READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are

based on Reading Passage 1 below.

The risks agriculture faces in

developing countries

Synthesis of an online debate*

A
Two things distinguish food production from all other productive
activities: first, every single person needs food each day and has a right
to it; and second, it is hugely dependent on nature. These two unique
aspects, one political, the other natural, make food production highly
vulnerable and different from any other business. At the same time,
cultural values are highly entrenched in food and agricultural systems
worldwide.

B
Farmers everywhere face major risks, including extreme weather, long-
term climate change, and price volatility in input and product markets.
However, smallholder farmers in developing countries must in addition
deal with adverse environments, both natural, in terms of soil quality,
rainfall, etc., and human, in terms of infrastructure, financial systems,
markets, knowledge and technology. Counter-intuitively, hunger is
prevalent among many smallholder farmers in the developing world.

C
Participants in the online debate argued that our biggest challenge is to
address the underlying causes of the agricultural system’s inability to
ensure sufficient food for all, and they identified as drivers of this
problem our dependency on fossil fuels and unsupportive government
policies.

D
On the question of mitigating the risks farmers face, most essayists
called for greater state intervention. In his essay, Kanayo F. Nwanze,
President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development, argued
that governments can significantly reduce risks for farmers by providing
basic services like roads to get produce more efficiently to markets, or
water and food storage facilities to reduce losses. Sophia Murphy, senior
advisor to the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, suggested that
the procurement and holding of stocks by governments can also help
mitigate wild swings in food prices by alleviating uncertainties about
market supply.

E
Shenggen Fan, Director General of the International Food Policy
Research Institute, help up social safety nets and public welfare
programmes in Ethiopia, Brazil and Mexico as valuable ways to address
poverty among farming families and reduce their vulnerability to
agriculture shocks. However, some commentators responded that cash
transfers to poor families do not necessarily translate into increased food
security, as these programmes do not always strengthen food production
or raise incomes. Regarding state subsidies for agriculture, Rokeya
Kabir, Executive Director of Bangladesh Nari Progati Sangha,
commented in her essay that these ‘have not compensated for the
stranglehold exercised by private traders. In fact, studies show that sixty
percent of beneficiaries of subsidies are not poor, but rich landowners
and non-farmer traders.’

F
Nwanze, Murphy and Fan argued that private risk management tools,
like private insurance, commodity futures markets, and rural finance can
help small-scale producers mitigate risk and allow for investment in
improvements. Kabir warned that financial support schemes often
encourage the adoption of high-input agricultural practices, which in the
medium term may raise production costs beyond the value of their
harvests. Murphy noted that when futures markets become excessively
financialised they can contribute to short-term price volatility, which
increases farmers’ food insecurity. Many participants and commentators
emphasised that greater transparency in markets is needed to mitigate
the impact of volatility, and make evident whether adequate stocks and
supplies are available. Others contended that agribusiness companies
should be held responsible for paying for negative side effects.

G
Many essayists mentioned climate change and its consequences for
small-scale agriculture. Fan explained that ‘in addition to reducing crop
yields, climate change increases the magnitude and frequency of
extreme weather events, which increase smallholder vulnerability.’ The
growing unpredictability of weather patterns increases farmers’ difficulty
in managing weather-related risks. According to this author, one solution
would be to develop crop varieties that are more resilient to new climate
trends and extreme weather patterns. Accordingly, Pat Mooney, co-
founder and executive director of the ETC Group, suggested that ‘if we
are to survive climate change, we must adopt policies that let peasants
diversify the plant and animal species and varieties/breeds that make up
our menus.’

H
Some participating authors and commentators argued in favour of
community-based and autonomous risk management strategies through
collective action groups, co-operatives or producers’ groups. Such
groups enhance market opportunities for small-scale producers, reduce
marketing costs and synchronise buying and selling with seasonal price
conditions. According to Murphy, ‘collective action offers an important
way for farmers to strengthen their political and economic bargaining
power, and to reduce their business risks.’ One commentator, Giel Ton,
warned that collective action does not come as a free good. It takes
time, effort and money to organise, build trust and to experiment. Others,
like Marcel Vernooij and Marcel Beukeboom, suggested that in order to
‘apply what we already know’, all stakeholders, including business,
government, scientists and civil society, must work together, starting at
the beginning of the value chain.

I
Some participants explained that market price volatility is often worsened
by the presence of intermediary purchasers who, taking advantage of
farmers’ vulnerability, dictate prices. One commentator suggested
farmers can gain greater control over prices and minimise price volatility
by selling directly to consumers. Similarly, Sonali Bisht, founder and
advisor to the Institute of Himalayan Environmental Research and
Education (INHERE), India, wrote that community-supported agriculture,
where consumers invest in local farmers by subscription and guarantee
producers a fair price, is a risk-sharing model worth more attention.
Direct food distribution systems not only encourage small-scale
agriculture but also give consumers more control over the food they
consume, she wrote.

———————
* The personal names in the text refer to the authors of written contributions to the
online debate

Questions 1-3

Reading Passage 1 has nine paragraphs, A-I.

Which paragraph contains the following information?

Write the correct letter, A-I, in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.

1 a reference to characteristics that only apply to food production

2 a reference to challenges faced only by farmers in certain parts of the

world

3 a reference to difficulties in bringing about co-operation between

farmers

Questions 4-9

Look at the following statements (Question 4-9) and the list of people
below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A-G.

Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

4 Financial assistance from the government does not always go to the

farmers who most need it.

5 Farmers can benefit from collaborating as a group.

6 Financial assistance from the government can improve the standard

of living of farmers.

7 Farmers may be helped if there is financial input by the same

individuals who buy from them.

8 Governments can help to reduce variation in prices.

9 Improvements to infrastructure can have a major impact on risk for

farmers.

List of People

A Kanayo F. Nwanze
B Sophia Murphy
C Shenggen Fan
D Rokeya Kabir
E Pat Mooney
F Giel Ton
G Sonali Bisht

Questions 10-11

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Write the correct letters in boxes 10 and 11 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO problems are mentioned which affect farmers with small
farms in developing countries?

A lack of demand for locally produced food

B lack of irrigation programmes

C being unable to get insurance

D the effects of changing weather patterns

E having to sell their goods to intermediary buyers

Questions 12-13

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Write the correct letters in boxes 12 and 13 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO actions are recommended for improving conditions for

farmers?

A reducing the size of food stocks

B attempting to ensure that prices rise at certain times of the year

C organising co-operation between a wide range of interested parties

D encouraging consumers to take a financial stake in farming

E making customers aware of the reasons for changing food prices

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are

based on Reading Passage 2 below.

The Lost City

An explorer’s encounter with the ruined city of Machu Picchu, the most
famous icon of the Inca civilsation

A
When the US explorer and academic Hiram Bingham arrived in South
America in 1911, he was ready for what was to be the greatest
achievement of his life: the exploration of the remote hinterland to the
west of Cusco, the old capital of the Inca empire in the Andes mountains
of Peru. His goal was to locate the remains of a city called Vitcos, the
last capital of the Inca civilisation. Cusco lies on a high plateau at an
elevation of more than 3,000 metres, and Bingham’s plan was to
descend from this plateau along the valley of the Urubamba river, which
takes a circuitous route down to the Amazon and passes through an
area of dramatic canyons and mountain ranges.

B
When Bingham and his team set off down the Urubamba in late July,
they had an advantage over travelers who had preceded them: a track
had recently been blasted down the valley canyon to enable rubber to be
brought up by mules from the jungle. Almost all previous travelers had
left the river at Ollantaytambo and taken a high pass across the
mountains to rejoin the river lower down, thereby cutting a substantial
corner, but also therefore never passing through the area around Machu
Picchu.

C
On 24 July they were a few days into their descent of the valley. The day
began slowly, with Bingham trying to arrange sufficient mules for the
next stage of the trek. His companions showed no interest in
accompanying him up the nearby hill to see some ruins that a local
farmer, Melchor Arteaga, had told them about the night before. The
morning was dull and damp, and Bingham also seems to have been less
than keen on the prospect of climbing the hill. In his book Lost City of the
Incas, he relates that he made the ascent without having the least
expectation that he would find anything at the top.

D
Bingham writes about the approach in vivid style in his book. First, as he
climbs up the hill, he describes the ever-present possibility of deadly
snakes, ‘capable of making considerable springs when in pursuit of their
prey’; not that he sees any. Then there’s a sense of mounting discovery
as he comes across great sweeps of terraces, then a mausoleum,
followed by monumental staircases and, finally, the grand ceremonial
buildings of Machu Picchu. ‘It seemed like an unbelievable dream … the
sight held me spellbound …’ he wrote.

E
We should remember, however, that Lost City of the Incas is a work of
hindsight, not written until 1948, many years after his journey. His journal
entries of the time reveal a much more gradual appreciation of his
achievement. He spent the afternoon at the ruins noting down the
dimensions of some of the buildings, then descended and rejoined his
companions, to whom he seems to have said little about his discovery.
At this stage, Bingham didn’t realise the extent or the importance of the
site, nor did he realise what use he could make of the discovery.

F
However, soon after returning it occurred to him that he could make a
name for himself from this discovery. When he came to write the
National Geographic magazine article that broke the story to the world in
April 1913, he knew he had to produce a big idea. He wondered whether
it could have been the birthplace of the very first Inca, Manco the Great,
and whether it could also have been what chroniclers described as ‘the
last city of the Incas’. This term refers to Vilcabamba, the settlement
where the Incas had fled from Spanish invaders in the 1530s. Bingham
made desperate attempts to prove this belief for nearly 40 years. Sadly,
his vision of the site as both the beginning and end of the Inca
civilisation, while a magnificent one, is inaccurate. We now know that
Vilcabamba actually lies 65 kilometres away in the depths of the jungle.

G
One question that has perplexed visitors, historians and archaeologists
alike ever since Bingham, is why the site seems to have been
abandoned before the Spanish Conquest. There are no references to it
by any of the Spanish chroniclers – and if they had known of its
existence so close to Cusco they would certainly have come in search of
gold. An idea which has gained wide acceptance over the past few years
is that Machu Picchu was a moya, a country estate built by an Inca
emperor to escape the cold winters of Cusco, where the elite could enjoy
monumental architecture and spectacular views. Furthermore, the
particular architecture of Machu Picchu suggests that it was constructed
at the time of the greatest of all the Incas, the emperor Pachacuti (c.
1438-71). By custom, Pachacuti’s descendants built other similar estates
for their own use, and so Machu Picchu would have been abandoned
after his death, some 50 years before the Spanish Conquest.

Questions 14-20

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings
below.

Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet.

List of headings

i Different accounts of the same journey

ii Bingham gains support

iii A common belief

iv The aim of the trip

v A dramatic description

vi A new route

vii Bingham publishes his theory

viii Bingham’s lack of enthusiasm

14 Paragraph A

15 Paragraph B

16 Paragraph C

17 Paragraph D
18 Paragraph E

19 Paragraph F

20 Paragraph G

Questions 21-24

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading

Passage 2?

In boxes 21-24 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

21 Bingham went to South America in search of an Inca city.

22 Bingham chose a particular route down the Urubamba valley

because it was the most common route used by travellers.

23 Bingham understood the significance of Machu Picchu as soon as

he saw it.

24 Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in order to find evidence to

support his theory.

Questions 25-26

Complete the sentences below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 25-26 on your answer sheet.

25 The track that took Bingham down the Urubamba valley had been
created for the transportation of …………………………….

26 Bingham found out about the ruins of Machu Picchu from a

…………………………….. it the Urubamba valley.

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READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are

based on Reading Passage 3 below.
The Benefits of Being Bilingual

A
According to the latest figures, the majority of the world’s population is
now bilingual or multilingual, having grown up speaking two or more
languages. In the past, such children were considered to be at a
disadvantage compared with their monolingual peers. Over the past few
decades, however, technological advances have allowed researchers to
look more deeply at how bilingualism interacts with and changes the
cognitive and neurological systems, thereby identifying several clear
benefits of being bilingual.
B
Research shows that when a bilingual person uses one language, the
other is active at the same time. When we hear a word, we don’t hear
the entire word all at once: the sounds arrive in sequential order. Long
before the word is finished, the brain’s language system begins to guess
what that word might be. If you hear ‘can’, you will likely activate words
like ‘candy’ and ‘candle’ as well, at least during the earlier stages of word
recognition. For bilingual people, this activation is not limited to a single
language; auditory input activates corresponding words regardless of the
language to which they belong. Some of the most compelling evidence
for this phenomenon, called ‘language co-activation’, comes from
studying eye movements. A Russian-English bilingual asked to ‘pick up
a marker’ from a set of objects would look more at a stamp than
someone who doesn’t know Russian, because the Russian word for
‘stamp’, marka, sounds like the English word he or she heard, ‘marker’.
In cases like this, language co-activation occurs because what the
listener hears could map onto words in either language.
C
Having to deal with this persistent linguistic competition can result in
difficulties, however. For instance, knowing more than one language can
cause speakers to name pictures more slowly, and can increase ‘tip-of-
the-tongue states’, when you can almost, but not quite, bring a word to
mind. As a result, the constant juggling of two languages creates a need
to control how much a person accesses a language at any given time.
For this reason, bilingual people often perform better on tasks that
require conflict management. In the classic Stroop Task, people see a
word and are asked to name the colour of the word’s font. When the
colour and the word match (i.e., the word ‘red’ printed in red), people
correctly name the colour more quickly than when the colour and the
word don’t match (i.e., the word ‘red’ printed in blue). This occurs
because the word itself (‘red’) and its font colour (blue) conflict. Bilingual
people often excel at tasks such as this, which top into the ability to
ignore competing perceptual information and focus on the relevant
aspects of the input. Bilinguals are also better at switching between two
tasks; for example, when bilinguals have to switch from categorizing
objects by colour (red or green) to categorizing them by shape (circle or
triangle), they do so more quickly than monolingual people, reflecting
better cognitive control when having to make rapid changes of strategy.
D
It also seems that the neurological roots of the bilingual advantage
extend to brain areas more traditionally associated with sensory
processing. When monolingual and bilingual adolescents listen to simple
speech sounds without any intervening background noise, they show
highly similar brain stem responses. When researchers play the same
sound to both groups in the presence of background noise, however, the
bilingual listeners’ neural response is considerably larger, reflecting
better encoding of the sound’s fundamental frequency, a feature of
sound closely related to pitch perception.
E
Such improvements in cognitive and sensory processing may help a
bilingual person to process information in the environment, and help
explain why bilingual adults acquire a third language better than
monolingual adults master a second language. This advantage may be
rooted in the skill of focussing on information about the new language
while reducing interference from the languages they already know.
F
Research also indicates that bilingual experience may help to keep the
cognitive mechanisms sharp by recruiting alternate brain networks to
compensate for those that become damaged during aging. Older
bilinguals enjoy improved memory relative to monolingual people, which
can lead to real-world health benefits. In a study of over 200 patients
with Alzheimer’s disease, a degenerative brain disease, bilingual
patients reported showing initial symptoms of the disease an average of
five years later than monolingual patients. In a follow-up study,
researchers compared the brains of bilingual and monolingual patients
matched on the severity of Alzheimer’s symptoms. Surprisingly, the
bilinguals’ brains had more physical signs of disease than their
monolingual counterparts, even though their outward behaviour and
abilities were the same. If the brain is an engine, bilingualism may help it
to go farther on the same amount of fuel.
G
Furthermore, the benefits associated with bilingual experience seem to
start very early. In one study, researchers taught seven-month-old
babies growing up in monolingual or bilingual homes that when they
heard a tinkling sound, a puppet appeared on one side of a screen.
Halfway through the study, the puppet began appearing on the opposite
side of the screen. In order to get a reward, the infants had to adjust the
rule they’d learned; only the bilingual babies were able to successfully
learn the new rule. This suggests that for very young children, as well as
for older people, navigating a multilingual environment imparts
advantages that transfer far beyond language.

Questions 27-31

Complete the table below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
answer.
Write your answers in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet.

Test Findings

Observing the Bilingual people engage both

27…………………. of languages simultaneously: a
Russian-English bilingual mechanism known as
people when asked to select 28…………………..
certain objects

A test called the Bilingual people are more able

29…………………, focusing to handle tasks involving a
on naming colours skill called 30…………………

A test involving switching When changing strategies,

between tasks bilingual people have superior
31…………………..

Questions 32-36

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in

Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 32-36 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
32 Attitudes towards bilingualism have changed in recent years.
33 Bilingual people are better than monolingual people at guessing
correctly what words are before they are finished.
34 Bilingual people consistently name images faster than monolingual
people.
35 Bilingual people’s brains process single sounds more efficiently than
monolingual
People in all situations.
36 Fewer bilingual people than monolingual people suffer from brain
disease in old age.

Questions 37-40

Reading Passage 3 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.
37 an example of how bilingual and monolingual people’s brains
respond differently to a certain type of non-verbal auditory input
38 a demonstration of how a bilingual upbringing has benefits even
before we learn to speak
39 a description of the process by which people identify words that they
hear
40 reference to some negative consequences of being bilingual