Fullbright College

FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING IN

EDUCATION (FALCTE)
MIDTERM
MIDTERM
1. Individual Differences in Learning
A. Concepts of Individual Differences in Learning
B. Different Styles of Learning
C. Children with Special Needs
D. Diversity in Designing and Assessing Learning Activities

2. Motivational Techniques
A. Relationship of Need and Motivation
B. Problems in Motivation
C. Learning Indicators of Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning
3. Communication Skills for Effective Teaching and Learning

Individual differences in learning

“Each mind has its own method”
Emerson, 1841
“In a world as empirical as ours, a youngster who does not know what he is good at will not
be sure what he is good for”
Fridenberg, 1959
There is only one unequivocal law of human behavior—the law of individual differences. People
are more different than they are alike, and there is probably no environment that elicits
individual differences sooner in life than formal education.
Individual differences in academically related characteristics can make for success or failure in
one of life's most important pursuits—obtaining an education. As a result, a primary focus of
applied educational psychologists has been the identification of methods that allow each
individual to achieve their maximum educational performance. Unfortunately, after a century
of applied research on the identification of student characteristics and learning environments,
“a coherent and parsimonious theory of performance is still lacking” (Corno, Cronbach,
Kupermintz, Lohman, Mandinach, Porteus & Talbert, 2002).
In education, teachers strive to arrange conditions that elicit optimal performance in all
students. However, the optimal learning conditions and techniques for one student may not
facilitate the best performance in another student. According to Corno et al. (2002), each
individual “has worked out over many years how to respond in her own way to symbol systems
and social cues. Each has aptitude for particular situations. Recognizing specifically the
qualities each person brings to a situation, then adjusting the situation to improve the fit—these

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are major tasks of those who work with people” (p. 1). Fortunately, “theoretical and technical
advances in research on learning and effective schooling, particularly those which have
occurred during the past decade, have greatly influenced the nature and type of information on
individual differences that has been considered instructional planning and educational
placement of learners with special needs” (Wang, 1987, p. 3)

NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

It has been observed that if we collect information about people’s characteristics from a large
sample and examine the pattern of distribution (as shown in Fig.-3.1) we find that a large
majority of the people fall in the middle range while a small proportion lies in extreme
categories. For example, most of the people fall in the category of average height and very few
are very tall or very short. This holds true for many more characteristics including intelligence
and other psychological attributes.

ASSESSING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures for evaluating personal
qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These procedures describe people by
specifying how they are different from or similar to other individuals. Such assessments are
frequently done by most of us when we make judgments such as ‘nice’, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘attractive’,
‘ugly’, ‘genius’ and ‘idiot’ etc. Such judgments can be erroneous many times. Scientific
psychology tries to systematize these procedures so that assessment can be made with
minimum error and maximum accuracy. Psychologists have developed ‘tests’ to assess these
characteristics. A psychological test is a structured technique used to generate a carefully
selected sample of behaviour.
In order to be useful for the purpose of drawing inferences about the person being tested, it is
necessary that the test should be reliable, valid and standardized. A test is reliable if it
measures a given characteristic consistently. For instance, if you assess something the scores
on separate occasions should be more or less similar. Thus a person, if found to be of average
intelligence on one occasion should also appear of average intelligence if tested after two
weeks. If a test tells two different values while assessing the object on two occasions then it will
be called unreliable. A test of intelligence can be called reliable only when a person scores high
or low consistently on both the occasions. A good test is found to have high reliability. The
validity of a test refers to the degree to which it assesses what it intends to assess. A valid test of
personality gives a measure of a person’s personality and predicts behaviour in situations
where that aspect of personality is pertinent.

NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT

You often come across the term intelligence in everyday life. We generally use this term
whenever we find somebody doing something very good which goes beyond our expectation.
Intelligence is one of the psychological terms used quite frequently in various settings (e.g.
school). Who can be called ‘Intelligent’? The one who gets highest marks in exams? That person
who earns many educational degrees? Is the doctor more intelligent, or the engineer or the

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lawyer or the artist? One may answer these questions in different ways depending on the
meaning of intelligence. Intelligence is much more than getting degrees. Intelligence refers to
“multifaceted abilities of people”. It gets expressed in many ways. It comes in many forms.
Some people are good in studies, some are good in repairing machines, some are good in
acting and some are great in sports. People are very good in one subject and average in some
other. The most important thing is that ‘intelligence’ is ‘functional’. It is ‘used’ to do something
and to achieve something.

In psychology, the term intelligence has been defined in many ways. One of the earliest
definitions of intelligence was given by Binet and Simon in 1905 who defined it as the “ability to
judge well, to understand well, and to reason well”. One of the most popular definitions of
intelligence was given by Wechsler who defined it as “the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”.
Gardner defined intelligence as “the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products
which are valued within one or more cultural settings”. He used the term ‘Multiple Intelligences’
and advocated that there are eight types of intelligences such as Linguistic, Logical-
mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and
Naturalistic.

Though the first attempt to measure intelligence was made by Sir Francis Galton a more
systematic approach was developed by Alfred Binet, a French Psychologist.

In 1905, Binet gave the concept of Mental Age (MA) which refers to an individual’s level of
mental development relative to the environment in which he/she lives.

The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was first devised by William Stern, a German psychologist,
in 1912. IQ is defined as mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100: (IQ =
MA/CA × 100). For example if the mental of a child is 12 and his/her Chronological age is 8 then
the IQ of the child would be 150. The intelligence test developed by Binet was revised
subsequently and in 1916 the test was given the name of Stanford - Binet test of intelligence.
One of the most popular and widely used tests of intelligence is Wechsler Scales of
Intelligence. These scales have been designed for individuals of different age groups such as
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC) for children between the age of 6 and 16 years.

Intelligence tests are of two kinds Individual test and Group test.
An individual test of intelligence can be administered to a single individual at a given time
whereas a group test is administered to more than one individual at a time. On the basis of
nature of items, intelligence tests are Verbal, Non-verbal, and Performance Tests. A verbal test
requires understanding of written words. Hence it can be administered to literate individuals
only. In non-verbal test, pictures or illustrations are used as item of the test. Performance tests

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are made up of certain concrete tasks. Both non-verbal and performance tests can be
administered to literate and illiterate individuals.

There are salient differences between intelligence, aptitude, and achievement. Intelligence
relates to the ability of a person to do certain thing at a given time. Aptitude refers to the
potential ability of an individual to perform a task, which generally consists of a combination of
abilities. Achievement involves performance at any given point of time in a particular subject
(e.g. mathematics) with which you have been made familiar.

Aptitude tests are used for predicting success in a vocation such as clerical aptitude,
mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, typing aptitude, etc. Each of these tests usually
contains a number of sub-tests. Several multiple aptitude test batteries have been developed
to assess aptitude, such as Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), the General Aptitude Test Battery
(GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). Psychologists have
constructed a number of tests to measure interest for children and adults. There are vocational
interest tests which help identify the interest of a person in particular vociational areas. There
are also general interest inventories. Vocational interest tests are paper-pencil tests that assess
a person’s interest and match them with success in various occupations.

NATURE OF PERSONALITY
We all use the term ‘personality’ in day-to-day life. In psychology personality is thought as a
person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour pattern which remains consistent across
situations and over a period of time.’
The term personality has been defined in diverse ways. Allport in 1937 gave a very popular
definition of personality which is still referred to by scholars. According to him “personality is
the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine
his unique adjustment to his environment”. Psychologists have approached personality from
different perspectives. Each of these perspectives explains some aspects of personality. Now
let us study in brief about some of these perspectives: I) The trait perspective tries to describe
personality in terms of various traits. Some times the traits are grouped into clusters. These
clusters are called “types”. For instance introversion and extraversion are two types of
personality traits.
II) The psychodynamic perspective calls attention to the unconscious needs and conflicts as
well as the influence of earlier stages of development on our lives. Sigmund Freud, a noted
psychologist, provided the core concepts for this perspective.
III) The socio-cultural perspective highlights the importance of the social and cultural
environment. In view of this theory, our personality and behaviour patterns are acquired through
interaction with others and adoption of social and cultural norms
IV)The humanistic perspective emphasizes the enormous potential for freedom and growth
present in each one of us. It is a view which is optimistic and emphasizes-on positive aspects of
life and potentialities

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Different Styles of Learning
Understanding Learning Styles
The idea of learning styles began in the 1970s, where a growing literature and industry posited
that learners have specific, individualized ways of learning that work best for them. This
Teaching Tip discusses the distinction between learning styles and learning preferences, and
summarizes the Solomon-Felder index of learning styles.
The research on learning styles
There are many different theories of learning styles, including ones that classify people as
visual, auditory, or tactile learners, or ones that outline different cognitive approaches people
take in their learning.
However, there is virtually no evidence that supports that individuals have learning styles, nor
that when taught in a way that “meshes” with their learning style that there is greater learning. A
group of psychologists reviewed the literature and in their report: Learning Styles: Concepts and
Evidence. They state that while there have been studies done on how individuals can have
preferences for learning, almost none of the studies employed rigorous research designs that
would demonstrate that people benefit if they are instructed in a way that matches their
learning style (Pashler, et al., 2008).

In the study, Matching Learning Style to Instruction Method: Effects on Comprehension,

Rogowsky and colleagues (2015) conducted an experimental test of the meshing hypothesis,
which is the hypothesis that providing instruction based on individuals’ preferred learning styles
improves learning. They found that matching the type of instruction to learning style did not
make a difference on students’ comprehension of material. Furthermore, certain teaching
strategies are best suited for all learners depending on the material that is being taught. For
example, learning how to make dilutions in a chemistry course requires a hands-on experiential
approach, even if you have a preference to learn from reflection.

Traditional Learning Styles

Traditionally, there were four main learning styles: visual, aural/auditory, read/write and
kinesthetic, known collectively as "VARK."
▪ Visual learners do well with information in graphic form. Maps, graphic organizers and
charts are just a few ways that a visual style of processing information helps some
people learn.
▪ Aural/Auditory learners tend to learn best when materials are accessed out loud, such
as with live lectures, listening to podcasts or engaging in group discussions.
▪ Read/Write learners prefer information in written form. Accessing content via reports,
essays, books, manuals or even websites tends to work best for people with this
predominant style.
▪ Kinesthetic learners tend to learn best when physical movement is involved in the
lesson or activity. For example, hands-on laboratory experiments or experiential
activities help people with this dominant learning style engage with information.

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While the VARK learning styles differentiate into four distinct types, a 2014 study published in
the Journal of Postgraduate Medicine (JPM) revealed that most people learn best with a
combination of styles.
According to the study, auditory and kinesthetic learning are the most common among
participants, with visual learning being the least common.
Nearly 87% of participants identified as having a multimodal style of accessing information,
with audio-kinesthetic and audio-read/write as the most common combinations, according to
JPM. Some participants identified as trimodal, with audio-read/write-kinesthetic as the most
common combination.
Important considerations when using learning styles
Learning style preferences refer to the “characteristic strengths and preferences in the ways
[people] take in and process information” (Felder, 1996). Felder (2020) stresses the following
when understanding and applying learning styles:
• Learning styles are not pairs of strict either-or categories. People can shift between
preferences depending on the context and how strong their preference is.
• Learning styles are not fixed and can change over time alongside lived and professional
experiences.
• All learning style preferences are likely represented in your classroom. Instruction
should routinely address all categories of the learning style model rather than focus on
only one.
• Learning styles should not be used to determine a students' major or
profession. Learning style preferences provide no indication of what students are or are
not capable of.
According to Felder (2020), the optimal balance of instruction "depends on the subject, the
level of the course, the prior knowledge of the students, and the familiarity of the instructor with
alternative teaching strategies...When that balance is achieved, all students are taught
sometimes in their preferred categories, so they are not too uncomfortable to learn, and
sometimes in their less preferred categories, so they can build critically important skills they
might never acquire from matched instruction." (Felder, 2020)

Soloman-Felder Model
The Soloman-Felder model of learning styles incorporates most of the major approaches to
understanding learning preferences and is designed for use with college and university students
to self-test their learning preferences. "A learning style model is a small set of learning style
dimensions selected to provide instructors with a useful— but not all-encompassing—
collection of guidelines for designing instruction" (Felder, 2020). Each of the four scales of the
Soloman-Felder index of learning styles has two opposite preferences. Everyone uses all
preferences at different times, but not usually with equal levels of confidence.

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The active/reflective scale: How do you prefer to process information?
Active Reflective

Active learners learn by doing something with Reflective learners learn by thinking about
information. They prefer to process information by information. They prefer to think things through
talking about it and trying it out. and understand things before acting.
The sensing/intuitive scale: How do you prefer to take in information?
Sensing Intuitive
Sensing learners prefer to take in information Intuitive learners prefer to take in information that is
that is concrete and practical. They are oriented abstract, original, and oriented towards theory. They
towards details, facts, and figures and prefer to look at the big picture and try to grasp overall
use proven procedures. They are realistic and patterns. They like discovering possibilities and
like practical applications. relationships and working with ideas.
The visual/verbal scale: How do you prefer information to be presented?
Visual Verbal
Visual learners prefer visual presentations of material Verbal learners prefer explanations with
– diagrams, charts, graphs, pictures. words – both written and spoken.
The sequential/global scale: How do you prefer to organize information?
Sequential Global
Sequential learners prefer to organize Global learners prefer to organize information more
information in a linear, orderly fashion. holistically and in a seemingly random manner without
They learn in logically sequenced steps and seeing connections. They often appear scattered and
work with information in an organized and disorganised in their thinking yet often arrive at a
systematic way. creative or correct end product.
Adapted from: Felder, R. (1996). Matters of Style. ASEE Prism, December, pp. 18-23. See also :
Felder, R. & Soloman, B. (2002) Index of Learning Styles Page.

Learning strategies for your students

Active
• Compensate for lack of discussion by scheduling regular meetings with advising faculty
member or seek out other students interested in same or similar topics and organise
discussion groups
• When developing your work to assess, find creative ways to use the material learned
• Talk about material learned with family and friends
Reflective
• Schedule time to reflect on material
• Don’t just read – stop periodically to review the material and think of possible questions
or applications
• Write short summaries of materials read

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• Use reflective writing tasks (i.e., journals)
Sensing
• Make connections to the real world
• Seek out specific examples of concepts and procedures
• Brainstorm about real world connections with your advising faculty member, other
students, family, or friends
Intuitive
• Seek out interpretation and theory to link together facts
• Try to find theoretical connections to material learned
• Discuss theories and interpretations with your advising faculty member
• Take care not to miss the details when producing work to assess
Visual
• Seek out diagrams, graphs, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or other
visual representations of material
• Review videos and animations of material
• Organize material into a concept map (or flow chart)
• Colour code your notes
Verbal
• Write summaries and outlines of material
• Convert diagrams, graphs, etc., into written descriptions
• Meet with advising faculty member regularly to discuss material
• Organise discussion groups with other students
• Explain material to family and friend
Sequential
• Learn material in steps
• Ask advising faculty member to fill in any skipped steps when explaining information
• Take time to organize material in a logical order: themes, chronological, steps, etc.
• Try to strengthen global skills by relating new topics to material already learned
Global
• Generate the big picture before trying to master details
• Seek out general review articles that summarize literature before reading individual
research papers
• Skim through headings/subheadings before you read material carefully
• Instead of spending a little time on a subject daily, try to schedule larger blocks of time
less often to immerse yourself in the subject
• Find connections to material already learned

Children with Special Needs

Children with special needs (CWSN) are those who have a disability of some kind and need
special assistance and care. The type of these children's disabilities determines their special
needs. Frequent medical testing, hospital stays, equipment, and accommodations for
disabilities may all be part of the CWSN's Special Needs. To categories disabled children
broadly, there are three categories that can be used. These consist of: Physically disabled

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children, mentally disadvantaged children, socially maladjusted children. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has estimated that approximately 15% of the world's population has some
form of disability, and of those, 2-4% struggle significantly to function. All societies across the
nation are challenged by the scope of the issue in our country. Certain disabilities are incurable.
Early identification, specialized education, and training can, however, greatly aid children with
disabilities in leading independent lives.

Introduction
Even though each child is "unique," they are all generally similar in their stages of development.
Some kids, however, "stand out" from their age-mates because they are so different from them.
These kids must deal with both the typical difficulties associated with growth and any
additional challenges brought on by their "difference." The social and emotional issues that
come along with it are beyond the child's capacity to handle. This has a noticeable impact on
the child's social and personal growth.
Normal Child and Disabled/ Disadvantaged Child
A typical, healthy child is capable of developing and doing things that will prepare them for
adulthood. Children who are handicapped, disabled, or disadvantaged are generally described
as being unable to cope with the stresses of daily life. They are also stated to as "differently
abled" children.
Categories of Disabled Children:
Three categories can be used to broadly classify the disabled children. These include:
i. Physically disabled children.
ii. ii. Mentally disadvantaged children.
iii. iii. Socially maladjusted children.
Causes of Disability between Children:
The several causes of physical disability are as follows: Heredity, unfavorable surroundings,
injury suffered during childbirth, early childhood accidents that result in orthopedic issues,
surgery requiring the amputation of the affected part, early-life mental and emotional issues
can cause speech defects like stuttering and stammering, ear infections and injuries causing in
hearing defects, behavior issues are caused by psychological, emotional and feelings of
neglect.
I. Visual Impairment: Vision is a critical tool that children use in finding information
about the world in which they live. Vision impairment can cause partial or complete
blindness. For their full development, children with visual impairment will require
special resources and care.

Causes of Visual Impairment: The following factors may contribute to visual

impairment:
a. Congenital blindness: on the other hand, is the condition of being born blind.
b. Acquired Blindness: In this situation, the child is not born with the condition. A
mishap may cause the child to lose their vision. Acquired blindness refers to the
resulting eye defect.

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c. Nutritional blindness: Caused by a diet that lacks foods high in vitamin A for an
extended period of time. A lack of vitamin A impairs vision in low light and causes
eye dryness (xerophthalmia) (night blindness).

Special Needs of a Visually Challenged Child:

Physical Needs: Parents of visually impaired children must pay particular attention
and train their kids to perform daily tasks like using the restroom, taking a bath,
getting dressed, and feeding themselves. Special effort is needed to support them
to move around the house without hitting things and hurting themselves.
Emotional and Social Needs: When a disabled child is scared or emotionally
upset, their parents and siblings need to establish social contact with them and give
them constant reassurance by hugging, petting, and reassuring them.
Educational requirements: Books with large print, a desk with adequate lighting,
and recorded tapes are all very helpful to a child with vision impairment.
Additionally useful is the "Braille" special tool. From right to left, one Braille dot at a
time is punched out. Children learn to use Braille with comfort once coached
properly.

II. Hearing Impairment A child with hearing impairment is one who has missing the
sense of hearing before learning the language. This means that the child is innate
without the ability to hear. Such children are regularly mute and silent.

Hard of hearing on the further hand is a defect that is attained later in life. The child
experiences changing degrees of hearing loss.
Causes of hearing impairment:
The following factors can contribute to hearing loss and impairment:
(a) Conductive hearing impairment: The "Conductive Pathway" refers to the airway
in the outer ear. A foreign body in the pathway can have an impact on the conductive
pathway. i. Buildup of wax in the ear,
(b) Sensory Neutral hearing loss results from damage to the auditory nerve, ear
drum, cochlea, and associated brain cells.
(c) Mixed Hearing Loss arises from hearing loss brought on by both conductive and
sensual neural defects.
Special Needs of Children with Hearing Impairment Issues with communication,
language, and vocabulary are all brought on by hearing loss. Physical comfort can
be effectively used to meet physical needs. Play methods can be used by parents to
assist children.
Emotional and Social Needs: With deaf children, feeling comes almost naturally.
Additionally, their social skills must be improved and polished. Love and affection
provide emotional safety besides the much required encouragement for improved
learning.

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Educational Needs involve the child's language comprehension abilities. They pick
up manual and visual means of communication.

III. Orthopedic Impairment A child with an affected limb is not capable to fully perform
the activities involving the usage of bones, muscles and joints. Similar handicap is
experienced by children with a lost limb. Such children are identified to be
orthopedically crippled.

Characteristics of a child with missing limb

o Physical defect leads to inferiority complex between young children.
o The feelings of inadequacy result in self-indulgence.
o The child often goes through psycho-logical trauma because of discrepancy
among his/her aspirations and the skill to perform.

Special Needs of Children with Affected Limbs

Physical Needs consist of being able to cope with one’s day-to-day routine. The
attitude of parents should help the child do his/her responsibilities independently
rather than “do things for them”. Use of special contraptions like calipers, shoes and
artificial limbs along with suitable training has yielded very good results. Use of
crutches and wheel chair develops the mobility besides boosting their confidence.
Social and Emotional Needs Children with affected limbs are very frequently left
out of social group activities. The child may feel frustrated, and neglected. Loving
care and correct training to be independent and self-reliant are the basic
necessities of all handicapped children.
Educational Needs involve such activities that require ‘doing’, writing, playing,
drawing, painting, knitting and dancing are some activities

IV. Children with Impaired Speech The main purpose of speech is effective
communication. Communication is also defective when speech is.
Causes of Speech Defects There are various causes for speech defects. They are as
follows:
Physiological causes: Defects and deformities of the larynx and the vocal
cords affect the speech formed. Incomplete development of the skull and
head produces a cleft palate and cleft lip which made speech defects.
Neurological causes. When nerves connected with the areas of speech and
learning method are impaired, various type of speech defect or dis-order of
articulation occurs.
Psychogenic Causes. These are reasons related to one’s mind. Some types
of stuttering are decently psychogenic in origin. General self-consciousness
added with speech defect may create stuttering. iv. Sociological causes.
Some speech habits such as too fast or too slow speech or speaking in the
small tones insisted by the parent may lead to communication defects.

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Special need of children with speech deficiencies

Physical needs Surgery can correct some of the physiogenic causes like
cleft palate, much enlarged tonsils, adenoids, etc. Motor activities, dramatic
play of all types, excursions, discussing and planning group activities will
help in developing accurate speech patterns.
Educational Needs Classes under special teachers will be valuable for
improvement of pronunciation Emotional needs Children should be given
chances to listen to stories. The teacher and parents should every time
make it a point to pronounce words clearly themselves.

V. Mentally Challenged Children Mentally challenged children relate to those

children who show below average intelligence as well as difficulties in meeting the
demands of everyday life whether it is in communicating and fraternizing with other
or attending to fixing and domestic chores. Mentally challenged is an experimental
disability, which first appears in children under the age of 18. It's defined as an
intellectual functioning position I.Q. below 70, that's well below average and
significant limitations in diurnal living chops( Abdellah,F.G and Levine, 1979)

Myths Related to Mentally Challenged

• Mentally challenged is an internal illness.
• Mentally challenged isn't common.
• Mentally challenged is an always caused by heritable factor.
• Mentally challenged can be caused by alcohol beach vitamins, almonds and rich
nutritional food.
• Mentally challenged is due to fate.
• Mentally challenged can be completely cured.
• Mentally challenged cannot be trained or educated.
• Mentally challenged is due to small size of the brain.
• Mentally challenged is due to exposure to decline at the time of gestation or birth
of the child.
• Mentally challenged can come normal in life as they grow age. (Ahuja. N. A, 2002)

Classification of Mentally Challenged Children:

All mentally challenged aren't likewise. They're classified into four groups grounded on the I.Q.
They are Mild (IQ 50- 69) – further than 85 of kiddies with the disability fall in this order and have
no trouble until shortly ahead high academy. With a Command of around 55- 70, they're
occasionally unfit to grasp abstract generalities but can by and large function singly. They can
frequently acquire academic chops up to the sixth grade position. In adult life they're
anticipated to attain the intellectual position of average 8- 11 time old child.
Moderate (IQ 35- 49) - About 10 percent of the mentally challenged population is considered
relatively challenged. They can carry out work and tone- care tasks with moderate supervision.

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Minimum position of academic progress is possible i.e. till 3rd grade. In adult life this group
attains the intellectual position of average 4- 7 time old child. They generally acquire
communication chops in nonage and are suitable to live and serve successfully within the
community in a supervised terrain similar as a group home.
Severe (IQ 20- 34) - About 3 to 4 percent of the mentally challenged population is oppressively
challenged. They may master veritably introductory tone- care chops like eating, toileting and
some communication chops. They've the intellectual position of an average three times old
child. They bear constant care and supervision throughout their life.
Profound (IQ below 20) - This is the most severe form of disability and is also the rarest; with
only 1- 2 of mentally challenged children constitute this group. They're oppressively hindered
and bear expansive supervision due to poor life chops. With regular training and setting a
routine, they may be suitable to pick up essential life functions. (Bindler, R. and Ball, J. 1999)

Causes of Mental Retardation in Children

Causes during gestation
• Chromosomal diseases Over 30 of internal deceleration is attributed to genetics.
• Input of certain medicines during gestation without the advice of croaker.
• Infection to the mama during gestation like rubella
• Cigarette smoking, consumption of alcohol, exposure to x -rays.
• Nutritive insufficiency during gestation.
• Exposure to poisonous Accoutrements, rudiments similar as mercury, lead and
cadmium are known to be linked with a reduction in intellectual growth
Causes at the time of delivery of the child
• Birth asphyxia i.e., child doesn't cry or cry veritably late after birth.
•Pre-mature birth i.e., birth before 37 weeks of gestation.
• Low birth weight babies (children who weigh lower than 2500 grams)
• Injury to the head of the new born. Use of forceps can affect in injury to the head.
• Delayed and protract labor 3. Causes after the delivery of the child
• Malnutrition or insufficiency of nutrition during the first two times of the life
• Brain infection and brain injuries
• Undressed epileptic fits or high grade fever with fits
• Severe dehumidification during the nonage
• Free exposure to gas smothers maquillages, lead etc.
Psychosocial privation i.e. privation of love and affection and emotional disturbances.
Illness: Children suffering from measles can develop encephalitis which causes internal
deceleration. Babies suffering from natural hyperthyroidism are also at the threat of poor brain
development (Boyd, A.M. 2008)

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Characteristics of Mentally Disabled Children
1. Bad Memory These kiddies have a short- term memory recall still, when doing a task
constantly; they can recall information without displaying any symptoms of internal
deceleration.
2. Slow literacy wind Their capability to reuse new information is fairly low when
compared to other kiddies. That doesn’t mean they’re unable of literacy. Some
educationists are of the view that a decelerating down of the instructions can help in
better event of the information.
3. Attention Deficiency They're unfit to sustain their attention for too long on a single task.
A good way of diving this insufficiency is by making them apprehensive of the most
pivotal aspect of the work and also erecting their attention from there on.
4. Disinterest Due to repeated failures, some children do not trust their chops, indeed if
they're correct. Over time they lose faith in their capacities and come disinterested in
literacy (Carr, J.P. 1980).
5. Independent Living One of the brighter side children with special requirements can be
trained in repetitious tasks which they can master over time. This can help them stay
independent for a short duration of time and also prepare them for majority.
6. Incapability to restrain feelings As children grow aged, they can give measured
responses when faced with unknown situations. Children with internal disabilities are
unfit to do this and may respond unpredictably, generally displaying aggression. Once
the occasion is over, they can smell that they've acted out and are able of feeling like
they're a burden.
7. Social Development Due to crazy outbursts and poor language chops, they may be
unfit to have healthy social relations.
8. Application of New Ideas They're unfit to incorporate any recently acquired chops,
innovatively.

Physical characteristics
Some of the generally seen physical characteristics in oppressively mentally challenged
children are Head is too large, slanting eyes, beetled lingo, abnormal physical appearance and
rough skin (Carson, B.V. and Arnold, N.E, 1996)
Problems Faced By Mentally Retarded Children
Common challenges faced by developmentally impaired children are social insulation,
bullying, low tone regard, loneliness, medical Problems (Carson, B.V. and Arnold, N.E, 1996)
Signs and Symptoms of Mentally Challenged Children
• Show objectiveness in studies
• Repeated academic failures
• Poor academic performance
• Difficulty in articulating a point
• Having trouble flashing back effects
• Difficulty with problem working chops
• Poor in social chops and learning rulings.

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• Don't keep up with other children of the same age
• Take long time to learn simple day to day conditioning

Diagnosis
1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - This test needles quantitative logic, knowledge, fluid
logic, visual- spatial processing and memory. It's one of the primary tests that identify literacy
diseases in children.
2. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children - This test is used to assess the cognitive
development of a child. The types of tests administered are wide- ranging and vary grounded on
the age of the child. This test isn't a stage-alone test, meaning that the results of this analysis
must be seen in confluence with other tests.
3. Bayley Scale of Infant Development - This is a standardized test for babies between 1- 42
months of age. Motor, language and cognitive chops are tested. This, in turn, helps to screen
out children who are prone to having development problems in the future (Deborah, A., 2003)
Prevention
1. Before Marriage: Avoid marriages in blood relations like kinsman sisters. Get married before
35 years of age and one should have children before the age of 35 years so that the chances of
getting mental problems become minimum.
2. During Pregnancy: Prevention can be done during pregnancy by taking good nutritional diet,
regular prenatal checkup, immunization against mumps, measles rubella well before gestation,
avoid injury /heavy pressure during the gestation and exposure to the radiation. Avoid taking
large boluses of vitamins and hormones as these beget birth blights. Pregnant women should
avoid doing medicines, smoking or drinking as it can lead to neural blights in the child. Women
suffering from hyperthyroidism need to get treated as it can lead to a fetus with neural blights.
3. Consult with expert doctors: Prevention can be done by consulting the expert doctors when
child has repeated infection, delayed mileposts, veritably perverse and restless, difficulty in
speaking and treat high fever/ infection.
4. Avoid malnutrition by furnishing well balanced diet

Diversity in Designing and Assessing Learning

Activities
The Learning by Design framework was developed by Kalantzis & Cope (2004) based on the
multiliteracies principles of diversity, pedagogy and multimodality. They argue that curriculum
and pedagogy must address diversity through the transformation rather than the assimilation or
integration of the learner (Kalantzis et al, 2003). The framework focuses on recognizing and
harnessing the individual attributes of students in teaching and learning. It thus requires the
purposeful deployment by teachers of appropriate pedagogies and meaning-making modalities
which are inclusive of the diverse needs and ways of knowing of children.

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Incorporating diversity allows you to:
• Create an inclusive course climate.
• Connect with and reach out to a wider range of students.
• Motivate students (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009).
• Create more positive educational experiences for students.
• Help students gain an understanding of, and respect for, multiple perspectives and
backgrounds.
There are several ways to build inclusive classrooms.
1. Include issues of diversity as a learning goal of your course and tie current events and
local histories to classroom activities.
2. Communicate your dedication to diversity by including diversity and disability
statements in your syllabus. You might also include a classroom code of conduct to
highlight expectations for classroom behavior.
3. Critically examine your course from multiple viewpoints to include materials that
represent various perspectives accurately (consider gender, nationality, ethnicity, age,
sexuality, political affiliation, socio-economic status, ability, linguistic background,
etc.).
4. Be inclusive of various learning modalities and preferences. Plan to utilize a variety of
teaching techniques. When designing assignments, try to provide a choice in how
students can demonstrate their learning. Refer to inclusive teaching strategies for ideas.
5. Whenever possible, incorporate universal design for learning principles into your
instructional methods and materials in order to increase accessibility to students of
various abilities.
How do you design learning activities for diverse and inclusive audiences?
1. Know your learners. The first step to designing inclusive learning activities is to
understand who your learners are, what their needs and preferences are, and how they
learn best. You can use various methods to gather this information, such as surveys,
interviews, focus groups, or assessments. You can also use existing data, such as
performance reviews, feedback, or learning histories. The goal is to identify the
strengths, gaps, challenges, and opportunities of your learners, as well as their learning
styles, motivations, and goals.
2. Define your objectives. The next step is to define what you want your learners to
achieve by the end of the learning activity. You can use the SMART framework to set
specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound objectives. You can also
align your objectives with the organizational goals, the team vision, and the individual
development plans of your learners. By having clear and realistic objectives, you can
design learning activities that are meaningful and impactful for your learners.
3. Choose your methods
The third step is to choose the methods and tools that you will use to deliver your
learning activity. You can use a variety of methods, such as lectures, discussions, case
studies, simulations, games, quizzes, or projects. You can also use different tools, such
as online platforms, videos, podcasts, or e-books. The key is to select the methods and

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tools that match your objectives, your learners, and your context. You can also use a
blended approach, which combines different methods and tools to create a rich and
diverse learning experience.

4. Design your content

The fourth step is to design the content and structure of your learning activity. You can
use the ADDIE model to guide you through this process, which consists of five phases:
analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. You can also use the
principles of universal design for learning, which are: multiple means of representation,
multiple means of engagement, and multiple means of expression. These principles
can help you create content that is accessible, relevant, and flexible for your learners.
5. Facilitate your activity
The fifth step is to facilitate your learning activity and create a positive and supportive
learning environment. You can use various techniques to engage your learners, such as
asking questions, giving feedback, encouraging participation, and acknowledging
diversity. You can also use strategies to manage challenges, such as conflicts,
misunderstandings, or resistance. The goal is to foster a culture of respect,
collaboration, and curiosity among your learners.
6. Evaluate your results
The final step is to evaluate the results and outcomes of your learning activity. You can
use different methods to measure the effectiveness and impact of your learning
activity, such as tests, surveys, interviews, observations, or analytics. You can also use
the Kirkpatrick model to evaluate four levels of learning: reaction, learning, behavior,
and results. By evaluating your results, you can identify the strengths, weaknesses, and
areas of improvement of your learning activity, and plan for future actions.

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What is the ADDIE Model

The acronym ADDIE describes an effective approach to the process of instructional design:
Assess, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate. It is not necessarily linear, and should be
used in a dynamic, iterative way for efficient design that identifies critical and relevant learning
content.
ADDIE ensures early engagement with key stakeholders, a clear articulation of skills, knowledge
and behaviours that require capability uplift and the creation of a high level learning
‘architecture’ for review – before joining the dots to develop learning materials. It is simple
enough for an instructional design novice to apply to an uncomplicated learning need, and
robust enough to adapt to a large-scale organisational change project that has many and varied
capability shift implications. Key to becoming an expert at applying ADDIE effectively is
practicing asking questions and developing a suite of templates to collect analysis and
evaluation data, as well as to develop learning materials.

Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

The Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model was first introduced in 1959 by Donald Kirkpatrick, a professor
emeritus at the University of Wisconsin. It has since undergone several iterations over the years
by Kirkpatrick and, after his death, his family—the most recent update, called the New World
Kirkpatrick Model, was released in 2016.
The model outlines four levels of training evaluation:

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• Reaction
• Learning
• Behavior
• Results

Motivation is the driving force that helps individuals achieve their goals. However, many people
struggle with staying motivated, and this can lead to missed opportunities and unfulfilled
potential. Addressing common motivation challenges can help individuals overcome their
struggles and stay focused on their goals.

Need-Based Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the 20th century and the
hierarchy of needs, accompanied by the pyramid representing how human needs are ranked, is
an image familiar to most business students and managers.
Maslow’s theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have needs that are
hierarchically ranked (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1954). There are some needs that are basic to all
human beings, and in their absence, nothing else matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, we
start looking to satisfy higher-order needs. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer
serves as a motivator.

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The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs.

Physiological needs refer to the need for air, food, and water. Imagine being very hungry. At that
point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you eat, though, the search for
food ceases and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological needs
are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety. Are they safe from danger, pain,
or an uncertain future?

One level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings, to be loved, and
to form lasting attachments. In fact, having no attachments can negatively affect health and
well-being (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem
needs more salient.

Esteem needs refer to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, feeling important, and being
appreciated.

Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-actualization refers to “becoming
all you are capable of becoming.” This need manifests itself by acquiring new skills, taking on
new challenges, and behaving in a way that will lead to the satisfaction of one’s life goals.

ERG Theory
ERG theory of Clayton Alderfer is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Alderfer,
1969). Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic
human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely, Existence, Relatedness,

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and Growth (see the following figure). Existence need corresponds to Maslow’s physiological
and safety needs, relatedness corresponds to social needs, and growth need refers to Maslow’s
esteem and self actualization.

Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way. By asking
individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the
conclusion that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different from
aspects that dissatisfy them (Herzberg, et. al., 1959; Herzberg, 1965).

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Herzberg labeled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because these
factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job
itself. Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary,
safety, and security on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work
environment. Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being
harassed and mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment.
However, if these problems were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not
harassed at all), would you be motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted.
In fact, many factors in our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent, but
take for granted if they are present.

Acquired Needs Theory

Among the need-based approaches to motivation, Douglas McClelland’s acquired needs theory
is the one that has received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory,
individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. These needs are
need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power. All individuals possess a
combination of these needs.

Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be successful. A worker who
derives great satisfaction from meeting deadlines, coming up with brilliant ideas, and planning
his or her next career move may be high in need for achievement. Individuals high on need for
achievement are well suited to positions such as sales where there are explicit goals, feedback

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is immediately available, and their effort often leads to success (Harrell & Stahl, 1981; Trevis &
Certo, 2005; Turban & Keon, 1993). Because of their success in lower-level jobs, those in high
need for achievement are often promoted to higher-level positions (McClelland & Boyatzis,
1982). However, a high need for achievement has important disadvantages in management.
Management involves getting work done by motivating others. When a salesperson is promoted
to be a sales manager, the job description changes from actively selling to recruiting,
motivating, and training salespeople. Those who are high in need for achievement may view
managerial activities such as coaching, communicating, and meeting with subordinates as a
waste of time. Moreover, they enjoy doing things themselves and may find it difficult to delegate
authority. They may become overbearing or micromanaging bosses, expecting everyone to be
as dedicated to work as they are, and expecting subordinates to do things exactly the way they
are used to doing (McClelland & Burnham, 1976).

Individuals who have a high need for affiliation want to be liked and accepted by others. When
given a choice, they prefer to interact with others and be with friends (Wong & Csikszentmihalyi,
1991). Their emphasis on harmonious interpersonal relationships may be an advantage in jobs
and occupations requiring frequent interpersonal interaction, such as social worker or teacher.
In managerial positions, a high need for affiliation may again serve as a disadvantage because
these individuals tend to be overly concerned about how they are perceived by others. Thus,
they may find it difficult to perform some aspects of a manager’s job such as giving employees
critical feedback or disciplining poor performers.

Finally, those with high need for power want to influence others and control their environment.
Need for power may be destructive of one’s relationships if it takes the form of seeking and
using power for one’s own good and prestige. However, when it manifests itself in more
altruistic forms, such as changing the way things are done so that the work environment is more
positive or negotiating more resources for one’s department, it tends to lead to positive
outcomes. In fact, need for power is viewed as important for effectiveness in managerial and
leadership positions (Mcclelland & Burnham, 1976; Spangler & House, 1991; Spreier, 2006).

Common Motivation Challenges

There are several common motivational challenges that individuals face. These challenges
include:
1. Lack of direction or clarity in goals.
2. Procrastination and feeling overwhelmed.
3. Fear of failure or rejection.
4. Lack of support or accountability.
5. Burnout or lack of energy.

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What is Metacognition in Education?
The term metacognition refers to an individual’s ability to plan, monitor, evaluate, and make
changes to their own learning behaviours in order to confront challenges more effectively. You
might have heard it defined as ‘thinking about thinking’, but the elements of active monitoring
and modifying of thought processes make it much more than this. It is also a form of self-
regulation, involving self-awareness, critical analysis skills, and the ability to problem-solve.

Why is Metacognition Beneficial in Student Learning?

The potential benefits of metacognition in learning are as follows:
• Higher achievement levels for the students. Metacognitive practices can also
compensate for any cognitive limitations that a student might have, according to
research such as this.
• Increased ability to learn independently. Being able to monitor their own progress lets
them take control of their own learning, inside and outside the classroom.
• Improved resilience. Identifying their successes and failures, and which strategies
work best for them – or which have failed – increases students’ perseverance in getting
better at their work.
• It aids disadvantaged students. According to this report, and research by the EEF,
teaching in a way that supports metacognition is beneficial for students who are at a
disadvantage to their peers.
• Cost-effectiveness. This method of teaching does not require specialist equipment,
nor any other large purchases – it only requires teachers to be trained in the method
effectively.
• Transferable knowledge. Metacognition helps students to transmit their knowledge and
understanding across tasks and contexts, including reading comprehension, writing,
mathematics, memorising, reasoning, and problem-solving.
• Effective for all ages of students. Research has looked at both primary and secondary
students – and even those who have not yet started school – and found benefits in all
cases.
• Emotional and social growth. Gaining awareness of their own mental states allows
students to think about how to be happy, respected, and confident in themselves. They
are also better able to understand other people’s perspectives.

A popular framework for defining the levels of metacognitive learners comes from David Perkins
(1992). There are four levels of learner:
1. Tacit learners, who are unaware of their metacognitive knowledge. They do not think
about any particular strategies for learning, and merely accept if they know something
or not.
2. Aware learners, who know about some of the kinds of thinking that they do, such as
generating ideas, finding evidence, etc. However, thinking is not necessarily deliberate
or planned.

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3. Strategic learners, who organise their thinking by using problem-solving, grouping and
classifying, evidence-seeking, decision-making, etc. They know and apply the strategies
that help them learn.
4. Reflective learners, who are not only strategic about their thinking, but also reflect
upon their learning while it is happening. They consider the success or failure of any
strategies they are using, and revise them as appropriate.

Metacognitive Strategies & Activities for the Classroom

We have compiled a list of 12 tips, strategies and activities involving metacognition that you
could use alongside modelling and ‘You, Plan, Do, Review’. These are:
1. Learning/Thinking Journals
Journals help students to develop their self-awareness, improve their ability to plan and
monitor progress, and promote skills in self-reflection. Try asking your students to keep
personal learning journals, and assign them weekly questions for them to reflect on, such as:
• What was easiest for me to learn this week, and why?
• What was most challenging for me to learn, and why?
• Which study strategies worked well?
• Which study strategies didn’t work well, and what could I do differently next time?
• Did my study habits work well for me? What effect did they have on my learning?
• Which study habit could I improve upon next week?
• What are my targets for next week?
2. KWL Charts
A KWL chart is a way of tracking the ‘You, Plan, Do, Review’ process. The idea is to create a chart
for your students to use, with space for them to answer the following questions:
• What do I know?
• What do I want to know?
• What did I learn?
3. Essays

Research such as this has shown that essays require higher-level metacognitive skills –
multiple-choice questions, in contrast, use lower-level skills. As a result, asking your students
to write essays, especially when preparing for exams, could help them to prepare and learn as
much as possible.

4. Rules About Asking for Help

Instead of getting students to put their hands up as soon as they need help, set some rules that
make them more involved in the thinking process. For example, you could ask them to go to a
fellow student – or group of students – to discuss it first, and only to ask you if they can’t find the
answer together. You could also try getting students to think about exactly what they need to

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know, or which part of their work they need to improve, before coming to you. This helps them to
practise self-directed learning.

5. Mnemonics
Teach your pupils techniques such as mnemonics to help them remember difficult information.
This ensures that they are less likely to experience cognitive overload, allowing them to move on
to higher-level thinking.
You could use expression or word mnemonics, such as ROY G BIV to remember the colours of
the rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). The same thing could be
remembered in a mnemonic sentence, such as ‘Richard of York gave battle in vain’.

6. Exam Wrappers
These are worksheets containing reflective questions that help students to think about their
performance in a test or exam. You could give them to your pupils both before and after they
receive their results and feedback.
The worksheets given out before they receive feedback should ask them to think about how they
prepared for the exam – for example, which study strategies they used. Those given out after the
feedback should make the student reflect on the mistakes they made, and how they could
prepare differently to ensure greater success in the future, making them strategic learners.

7. Metacognitive Talk
Metacognitive talk involves talking through what you are thinking while you carry out a task. This
can help students to focus and better understand their thought processes. You could try
implementing this by first modelling how to do it – work through a task in front of the class,
talking out loud as you do so – and then letting the class have a go.
The questions your students should ask and answer out loud are:
• What do I know about this topic?
• Have I done a task like this before?
• What strategies worked last time?
• What do I need to do first?
• How am I doing?
• What should I do next?
• Should I try a different strategy?
• Who can I ask for help?
• How well did I do at this task?
• What could I do differently next time?
8. Reciprocal Teaching

This strategy allows students to take on the role of teacher and attempt to teach learning
strategies to other students. For example, if they were teaching reading comprehension, they
might show their fellow students how to question what they’ve read, clarify things they don’t
understand, summarise the text, and make informed predictions about what they have read.

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This can help metacognition by deepening their knowledge and understanding of each learning
strategy.

9. Traffic Lights
Traffic lights can be used in a variety of ways in the classroom; in this instance, students could
use them to signify what they found confusing or challenging in a lesson (red), what made them
think differently about something (amber), and what they understood well (green). They could
fill in a traffic light worksheet answering these questions at the end of each lesson. This method
makes them reflect upon their learning, developing their metacognitive abilities. Smiling,
frowning, or neutral faces could be used in the same way – this might be a good strategy for
encouraging metacognition in the primary classroom.

10. Feedback
Being given feedback makes students think about what they have done and how they could
improve it – as a result, it is a key way to develop metacognition.

11. Reflexive Thinking

Talking about and becoming aware of biases – for example, societal biases – is a metacognitive
process called reflexivity. Having classroom discussions about these topics encourages
students to consider what they’re unconsciously thinking. Try talking about moral dilemmas,
racism, wealth, poverty, and justice.

12. Goals
Encourage your students to set their own goals. This is one of the best ways for them to monitor
their learning progress, and review whether they need to make any changes. Make sure that
their goals are challenging but realistic, and that they are focused on developing learning and
building skills.

Encouraging metacognition in the classroom is a way to ensure that your students are learning
effectively. This will help them throughout their lives by developing their resilience, memory, self-
awareness, reasoning skills, and problem-solving abilities.

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Communication Skills for Effective Teaching and
Learning
Communication skills are vital in any aspect of life, but when it comes to teaching and
learning, effective communication is paramount. Building a strong learning community requires
teachers to be skilled communicators who can effectively convey their message to their
students. Effective communication can help students better understand the subject matter,
encourage participation, and foster a positive learning environment.
Active Listening
Active listening is one of the most crucial communication skills that teachers must possess.
Active listening is not just hearing what the student is saying, but it also involves understanding
their perspective and providing feedback. It's important for teachers to give their students their
full attention and let them know that they are being heard. When students feel heard, they are
more likely to be engaged and participate in the learning process.
Effective Questioning
Asking the right questions can help students think critically and better understand the subject
matter. Teachers should ask open-ended questions that encourage students to think deeply
about the subject matter. Effective questioning also involves asking follow-up questions to help
students clarify their thoughts and ideas.
Body Language
Body language is a powerful communication tool that can be used to convey different emotions
and messages. Teachers should be mindful of their body language when communicating with
students. Positive body language, such as maintaining eye contact, smiling, and nodding, can
help create a positive learning environment. Teachers should also be aware of negative body
language, such as crossing their arms or avoiding eye contact, as this can create a negative
atmosphere and discourage student participation.
Clear and Concise Language
Clear and concise language is essential in effective communication. Teachers should use
language that is easily understandable by their students. Avoid using complex vocabulary or
jargon that may confuse students. Teachers should also speak slowly and clearly, ensuring that
they enunciate their words correctly. This can help students better understand the subject
matter and participate in class discussions.

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Empathy
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Empathy is an essential
communication skill for teachers as it helps them better understand their students' needs and
perspectives. Teachers should be empathetic towards their students and try to understand their
emotions and challenges. When teachers show empathy towards their students, it can help
create a positive learning environment and improve student engagement.
Active Engagement
Active engagement involves encouraging students to participate actively in the learning
process. Teachers should use interactive teaching methods that encourage student
participation, such as group discussions, role-playing, and hands-on activities. Active
engagement can help students better understand the subject matter and retain the information
longer.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is an essential communication skill for teachers. Teachers should
provide positive feedback and praise their students when they have done well. Positive
reinforcement can encourage students to continue participating and engaging in the learning
process. It's essential to remember that not all students learn at the same pace, and positive
reinforcement can help students build confidence in their abilities.

References:
Khushaboo , Kavita Dua. 2022 Children with Special Needs. IJNRD | Volume 7, Issue 7

Branson, R. K., Rayner, G. T., Cox, J. L., Furman, J. P., King, F. J., Hannum, W. H. (1975).
Interservice procedures for instructional systems development. (5 vols.) (TRADOC Pam 350-30
NAVEDTRA 106A). Ft. Monroe, VA: U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, August 1975.
(NTIS No. ADA 019 486 through ADA 019 490).
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Kurt, S “ADDIE Model: Instructional Design in Educational Technology, August 29, 2017

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