complexity,
unfamiliar sounds, and differing pronunciation rules across languages.

English spelling and pronunciation are famously inconsistent. For example, ough is pronounced differently
in though, through, thought, and cough. This lack of consistency makes it difficult to predict pronunciation
based solely on spelling.

Silent Letters

English has many silent letters that don’t get pronounced, like the “k” in knight, knife, or know, or the “b” in
comb and thumb. Pronouncing these letters is a common mistake, especially for learners who may be
unfamiliar with silent letters.

“V” and “W” Confusion

In some languages, “v” and “w” are pronounced similarly or interchangeably, leading to mistakes in English.
For example, vine may sound like wine or vice versa. This is common among German, Hindi, and Japanese
speakers.

Mispronouncing “-ed” Endings

The past-tense suffix “-ed” can be pronounced in three ways: /d/ (as in played), /t/ (as in walked), and /ɪd/
(as in wanted). Mispronouncing these endings—like saying want-ed instead of want-id—is common,
especially among learners.

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Dropping or Adding Sounds

English has many words with consonant clusters that can be difficult to pronounce, such as strength, texts,
or months. People may omit or add sounds, like pronouncing months as mons or texts as tex-es.

Stress and Intonation Errors

English words often have fixed syllable stress (e.g., record as a noun is stressed on the first syllable,
RE-cord, but as a verb, it’s stressed on the second syllable, re-CORD). Incorrect stress can make words
hard to understand. Similarly, English uses varied intonation patterns for questions and statements, which
can lead to misunderstandings if misused.

Short and Long Vowels

The difference between short and long vowels (e.g., bit /ɪ/ vs. beat /iː/, or sit vs. seat) is essential in English
but can be hard to master. Confusing these can completely change the meaning of a word.

“R” Sound

English’s “r” sound (often pronounced /ɹ/) can be difficult, especially for speakers of languages like French
or Japanese. Some may drop it altogether (like in British accents) or replace it with other sounds, such as
an “l” sound, leading to words like road being pronounced as load.

Confusing “S” and “Z” Sounds

English speakers often use “s” and “z” sounds interchangeably in casual speech, but there are differences.
For example, close (verb, to shut) uses the “z” sound, while close (adjective, nearby) uses the “s” sound.
Non-native speakers may struggle with this, causing subtle pronunciation mistakes.

Omitting Final Consonants

Final consonants in English words, especially when part of a cluster, are sometimes dropped by speakers
whose native languages don’t have similar clusters. Words like cold or hold may sound like col or hol,
impacting clarity.

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The “H” Sound

Some languages don’t use the “h” sound, so speakers may omit it (e.g., saying appy instead of happy),
while others may add it where it doesn’t belong, as in happle instead of apple.

Many learners focus on reading and writing in English but have limited opportunities to practice speaking.
This can make it harder to internalize correct pronunciation, as they may learn vocabulary visually rather
than phonetically.

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EXERCISES

Spot the grammar mistake in the following sentences.

1.​ She don't like to go swimming in the winter.

2.​ Everyone were excited about the concert.
3.​ I have went to that restaurant many times before.
4.​ The child throwed the ball across the yard.
5.​ Each of the students have completed their assignments.
6.​ She is more taller than her brother.
7.​ I didn’t saw her at the meeting yesterday.
8.​ Neither of the options are good for us.
9.​ They was watching a movie when I called.
10.​ I am looking forward to meet you next week.

Spot the spelling mistakes in each sentence.

1.​ She received many compliments on her beautifull dress.

2.​ The teacher asked the students to bring their diccionary to class.
3.​ We’re planning to visit the musuem next weekend.
4.​ They were exausted after the long hike up the mountain.
5.​ Please seperate the recyclables from the regular trash.
6.​ The weather is unusually warm for Febuary.
7.​ Her favorit food is Italian, especially pasta and pizza.
8.​ He appologized for being late to the meeting.
9.​ The scientist conducted a facinating experiment in the lab.
10.​ The dog’s collar is loos, and it might fall off.

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Read the following text and spot the mistakes.

Yesterday, me and my friend went to the new museum in town. We was really excited to see the exibits, but
the line to buy tickets were very long. After we finally got in, I realize that I left my phone at home. There
was many people inside, and everyone seem very interested in the paintings. One of the guide was
explaining the history behind a famous artwork, but he spoke so quietly that nobody could hardly hear him.
My friend sayed she wished she had bringed her headphones for the audio tour, so she could understand
better.

After seeing all the exibits, we decided to go to the café for some coffee. The coffee was too hot to drink at
first, so we waited patiently. Suddenly, we hear someone shout, and we seen a child running across the
room, almost bumping into a waiter. "That was close!" said my friend, laughing. We finished our coffee and
left the museum, happy that we had came to see it, even though it were very crowded.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Spot the grammar mistake in the following sentences.

1.​ Correction: She doesn't like to go swimming in the winter.

2.​ Correction: Everyone was excited about the concert.
3.​ Correction: I have gone to that restaurant many times before.
4.​ Correction: The child threw the ball across the yard.
5.​ Correction: Each of the students has completed their assignments.
6.​ Correction: She is taller than her brother.
7.​ Correction: I didn’t see her at the meeting yesterday.
8.​ Correction: Neither of the options is good for us.
9.​ Correction: They were watching a movie when I called.
10.​ Correction: I am looking forward to meeting you next week.

Spot the spelling mistakes in each sentence.

1.​ Correction: She received many compliments on her beautiful dress.

2.​ Correction: The teacher asked the students to bring their dictionary to class.
3.​ Correction: We’re planning to visit the museum next weekend.
4.​ Correction: They were exhausted after the long hike up the mountain.
5.​ Correction: Please separate the recyclables from the regular trash.
6.​ Correction: The weather is unusually warm for February.
7.​ Correction: Her favorite food is Italian, especially pasta and pizza.
8.​ Correction: He apologized for being late to the meeting.
9.​ Correction: The scientist conducted a fascinating experiment in the lab.
10.​ Correction: The dog’s collar is loose, and it might fall off.

129
Read the following text and spot the mistakes.

Yesterday, my friend and I went to the new museum in town. We were really excited to see the exhibits,
but the line to buy tickets was very long. After we finally got in, I realized that I had left my phone at home.
There were many people inside, and everyone seemed very interested in the paintings. One of the guides
was explaining the history behind a famous artwork, but he spoke so quietly that nobody could hear him.

My friend said she wished she had brought her headphones for the audio tour so she could understand
better.

After seeing all the exhibits, we decided to go to the café for some coffee. The coffee was too hot to drink
at first, so we waited patiently. Suddenly, we heard someone shout, and we saw a child running across the
room, almost bumping into a waiter. "That was close!" said my friend, laughing. We finished our coffee and
left the museum, happy that we had come to see it, even though it was very crowded.

130
UNIT 12 CLEFT SENTENCES
Cleft sentences are a grammatical structure used to emphasize a particular part of a sentence. The word
cleft means "divided," and cleft sentences essentially "split" a single clause into two parts to spotlight the
information we want to highlight.

Cleft sentences add variety and nuance to sentence structure and are particularly useful for:

●​ Emphasis: They highlight the part of the sentence the speaker considers important.
●​ Clarification: They make a particular aspect of information stand out, helping clarify meaning.
●​ Contrast: They allow speakers to contrast different pieces of information.

By restructuring sentences in these ways, we can make our language more expressive, guide the listener’s
focus, and convey subtler shades of meaning.

This structure often uses the words it or what at the beginning and divides the information into a main
clause and a subordinate clause.

It-Clefts

In an it-cleft sentence, the word it starts the sentence, and then a form of the verb to be (usually is or was)
introduces the emphasized information. The rest of the sentence follows in a relative clause.

It + be (is/was) + emphasized information + relative clause

●​ Regular sentence: "John called the police."

●​ It-cleft sentence: "It was John who called the police."

Here, John is being emphasized as the main focus.

What-Clefts

In what-cleft sentences, the sentence starts with the word what, and it essentially acts as a subject or
object in the sentence. This structure focuses on the result or object of an action, usually ending with the
verb.

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What + subject + verb + main clause

●​ Regular sentence: "I need a good night’s sleep."

●​ What-cleft sentence: "What I need is a good night’s sleep."

In this case, the emphasis is on a good night’s sleep as the essential information.

Reversed wh-cleft sentences are a variation of wh-cleft sentences where the usual order of the wh-clause
and the main clause is reversed. This structure is used for emphasis, often focusing on a specific detail in
the sentence.

In a regular wh-cleft sentence, we start with a wh-word (like what, where, who, or when), followed by a
clause, and finish with a focus element.

●​ "What I need is a vacation."

In this sentence, what I need introduces the focus of the sentence, and a vacation is the emphasized
element.

In a reversed wh-cleft sentence, the order of elements is flipped so that the focus appears first, followed
by the wh-clause. This shifts emphasis to the focus element directly.

Focus element + is/was + wh-clause

●​ Standard wh-cleft sentence: "What I want is a good night’s sleep."

●​ Reversed wh-cleft sentence: "A good night’s sleep is what I want."

●​ Standard wh-cleft sentence: "What he disliked was the noise."

●​ Reversed wh-cleft sentence: "The noise was what he disliked."

Reversed wh-cleft sentences are commonly used when the speaker wants to highlight or clarify a specific
element of the sentence, often to create a strong focus or to make the sentence sound more natural and
conversational. Especially useful in response to questions or in discussions where clarification of a specific
detail is important.

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All-Clefts

Begins with "all" to emphasize a complete or total aspect.

●​ "All he wanted was a chance to explain."

There-Clefts

Begins with "there" to introduce a new piece of information. They help point out details that might be
surprising or noteworthy.

●​ "There’s one thing I can’t stand, and that’s lying."

INTERFERENTIAL CLEFT SENTENCES

These sentences often start with phrases like "It is that," "It must be that," or "It seems that," and they help
the speaker emphasize an interpretation or assumption. An interferential cleft sentence is structured to
highlight what the speaker thinks or infers about something.

It allows the speaker to "guess" or make a logical conclusion in a way that sounds more confident or
expressive.

It + verb (often "is," "must be," "seems") + that + clause

●​ Regular sentence: "The lights are on, so someone is probably home."

●​ Interferential cleft sentence: "It must be that someone is home, since the lights are on."

●​ Regular sentence: "Based on her reaction, she seems surprised."

●​ Interferential cleft sentence: "It seems that she is surprised."

●​ Regular sentence: "His desk is empty, so he has likely left."

●​ Interferential cleft sentence: "It appears that he has left, seeing that his desk is empty."

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These sentences help the speaker communicate a logical conclusion clearly and emphasize that it's an
inference rather than a simple observation. They’re especially helpful when we want to share our thoughts
or deductions based on what we see, hear, or understand indirectly.

IF-BECAUSE CLEFT SENTENCES

If-because cleft sentences are a less common but interesting type of cleft sentence that combines
conditional (if) and causal (because) clauses. They bring attention to the logical relationship between
actions or situations and their causes.

This structure is often used to emphasize the reason for something by leading with a condition (if) and then
directly stating the reason (because).

If + clause (condition) + it is/was because + clause (reason)

●​ Regular sentence: "She didn’t attend the party because she was sick."
●​ If-because cleft sentence: "If she didn’t attend the party, it was because she was sick."

●​ Regular sentence: "They succeeded because they worked hard."

●​ If-because cleft sentence: "If they succeeded, it was because they worked hard."

●​ Regular sentence: "The teacher was strict because the students were misbehaving."
●​ If-because cleft sentence: "If the teacher was strict, it was because the students were
misbehaving."

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EXERCISES

Convert into cleft sentences. (It-cleft / what-cleft sentences)

1.​ "She won the award because of her hard work."

2.​ "John told me about the news first."
3.​ "They bought a house in the countryside."
4.​ "The manager chose Emily for the promotion."
5.​ "The fireworks display attracted a huge crowd."
6.​ "His dedication impressed everyone in the company."
7.​ "My friend recommended this restaurant."
8.​ "The storm caused the delay in the flights."
9.​ "Maria spoke to the director about the project."
10.​ "The audience applauded the solo performance the most."

Choose the correct cleft sentence form.

Regular sentence: "Samantha fixed the computer."

●​ a) It was Samantha who fixed the computer.

●​ b) What was Samantha who fixed was the computer.

Regular sentence: "She loves the quiet of the countryside."

●​ a) It was the quiet of the countryside that she loves.

●​ b) It was the countryside quiet that loves she.

Regular sentence: "His quick thinking saved the day."

●​ a) What saved the day was his quick thinking.

●​ b) What was quick thinking that saved the day his.

Regular sentence: "They celebrated his promotion with a big party."

●​ a) It was his promotion that they celebrated with a big party.

●​ b) It was a big party that celebrated they his promotion.

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Regular sentence: "The teacher praised the students for their hard work."

●​ a) What the teacher praised was the students’ hard work.

●​ b) What was their hard work that the teacher praised students for.

Regular sentence: "We spent the day at the beach."

●​ a) It was the beach where we spent the day.

●​ b) The beach was the day where we spent at.

Regular sentence: "Her positive attitude won her many friends."

●​ a) What won her many friends was her positive attitude.

●​ b) What many friends won her was positive attitude her.

Regular sentence: "The fire alarm went off because of smoke in the kitchen."

●​ a) It was the fire alarm went off because of smoke in the kitchen.
●​ b) It was smoke in the kitchen that set off the fire alarm.

Regular sentence: "They were most impressed by the concert’s final performance."

●​ a) What they were most impressed by was the concert’s final performance.
●​ b) The concert’s final performance was by them most impressed.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Convert into cleft sentences.

1.​ It-cleft: "It was her hard work that made her win the award."
2.​ It-cleft: "It was John who told me about the news first."
3.​ What-cleft: "What they bought was a house in the countryside."
4.​ It-cleft: "It was Emily that the manager chose for the promotion."
5.​ What-cleft: "What attracted a huge crowd was the fireworks display."
6.​ What-cleft: "What impressed everyone in the company was his dedication."
7.​ It-cleft: "It was my friend who recommended this restaurant."
8.​ What-cleft: "What caused the delay in the flights was the storm."
9.​ It-cleft: "It was Maria who spoke to the director about the project."
10.​What-cleft: "What the audience applauded the most was the solo performance."

Choose the correct cleft sentence form.

1.​ b – The reason he didn’t attend the meeting was because he was sick.
2.​ a – It was Samantha who fixed the computer.
3.​ a – It was the quiet of the countryside that she loves.
4.​ a – What saved the day was his quick thinking.
5.​ a – It was his promotion that they celebrated with a big party.
6.​ a – What the teacher praised was the students’ hard work.
7.​ a – It was the beach where we spent the day.
8.​ a – What won her many friends was her positive attitude.
9.​ b – It was smoke in the kitchen that set off the fire alarm.
10.​ a – What they were most impressed by was the concert’s final performance.

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UNIT 13 SIMILES, METAPHORS AND IDIOMS
SIMILES

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two different things using the words "like" or "as."

It is a literary device used to create vivid imagery or make descriptions more engaging and relatable by
linking something unfamiliar to something more familiar.

A simile compares two things using like or as to add clarity, vivid imagery, and emotional impact. Similes
are a powerful tool in language for painting pictures with words and making abstract ideas tangible.

Similes emphasize the similarity between two concepts, helping the listener or reader understand an idea
more clearly or emotionally.

Let’s go over the different structures we can find:

Subject + is like + comparison object

●​ "Her smile is like sunshine."

Subject + is as + adjective/adverb + as + comparison object

●​ "He is as brave as a lion."

Now, let’s dive into some more examples:

●​ "The cloud was as fluffy as cotton."

Compares the texture of the cloud to soft cotton.

●​ "Her voice sounded like a gentle breeze."

Suggests her voice was soft and soothing.

●​ "The cake was as sweet as honey."

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Relates the cake's sweetness to the natural sweetness of honey.

●​ "Their friendship is like a sturdy oak tree."

Suggests that their friendship is strong and enduring, just like an oak tree.

Similes are employed in both everyday language and literature for several reasons:

Clarity: They make descriptions easier to understand by relating something unfamiliar to a familiar concept.

●​ "The city was as noisy as a carnival." (Clearly conveys a bustling atmosphere.)

Imagery: They create vivid mental pictures.

●​ "Her laughter was like a melody dancing in the air."

Emphasis: They highlight specific qualities of a subject.

●​ "The lake was as calm as a sleeping baby." (Stresses the absolute stillness of the lake.)

Emotional Impact: They add depth and evoke emotions.

●​ "His heart felt as heavy as a stone." (Conveys deep sadness.)

Writers use similes to craft compelling narratives and enhance the reader’s experience. For example:

From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:

●​ “Her hand was as wide as a bed slat and twice as hard.”

This simile gives a vivid and relatable image of the character’s physical strength.

METAPHORS

A metaphor is a figure of speech that directly compares two unrelated things to suggest they are alike in a
specific way. Unlike similes, which use "like" or "as" for comparison, metaphors state that one thing is
another, creating a stronger and more implicit comparison.

Metaphors are used to enhance understanding, evoke emotions, or add depth and creativity to language.
They are common in everyday speech, literature, and even business communication.

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Metaphors are a powerful tool in English for drawing comparisons between unrelated ideas to create
imagery, evoke emotion, and clarify abstract concepts.

Metaphors make abstract or complex ideas easier to understand by relating them to familiar experiences.

●​ "Life is a journey."

Simplifies the idea of life as a path with twists, turns, and destinations.

Subject + is/are + comparison object

●​ "Time is a thief."

(Time is compared to a thief, implying it steals moments from our lives.)

●​ "Her mind is a labyrinth."

(Her mind is complex and intricate, like a maze.)

Standard Metaphor: A simple and direct comparison.

●​ "The classroom was a zoo."

The classroom is chaotic and noisy, like a zoo.

Implied Metaphor: The comparison is hinted at rather than stated explicitly.

●​ "He barked his orders."

The metaphor compares the man to a dog without directly saying "he is a dog."

Extended Metaphor: A metaphor that continues throughout a passage or even an entire work.

In Shakespeare’s As You Like It:

●​ “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.”

This metaphor compares life to a stage and people to actors, elaborating on roles, entrances, and exits.

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Dead Metaphor: A metaphor so commonly used that it has become part of the language and lost its
figurative impact.

●​ "The leg of the table."

We no longer think of a table literally having a leg, as this is standard usage.

Mixed Metaphor: Combines two or more inconsistent metaphors, often unintentionally, for humorous or
confusing effect.

●​ "We’ll burn that bridge when we get to it."

Combines "burning bridges" and "crossing bridges."

We’re going to see the different uses of metaphors we can see in the English language:

-​ Everyday Speech:
●​ "He’s the black sheep of the family."​
(He’s an outsider or different from the rest of the family.)
●​ "My heart sank when I heard the news."​
(The feeling of sadness is compared to a physical sinking sensation.)
-​ Literature:
●​ From Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken:​
"Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—​
I took the one less traveled by,​
And that has made all the difference."​
(The "roads" are a metaphor for life choices.)
-​ Business and Media:
●​ "This startup is a gold mine."​
(The business is valuable and profitable, like a literal gold mine.)
●​ "The project has hit a wall."​
(The team is facing an obstacle, likened to a physical wall.)
-​ Poetry and Song:
●​ "Love is a battlefield." (Pat Benatar)​
(Love is compared to a place of conflict and struggle.)

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NOTE, both metaphors and similes compare two things, but metaphors directly state that one thing is
another.

●​ "The world is a stage."

On the other hand, similes use "like" or "as" to compare.

●​ "The world is like a stage."

In order to recognize a metaphor, you ask yourself:

-​ Is something being compared indirectly by stating one thing is something else?

-​ Does the statement go beyond literal meaning?

IDIOMS

An idiom is a group of words or a phrase whose meaning is not literal but rather figurative, understood
through context or cultural knowledge. Idioms often cannot be directly translated word-for-word into other
languages because their meanings are rooted in cultural or historical usage.

Idioms are an essential part of English, offering a way to express ideas in a creative, concise, and culturally
rich manner.

Idioms make language colorful and expressive, helping speakers convey emotions, ideas, or humor in a
more engaging way.

Figurative Meaning: Idioms mean something different from their literal interpretation.

●​ "Break the ice."

-​ Literal: Break frozen water.
-​ Figurative: Start a conversation or make people feel comfortable.

Fixed Phrases: The words in an idiom are set and typically cannot be changed without losing meaning.

●​ "Spill the beans" cannot be altered to "spill the rice" and retain its meaning.

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Cultural Relevance: Idioms often reflect the culture, history, or traditions of a language.

●​ "Kick the bucket" (to die) is specific to English and has no direct equivalent in some other
languages

Why do we use idioms though? The answer is simple.

Expressiveness: They make language more colorful and interesting.

●​ "It’s raining cats and dogs" is more engaging than "It’s raining heavily."

Efficiency: Idioms convey complex ideas or emotions in a concise way.

●​ "Bite the bullet" succinctly expresses the idea of doing something unpleasant but necessary.

Cultural Connection: Using idioms shows familiarity with a language and its nuances, often making speech
more natural.

Let’s see some common examples so we can start using them, too:

"A piece of cake"

Something very easy to do.

●​ "The test was a piece of cake; I finished it in 10 minutes."

"Hit the nail on the head"

To say or do something exactly right.

●​ "When you said the team needs better communication, you hit the nail on the head."

"Under the weather"

Feeling unwell or sick.

●​ "I didn’t go to work today because I was feeling under the weather."

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"Cost an arm and a leg"

Very expensive.

●​ "That designer bag costs an arm and a leg."

"Break the ice"

To start a conversation in a social setting, especially when it's awkward or tense.

●​ "He told a joke at the meeting to break the ice."

"Let the cat out of the bag"

To reveal a secret accidentally.

●​ "We were planning a surprise party, but John let the cat out of the bag."

"The ball is in your court"

It’s your responsibility to make the next decision or take action.

●​ "I’ve done my part; now the ball is in your court."

"A blessing in disguise"

Something that seems bad initially but turns out to be good.

●​ "Losing that job was a blessing in disguise; it led me to a better opportunity."

1"Bite the bullet"

To do something difficult or unpleasant that is unavoidable.

●​ "I hate going to the dentist, but I’ll have to bite the bullet and make an appointment."

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EXERCISES

Identify whether it is a metaphor or a simile.

1.​ Her eyes were as bright as the stars on a clear night.

2.​ Time is a thief that steals our precious moments.
3.​ The snow covered the ground like a white blanket.
4.​ His anger was a raging fire, consuming everything in its path.
5.​ The baby slept so peacefully, it was as quiet as a mouse.
6.​ My boss is a bear before his morning coffee.
7.​ The wind howled through the trees, sounding like a wolf’s cry.
8.​ Life is a rollercoaster, full of ups and downs.
9.​ Her voice was like music, soothing and uplifting.
10.​ He ran so fast, he was a cheetah on the track.
11.​ The clouds were cotton candy in the sky, soft and fluffy.
12.​ Her laugh was like a bubbling brook, cheerful and constant.
13.​ His determination was a rock, unshakable and strong.
14.​ She danced as gracefully as a swan gliding across a lake.
15.​ The city was a jungle, alive with chaos and noise.

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Complete each sentence with an appropriate idiom from the list below. Each idiom should be used only
once.

-​ a piece of cake
-​ spill the beans
-​ under the weather
-​ hit the nail on the head
-​ break the ice
-​ burn the midnight oil
-​ let the cat out of the bag
-​ cost an arm and a leg
-​ bite the bullet
-​ the ball is in your court
1.​ I wasn’t feeling well yesterday, so I stayed home because I was _________.
2.​ He accidentally _________ about the surprise party, so now it’s no longer a secret.
3.​ The test was so easy; it was _________ for me to finish.
4.​ You _________ when you said we need better teamwork to succeed.
5.​ This designer watch is beautiful, but it _________! I can’t afford it.
6.​ During our first meeting, he told a funny story to _________ and make everyone comfortable.
7.​ I’ll have to _________ and apologize for my mistake, even though it’s embarrassing.
8.​ She has been _________ all week to finish the report before the deadline.
9.​ I’ve already done my part of the group project; now _________ to finish it.
10.​ Don’t _________ about the surprise gift! It’s supposed to be a secret.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Identify whether it is a metaphor or a simile.

1.​ Simile (as bright as the stars)

2.​ Metaphor (Time is a thief)
3.​ Simile (like a white blanket)
4.​ Metaphor (anger was a raging fire)
5.​ Simile (as quiet as a mouse)
6.​ Metaphor (boss is a bear)
7.​ Simile (like a wolf’s cry)
8.​ Metaphor (Life is a rollercoaster)
9.​ Simile (like music)
10.​ Metaphor (he was a cheetah on the track)
11.​ Metaphor (clouds were cotton candy)
12.​ Simile (like a bubbling brook)
13.​ Metaphor (determination was a rock)
14.​ Simile (as gracefully as a swan)
15.​ Metaphor (city was a jungle)

Complete each sentence with an appropriate idiom from the list below. Each idiom should be used only
once.

1.​ under the weather

2.​ let the cat out of the bag
3.​ a piece of cake
4.​ hit the nail on the head
5.​ cost an arm and a leg
6.​ break the ice
7.​ bite the bullet
8.​ burn the midnight oil
9.​ the ball is in your court
10.​ spill the beans

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UNIT 14 INVERSION
Inversion in English refers to the reversal of the normal word order, typically subject-verb, to achieve a
specific effect in a sentence. It is often used for emphasis, stylistic purposes, or to form questions.

Inversion is a powerful tool in English that serves various purposes, from forming questions to adding
emphasis, drama, or stylistic elegance.

In standard English sentences, the typical order is:

●​ “She sings beautifully.”

In inversion, the order is altered, often placing the verb before the subject:

●​ “Sings she beautifully?”

Question Inversion

Used in forming questions, where the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.

●​ Normal: He is coming to the party.

●​ Inverted: Is he coming to the party?

Negative Inversion

Used after negative adverbs (e.g., never, seldom, rarely, hardly). The auxiliary verb precedes the subject for
emphasis.

●​ Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.

●​ Seldom does he make a mistake.
●​ Hardly had I arrived when the meeting started.

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Conditional Inversion

In conditional sentences, the word if can be omitted, and the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
This is more formal or literary.

●​ Normal: If I had known, I would have helped.

●​ Inverted: Had I known, I would have helped.
●​ Normal: If you should need help, call me.
●​ Inverted: Should you need help, call me.

Inversion for Emphasis

Used for dramatic effect or to draw attention to a specific part of a sentence. Often starts with adverbs or
adverbial phrases.

●​ Here comes the train!

●​ So beautiful was her voice that the audience applauded for minutes.
●​ Little did they know what was coming next.

Inversion After "So," "Such," or Comparatives

Occurs when so, such, or comparatives are used to emphasize a result or reaction.

●​ So intense was the storm that trees were uprooted.

●​ Such was the confusion that no one knew what to do.
●​ More important than ever is the need for strong leadership.

Inversion with Prepositional Phrases

Used in formal or literary styles when a prepositional phrase is placed at the beginning of the sentence for
emphasis.

●​ On the hill stood an ancient castle.

●​ Into the room walked the teacher.

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WATCH OUT, don't forget to include the auxiliary verb.

●​ NO, Never I have seen such a view.

●​ YES, Never have I seen such a view.

NEGATIVE ADVERBIALS

This happens when you start a sentence with a negative word or phrase (like never, seldom, rarely, hardly,
not only, no sooner), and the usual word order changes. Instead of subject + verb, the order becomes
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb.

It is often used to make sentences more formal or emphatic.

It makes the sentence more dramatic or formal.

●​ Rarely do you hear such an amazing story. (More striking than: You rarely hear such an amazing
story.)

Start with a negative adverbial: words like never, rarely, seldom, hardly, no sooner, not only.

Invert the subject and auxiliary verb: the auxiliary verb (like do, does, did, have, had, will, etc.) comes
before the subject.

Write the rest of the sentence as usual.

Let’s dive into examples to see it clearer:

Never:

●​ Normal: I have seen such a beautiful view.

●​ Inverted: Never have I seen such a beautiful view.

Rarely:

●​ Normal: He visits his family.

●​ Inverted: Rarely does he visit his family.

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Hardly:

●​ Normal: We had started eating when the phone rang.

●​ Inverted: Hardly had we started eating when the phone rang.

No sooner:

●​ Normal: I finished my homework when the power went out.

●​ Inverted: No sooner had I finished my homework than the power went out.

Not only:

●​ Normal: She sings well, and she also dances beautifully.

●​ Inverted: Not only does she sing well, but she also dances beautifully.

NOTE, if there’s no auxiliary verb in the normal sentence, add one (e.g., do, does, did).

●​ Normal: He knew the answer.

●​ Inverted: Never did he know the answer.

Plus, you need to consider that these structures are mostly used in formal or written English, not casual
conversation.

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EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the correct inverted structure. Each sentence
demonstrates a different type of inversion.

1.​ Never __________ such a breathtaking view before! (to see, I)

2.​ Little __________ about the surprise waiting for her. (to know, she)
3.​ Only by working hard __________ to achieve success. (can, we)
4.​ Rarely __________ such enthusiasm in the students. (to show, they)
5.​ Should __________ any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us. (you, to have)
6.​ Hardly __________ the movie started when the power went out. (had, to begin)
7.​ So powerful __________ that it blew the entire roof off the building. (was, the explosion)
8.​ Into the room __________, her face pale with worry. (to walk, the doctor)
9.​ Not until he apologized __________ to speak with him again. (was, she willing)
10.​ On top of the mountain __________ an ancient temple, untouched by time. (to stand)

Rewrite the following sentences, beginning with the negative adverbial provided, and use the correct
inverted structure.

1.​ Never: I have seen such a magnificent sunset.

2.​ Seldom: They consider the consequences of their actions.
3.​ Hardly: We had arrived at the station when the train departed.
4.​ Rarely: She visits her grandparents.
5.​ No sooner: He had opened the door when the cat ran inside.
6.​ Not only: She speaks Spanish fluently, but she also knows French.
7.​ Little: They realized how much danger they were in.
8.​ Only after: He apologized did she forgive him.
9.​ On no account: You should leave the door unlocked at night.
10.​ Barely: He had finished his exam when the time ran out.
11.​ Scarcely: They had started the meeting when the fire alarm rang.
12.​ Only when: She left did they realize how much they missed her.
13.​ Under no circumstances: You can reveal this secret to anyone.
14.​ Not until: He explained everything did I understand the problem.
15.​ Nowhere: Have I felt more welcome than in this little town.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the correct inverted structure. Each sentence
demonstrates a different type of inversion.

1.​ Never have I seen such a breathtaking view before!

2.​ Little did she know about the surprise waiting for her.
3.​ Only by working hard can we hope to achieve success.
4.​ Rarely do they show such enthusiasm in the students.
5.​ Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us.
6.​ Hardly had the movie begun when the power went out.
7.​ So powerful was the explosion that it blew the entire roof off the building.
8.​ Into the room walked the doctor, her face pale with worry.
9.​ Not until he apologized was she willing to speak with him again.
10.​ On top of the mountain stood an ancient temple, untouched by time.

Rewrite the following sentences, beginning with the negative adverbial provided, and use the correct
inverted structure.

1.​ Never have I seen such a magnificent sunset.

2.​ Seldom do they consider the consequences of their actions.
3.​ Hardly had we arrived at the station when the train departed.
4.​ Rarely does she visit her grandparents.
5.​ No sooner had he opened the door than the cat ran inside.
6.​ Not only does she speak Spanish fluently, but she also knows French.
7.​ Little did they realize how much danger they were in.
8.​ Only after he apologized did she forgive him.
9.​ On no account should you leave the door unlocked at night.
10.​ Barely had he finished his exam when the time ran out.
11.​ Scarcely had they started the meeting when the fire alarm rang.
12.​ Only when she left did they realize how much they missed her.
13.​ Under no circumstances can you reveal this secret to anyone.
14.​ Not until he explained everything did I understand the problem.
15.​ Nowhere have I felt more welcome than in this little town.

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UNIT 15 RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative clauses are used to add extra information about a noun or pronoun in a sentence without starting
a new sentence. They go beyond the basics to include more complex structures, reduced forms, and
nuanced uses.

Defining Relative Clauses

These provide essential information needed to identify the noun. Without the clause, the sentence loses
meaning.

●​ The book that I borrowed is fascinating.

●​ Students who study hard usually succeed.

Non-defining Relative Clauses

These provide extra, non-essential information and are separated by commas. They are not crucial to the
main sentence.

●​ My brother, who lives in Canada, is visiting next week.

●​ This car, which I bought last year, has great mileage.

NOTE, defining clauses do not use commas, while non-defining ones always do.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as:

Who: Refers to people (subject).

●​ The teacher who helped me was very kind.

Whom: Refers to people (object, formal).

●​ The person whom I met was the CEO.

Whose: Indicates possession.

●​ She’s the author whose book became a bestseller.

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Which: Refers to things or animals.

●​ The laptop which I bought is fast.

That: Refers to people or things (defining clauses only).

●​ The movie that you recommended was great.

Omitting the Relative Pronoun

In defining clauses, the relative pronoun can be omitted when it refers to the object of the clause.

●​ The book (that) I read was thrilling.

●​ The woman (whom) he married is a doctor.

You cannot omit the pronoun if it is the subject of the clause.

●​ Correct: The man who is standing there is my uncle.

●​ Incorrect: The man is standing there is my uncle.

Reduced Relative Clauses

Relative clauses can be shortened to make sentences more concise. This involves removing the relative
pronoun and auxiliary verb or using participles.

Present participle (-ing):

●​ Full: The man who is sitting at the desk is my boss.

●​ Reduced: The man sitting at the desk is my boss.

Past participle (-ed):

●​ Full: The car which was stolen last night has been found.
●​ Reduced: The car stolen last night has been found.

Infinitive (to):

●​ Full: He is the first person who completed the project.

●​ Reduced: He is the first person to complete the project.

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Using Prepositions

Prepositions can appear at the start of the clause (formal) or at the end (informal).

Formal:

●​ The woman to whom I spoke was very polite.

●​ The reason for which he left is unclear.

Informal:

●​ The woman I spoke to was very polite.

●​ The reason he left for is unclear.

Non-finite Relative Clauses

These involve using gerunds or participles and avoid explicit relative pronouns, creating a more concise
structure.

●​ Anyone wanting to join the club should register now.

●​ The house destroyed by the storm was rebuilt.

Embedded Relative Clauses

Sometimes relative clauses can be embedded within another clause for additional complexity.

●​ The man whose car broke down is staying at a hotel which overlooks the beach.

"Where," "When," and "Why"

These words replace prepositional phrases in relative clauses:

●​ This is the house where I grew up. (where = in which)

●​ I remember the day when we first met. (when = on which)
●​ The reason why he left is still unclear.

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Using "That" Instead of Pronouns

In defining clauses, "that" can replace who or which, particularly in informal or spoken English.

●​ The book that I read was excellent.

●​ The girl that he likes is moving away.

Sentences with Multiple Clauses

Sentences can combine multiple relative clauses for more advanced expression.

●​ The woman who lives next door, whose son is in my class, is a famous artist.

WATCH OUT,

●​ Incorrect: My friend who lives in London, is coming to visit. (Comma is wrong here.)
●​ Correct: My friend, who lives in London, is coming to visit.
●​ Incorrect: The reason I left is personal.
●​ Correct (formal): The reason for which I left is personal.

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EXERCISES

Complete the sentences by adding the correct relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that,
where, when, why) or by forming reduced clauses when appropriate.

1.​ The book __________ I borrowed from the library was fascinating.
2.​ The man __________ car was parked in front of my house is a famous actor.
3.​ This is the restaurant __________ we celebrated your birthday last year.
4.​ The teacher __________ taught me English inspired me to become a writer.
5.​ The company __________ products are eco-friendly is gaining popularity.
6.​ Do you know the reason __________ she didn’t come to the meeting?
7.​ The movie __________ you recommended was even better than I expected.
8.​ He met a woman __________ he fell in love with instantly.
9.​ She’s the only student __________ managed to solve the puzzle.
10.​ The house __________ was destroyed by the storm has been rebuilt.
11.​ The scientist __________ discovered the cure was awarded the Nobel Prize.
12.​ The meeting __________ was scheduled for 3 PM has been postponed.
13.​ The moment __________ they announced the winner was unforgettable.
14.​ The workers __________ built this bridge deserve a lot of praise.
15.​ The boy __________ stood up to the bully is now a school hero.
16.​ The team __________ won the championship celebrated all night.
17.​ Is there a time __________ you are available to discuss the project?
18.​ The problem __________ needs to be solved quickly is very complicated.
19.​ The hotel __________ we stayed in had a beautiful view of the ocean.
20.​ The musician __________ you were talking about earlier is performing tonight.

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Complete the following text by filling in the blanks with the correct relative pronoun.

Last summer, I traveled to Italy, a country __________ culture has fascinated me for years. I stayed in a
small village __________ was famous for its vineyards and olive trees. The hotel __________ I booked
was located on a hill overlooking the valley. The room __________ they gave me had a balcony with
breathtaking views.

One of the first places I visited was a local market __________ they sold handmade goods and fresh
produce. I met a craftsman __________ creations were stunningly beautiful. He showed me a necklace
__________ design was inspired by the local landscape. I also bought a bottle of olive oil __________
had been produced in the region.

During my trip, I took a cooking class __________ the chef taught us how to make authentic Italian pasta.
The moment __________ I tasted my own dish for the first time was unforgettable! I also explored a
historic castle __________ had been built in the 15th century. The guide __________ took us on the tour
was very knowledgeable and shared many fascinating stories.

One evening, I stumbled upon a festival __________ the entire village had gathered to celebrate. The
music and dancing, __________ lasted late into the night, created a lively atmosphere. The people
__________ I met there were incredibly friendly and welcoming.

This trip to Italy, __________ I will always remember, inspired me to learn more about the country's history
and traditions.

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EXERCISES SOLVED

Complete the sentences by adding the correct relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that,
where, when, why) or by forming reduced clauses when appropriate.

1.​ The book which/that I borrowed from the library was fascinating.
2.​ The man whose car was parked in front of my house is a famous actor.
3.​ This is the restaurant where we celebrated your birthday last year.
4.​ The teacher who taught me English inspired me to become a writer.
5.​ The company whose products are eco-friendly is gaining popularity.
6.​ Do you know the reason why she didn’t come to the meeting?
7.​ The movie which/that you recommended was even better than I expected.
8.​ He met a woman whom he fell in love with instantly. ("who" is also acceptable in informal use.)
9.​ She’s the only student who/that managed to solve the puzzle.
10.​ The house that/which was destroyed by the storm has been rebuilt. (Reduced: The house
destroyed by the storm has been rebuilt.)
11.​ The scientist who discovered the cure was awarded the Nobel Prize.
12.​ The meeting which/that was scheduled for 3 PM has been postponed. (Reduced: The meeting
scheduled for 3 PM has been postponed.)
13.​ The moment when they announced the winner was unforgettable.
14.​ The workers who/that built this bridge deserve a lot of praise.
15.​ The boy who/that stood up to the bully is now a school hero.
16.​ The team that/which won the championship celebrated all night.
17.​ Is there a time when you are available to discuss the project?
18.​ The problem which/that needs to be solved quickly is very complicated. (Reduced: The problem
needing to be solved quickly is very complicated.)
19.​ The hotel where we stayed in had a beautiful view of the ocean.
20.​ The musician who/that you were talking about earlier is performing tonight.

160
Complete the following text by filling in the blanks with the correct relative pronoun.

1.​ a country whose culture has fascinated me for years

2.​ a small village which/that was famous for its vineyards and olive trees
3.​ The hotel which/that I booked was located on a hill overlooking the valley
4.​ The room which/that they gave me had a balcony with breathtaking views (Reduced: The room
they gave me had a balcony…)
5.​ a local market where they sold handmade goods and fresh produce
6.​ a craftsman whose creations were stunningly beautiful
7.​ a necklace whose design was inspired by the local landscape
8.​ a bottle of olive oil which/that had been produced in the region (Reduced: a bottle of olive oil
produced in the region)
9.​ a cooking class where the chef taught us how to make authentic Italian pasta
10.​ The moment when I tasted my own dish for the first time was unforgettable
11.​ a historic castle which/that had been built in the 15th century (Reduced: a historic castle built in
the 15th century)
12.​ The guide who took us on the tour was very knowledgeable
13.​ a festival where the entire village had gathered to celebrate
14.​ The music and dancing, which lasted late into the night, created a lively atmosphere
15.​ The people whom/who I met there were incredibly friendly and welcoming
16.​ This trip to Italy, which I will always remember, inspired me to learn more about the country's
history and traditions

161