ASSIGNMENT No.

02
Handicapped Persons in the Community (673)M.A Special education

Spring, 2022
Q.1 Give an account on rehabilitation professions. (20)

It cannot be denied that a significant part of the world's population is living with either a mental or
physical disability. While many individuals cannot function on their own without constant care provided
by either family or a special facility, there are others who have the ability to be productive, self-
determined members of society. Vocational rehabilitation programs are one of the main ways of
teaching life and work skills to these disabled, but functioning, individuals.

Definition

Vocational rehabilitation, at its core, is a set of services provided to individuals who suffer from mental
or physical disorders, but who still have the ability and desire to learn and function productively. These
services include education, job training and skills that will be needed to get and keep a job. Vocational
rehabilitation services are sometimes offered to those who have undergone an injury, or who have
endured a mental disorder to try and retrain them for work again.

Participation Requirements

There are certain standards that a person must meet in order to be enrolled into a vocational
rehabilitation program. Requirements can include a participant's age (usually 16 years old and up),
having a disability that is a significant barrier to employment (like a psychotic disorder, learning
disorders, etc.), being unemployed or under employed, among others.

Regulations

Vocational rehabilitation services are most often provided by the state, but oftentimes private
organizations wish to provide them as well. To make sure that an organization is offering legitimate
vocational rehabilitation services, the government issues operating permits. The organization must
show that its facilities, staff, training and services are all on par with the requirements of the local and
state governments. Additionally, government officials make regular visits, checking up on the progress
and standards of vocational rehabilitation services.

Services

The services offered are tailored to each individual who needs them. For instance, a person who suffers
from a learning disability may be assigned a job coach to help them locate a job, and then stay with
them until they're comfortable in their position. An individual who suffers from a physical disorder, like
a blind person, may need other services, such as technology that reads a computer screen to them so
that they have the ability to type.

Difficulties

As with any system, vocational rehabilitation has its share of problems. The programs tend to gear
those who are rehabilitated for low-end, low-paying jobs, such as food service or janitorial work.
Additionally, it is the decision of the counselor as to whether a person's disorder is too severe to allow
them to gain any benefit from rehabilitative services. For those who believe they can do more, or who
feel that they're being patronized by the slow pace of vocational rehabilitative services, the system is
also likely to discourage them from continuing training.

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Identification

Vocational rehabilitation is a service that helps people with physical or mental disabilities find
employment and retain it. It usually is offered through state government agencies. There also is a
federal program for disabled veterans.

Considerations

Each state has its own criteria for identifying who is eligible to participate in vocational rehabilitation,
but typically eligibility is based on a medically diagnosed disability or a demonstrated inability to find or
keep a job without rehabilitation.

Stages

Vocational rehabilitation often begins with the training and counseling of disabled individuals to help
them develop skills related to finding and keeping a job. Once a person is ready for employment, the
vocational rehabilitation agency assists with job placement.

Features of training

Individuals in vocational rehabilitation learn skills such as how to fill out a job application and how to
prepare for and behave in an interview. Vocational rehabilitation also assists capable individuals with
obtaining higher education at a technical vocational school, community or junior college, or even a
traditional four-year college or university.

Types of job assistance

In some cases, vocational rehabilitation involves job placement, in which the rehabilitation agency
locates an employer who agrees to hire the disabled person. At other times, individuals are given a job
and go to work with an agency job coach who provides guidance throughout the individual's work day.

Stretch children’s joints

Children with CP have difficulty holding onto a range of motion in the various joints in the body.
Growth spurts will cause the muscles to become a little tighter, whether they have high tone or low
tone. A reduction in their range of motion will impact their ability to move and do everyday tasks.

Pediatric therapists recommend starting to stretch muscles from an early age and to make a habit of
stretching and moving the body into a various positions. Hot packs can help the muscles to be more
flexible. Children with CP can benefit from intense pediatric therapy programs to stretch, build muscle
strength, and increase flexibility, balance, and endurance.

Time Frame

Certificate programs or associate's degree programs that allow you to work with developmentally
disabled individuals, as an aide or assistant, take one or two years to complete. A four-year bachelor's
degree from a college or university opens more career opportunities, allowing for greater advancement
in the field. Graduate degree programs take an additional two to seven years beyond a bachelor's
degree, and lead to specialized work as a developmental disabilities professional.

Considerations

Supplement your education and training by working with developmentally disabled people in a
volunteer or employment setting. Gain as much experience as possible with different groups of
disabled individuals, to demonstrate your ability to succeed in the field. Academic education is not
enough to work well with the developmentally disabled. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
working with developmentally disabled individuals requires patience, compassion and strong
communication skills.

2
Evaluation and Capabilities

The first step to deciding on a school for a mentally disabled child is a diagnosis by a health care
professional. The term "learning disabled" has many levels. Special education programs aim to help
mentally handicapped students perform at their greatest potential, so a child with a high functioning
mental disability, such as Asperger syndrome, has more options than another child with a lower
functioning disability. In other cases, home schooling or a tutoring facility for special education children
is necessary.

Learning Disabled Programs

The public school system has programs for the learning disabled. A child who falls behind and shows
symptoms of a learning disorder takes tests to determine placement into these programs, if the
disability is not already known. All public schools must adhere to a federal standard and provide special
education programs. These classes teach children basic skills and meet their special needs, but parents
should always be communicative with teachers to make sure that the child receives the right type of
care and tutelage in public school. State departments of education provide information to the public on
specific regulations.

People with developmental disabilities have impairments in physical or mental functioning. These
disabilities are chronic, life-long problems for the individual. Many career paths lead to work with the
developmentally disabled. Education and training toward working with this population is essential for
succeeding in this field.

The 66th World Health Assembly adopted a resolution calling for better health care for people with
disabilities. Member States are encouraged to ensure that all mainstream health services are inclusive
of people with disabilities; provide more support to informal caregivers; and ensure that people with
disabilities have access to services that help them acquire or restore skills and functional abilities as
early as possible. The resolution calls on WHO to support the United Nations General Assembly's High-
level Meeting on Disability and Development (23 September 2013) and prepare a comprehensive WHO
action plan with measurable outcomes for next year's World Health Assembly.

Career Options

Those who want to work with the developmentally disabled can choose from a variety of career
options. An interest in interacting with children could lead you to special education, pediatric nursing or
school psychology. If you wish to work with developmentally disabled adults, consider occupational
therapy, physical therapy or rehabilitation management positions. Social work is another field to
consider, as social services professionals working with the developmentally disabled can find their work
highly rewarding.

Technological accommodations

Some adaptive technological accommodations may include but are not limited to: Adaptive computer
technology (including voice activated and speech output), Assistive listening devices, Films/videotapes
about disabilities, Kurzweil personal reader, Large print software, Print enlargers (CCTV), Raised-line
drawing kit, Tactile map of campus, Talking calculators, Tape recorders/APH Talking Book Machine,
TDD for hearing impaired, Wheelchair, Wheelchair access maps. Students who have documentation
proving their disability status and the staff are trained to access or have knowledge of the necessary
services according the students' unique need. As the college level is different from the primary school
system, the same services that a student may have received within a special education program in
high school may not be required at the collegiate level. A wide variety of students with disabilities can
be served, some examples are individuals with: learning disabilities, sensorial disabilities (hearing loss,
vision loss, etc.), physical disabilities (cerebral palsy, etc.) and psychological disabilities.

Social relevancy

Community service to a culturally and ethnically diverse population, professional functions, critical
thinking, advocacy, applied research activities, and ethical standards are integrated throughout
rehabilitation counselor preparation and development. Though rehabilitation counselors are adept at
understanding medical issues surrounding the disability (as proven by certification/licensure), they are
trained in the social model of disability, which identifies systemic barriers, negative attitudes and
3
exclusion by society (purposely or inadvertently) that mean society is the main contributory factor in
disabling people. Rehabilitation Counselors are often advocates in the community for people with
disabilities outside of the workplace, with most doing some form of community engagement. As a good
portion of counselors have disabilities themselves, the counseling process often emphasizes self-
advocacy skills. Rehabilitation counselors can be found in the leadership of many prominent
organizations that support human rights and civil rights for people with disabilities such as American
Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities, National Black Deaf Advocates, etc

Academic Training

Training varies, depending on the chosen career path. Becoming a special education teacher's aide or a
certified nursing assistant requires completion of a certificate program. Many people who work with
developmentally disabled populations hold bachelor's degrees in special education or developmental
psychology. Graduate degrees are required for positions as a physical therapist, doctor or school
psychologist.

Determine classroom placement. There are often two main classroom placement options for students
with disabilities. The first is a mainstream classroom, often referred to as "inclusion." In this
placement, the child is in the class he would normally be in, with his peers, but receives additional
support services for his disability. In an inclusion setting, the student can be pulled out of class for
individual attention in the area of his disability at various times throughout the day.

The second placement option is in a separate classroom. This option is less and less common as
students are included in the general classroom as a part of the law requiring students be placed in the
"least restrictive environment." In most cases where a child is placed in a separate classroom, there is
a severe or extremely limiting disability that makes it not possible to educate the child with his regular
peers.

Provide support services necessary for the child. Once the child is placed in a classroom, it is vital that
her teacher receives the necessary support to educate that child alongside the other students in the
classroom. In an inclusion setting, this may mean having the special educator team-teach with the
general educator. Other support options include training in the child's particular area of disability, and
parent meetings to discuss the child's needs.

Certification and Licensing

Licensing requirements for working with developmentally disabled individuals vary by state. For
professional programs, such as physical therapy or occupational therapy, educational requirements
must be met and a state-administered exam must be passed. Check with the state board that governs
your profession to determine the appropriate licensing regulations for developmental disabilities work.

Time Frame

Certificate programs or associate's degree programs that allow you to work with developmentally
disabled individuals, as an aide or assistant, take one or two years to complete. A four-year bachelor's
degree from a college or university opens more career opportunities, allowing for greater advancement
in the field. Graduate degree programs take an additional two to seven years beyond a bachelor's
degree, and lead to specialized work as a developmental disabilities professional.

Considerations

Supplement your education and training by working with developmentally disabled people in a
volunteer or employment setting. Gain as much experience as possible with different groups of
disabled individuals, to demonstrate your ability to succeed in the field. Academic education is not
enough to work well with the developmentally disabled. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
working with developmentally disabled individuals requires patience, compassion and strong
communication skills.

Evaluation and Capabilities

The first step to deciding on a school for a mentally disabled child is a diagnosis by a health care
professional. The term "learning disabled" has many levels. Special education programs aim to help
4
mentally handicapped students perform at their greatest potential, so a child with a high functioning
mental disability, such as Asperger syndrome, has more options than another child with a lower
functioning disability. In other cases, home schooling or a tutoring facility for special education children
is necessary.

Learning Disabled Programs

The public school system has programs for the learning disabled. A child who falls behind and shows
symptoms of a learning disorder takes tests to determine placement into these programs, if the
disability is not already known. All public schools must adhere to a federal standard and provide special
education programs. These classes teach children basic skills and meet their special needs, but parents
should always be communicative with teachers to make sure that the child receives the right type of
care and tutelage in public school. State departments of education provide information to the public on
specific regulations.

Q.2 Discuss the barriers in the world of work of disabled persons.(20)

According to the United States Department of Labor, disability employment statistics released on
August 2010 showed that the percentage of people with disabilities in the labor force was 22 percent
while that of people without disability was 70.2 percent. The unemployment rate for persons with
disability was 15.6 percent compared to 9.3 percent for persons with no disability. Disability job
placement testing is designed to correct the statistics and ensure people with disability enjoy equal
benefits and privileges of employment.

For people with disabilities, finding a job can be a daunting prospect. They must not only confront any
uncertainties about their own abilities, but they face a world full of prejudice. Whether you have a
disability and are looking for a job or you are an employer considering hiring someone with a disability,
learn the facts on jobs for people with physical handicaps.

Introduction

Disability can occur from birth or during a person's lifetime. Disability comes in forms such as physical
impairment, intellectual or cognitive impairment, mental disorder, chronic disease or sensory
impairment. It is a condition where a person's function is considered significantly impaired relative to
usual standards of individuals or groups.

Rights

The rights of persons with disability in job placement testing include right to safe and healthy working
conditions and right for redress of grievances. According to the Americans with Disabilities
Amendments Act of 2008, it is prohibited by U.S state laws for employers to discriminate against
qualified applicants or employees on the basis of a disability in any aspect of employment.

Testing Guide

Employers perform disability-related job placement tests or selection criteria only after giving a
conditional job offer to a disabled person. Disability-related questions should be asked only if the
employer can demonstrate that the questions are related to and consistent with the job in question.
This is aimed at protecting people with disability from being sidelined from a job application on the
basis of their disability before their ability to perform the job is evaluated.

Testing

Employers perform job placement tests prior to offering a job to determine the applicant's ability to
perform. Routine tests include asking the applicant if he can meet the physical demands of the job like
lifting heavy loads and evaluating the technical and educational skills of the applicant. Common
disability-related tests and examinations include confidential medical examinations and psychological
evaluations. An applicant may be screened out for safety reasons if the employer determines the job
poses a valid safety risk to the applicant or other employees.

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To me it seems less about what is happening to this little girl, and more about the largely grey area of
what a nearly brain-dead person’s rights are. What happens when the onus to care for such a person,
which will be draining in every imaginable way from financial to emotional to physical, falls upon family
members? Hopefully they will love and care for the person as best they can, but shouldn’t the
caretaker’s needs have some consideration as long as it does not negatively impact the brain-dead
patient? A lot is being required of them, perhaps they should not be dismissed offhandedly.

Benefits

Disability job placement testing ensures that reasonable accommodation or adjustment to the job
environment enables persons with disability to do their job. Accommodations include work station
placements that are dependent on the needs of the employee. An employee with intellectual disability
or attention deficit disorder, for example, may be moved from an open work station where employees
work side by side and placed at a quiet section of the office to accommodate their limitations in
concentration.

Expert Insight

People with physical disabilities who are looking for employment can find expert help through their
state vocational rehabilitation office. These agencies provide help with training, job searches and
necessary equipment.

Warning

According to Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act, employers aren't allowed to discriminate
against employees with disabilities. People with disabilities are entitled to a fair opportunity during the
job application procedure, hiring, advancement, training, compensation and firing. It is discrimination if
an employer doesn't provide reasonable accommodation. An employer may not ask a potential
employee if she has a disability prior to hiring her, and upon hire he may only require her to take a
medical examination if all employees take one.

Physical impairment

Physical impairment seems to have always been part of human existence. In the oldest of remains
archaeologists find evidence that humans incurred severe, deforming injuries and still went on to live
for many years. At some point this physicality took on a social meaning, and at least as far back as the
first century ad, physical impairment has been stigmatized to investigate how contemporary society
perceives disability; and because to be a counseling psychologist at the time, the field of psychology
was an appropriate place to look. What beliefs, implications and assumptions regarding disability are
revealed by and embedded in modern psychological research? One of the first things was that there is
an alternative to the traditional medical model that seems to dominate our society’s understanding
regarding disability. Shakespeare (1993) differentiates between physical impairment and disability,
asserting that the former refers to the embodied restrictions of a certain physical state, whilst the
latter is the consequence of a society that categorizes the former into a socially devalued and
disempowered position. Such oppression stems from an environment that is hostile towards disability,
in which physical and social barriers inhibit personal choice. This conceptualises disability as diversity
within the human condition, rather than as a lack of ability.

Predominance of the negative view

As psychology developed, it played an inadvertent part in the predominance of the negative view of
disability. asserts that as developmental psychology participated in the establishment and
measurement of norms, it created and perpetuated the concept of ‘abnormality’, which was applied to
disabled people. This led psychology to focus on the guilt, shame and loss associated with the tragedy
of being disabled, and on the presumed outcomes, such as maladaptive personalities and behaviors. In
this article at several different areas of psychological research, starting with how affect and cognitive
style were linked to level of impairment.

Overwhelmingly, the assumption seems to be that disability is a physical problem, affected by an

individual’s thoughts and behaviours. The research rarely considered any social or contextual issues
that may contribute to the experience of being disabled. Furthermore the research seemed to treat

6
disabled people as a homogeneous group, sharing traits and experiences, with little or no consideration
given to how such a category is defined or what diversity may exist within it.

The paradox is that psychological theory regarding disability will not evolve without fresh perspectives
provided by research. But the research seems to be based on, and thus perpetuates, traditional,
largely negative presumptions about disability and disabled people. Therefore, psychological
practitioners need to be aware of what representations and assumptions they hold regarding disability,
as well as how the institutions they train and work in deal with the topic of disability.

Discipline plays

This is particularly important because psychology as a discipline plays a central role in the diagnosis,
treatment and rehabilitation of disabled people. Thus such reflection is necessary in order to avoid
perpetuating the past pathologising of disabled people, which has reinforced their status as ‘other’ and
abnormal. In order to challenge such discrimination, psychologists need to research issues that are
relevant to disabled people based on their perspectives and which embrace diversity, making space for
a variety of perspectives on disability.

So we have a thorny situation. On the one hand, attributing responsibility to the child for problematic
behaviour is linked with parental negative emotional reaction that’s itself associated with harsh parent
behavioral responses and aggressive child behaviour on the other hand, in order to begin to effect
change in their children’s behaviour, parents need to view their children as having some responsibility
and control over their behaviour.

Typically developing children

Like parents of typically developing children, parents of children with developmental disabilities can
also try to teach their children how to behave in more socially acceptable ways. Of course, many
parents will not require professional interventions to address this; but for those who do, involvement
can focus on three key areas. Certainly advice on strategies for management of their child’s behaviour
will be a key area. But in order to help parents effect change in their child’s behaviour, psychologists
may also need to help them identify cognitions about responsibility and control that may be barriers to
planned strategies. Where parents view difficult behaviour as a necessary part of the child’s disability,
psychologists can work to persuade them that behavioural improvement is something that parent and
child can try to address, even though goals for change may be modest. Parents of children with
cerebral palsy reported examples of such cognitive shifts following an early intervention programme
now not to let her get away with things because of the cerebral palsy.

For some children with severe disabilities, behavioural change will be difficult to effect and even small
changes will require considerable parental perseverance. Some of my most recent research suggests
that parents of children with learning disabilities who used behaviour control in their parenting
experienced more stress than parents who were more laissez-faire in their approach. Trying to achieve
behavioural change, with its implications of parental and child responsibility and the negative affect
that may be associated with this, suggests that a third key area for psychologists is provision of
emotional support for parents who are engaged in such an emotionally demanding task.

Q.3 Explain the vocational rehabilitation process. (20)

We are all physically disabled at some time in our lives. A child, a person with a broken leg, a parent
with a pram, an elderly person, etc. are all disabled in one way or another. Those who remain healthy
and able-bodied all their lives are few. As far as the built-up environment is concerned, it is important
that it should be barrier-free and adapted to fulfill the needs of all people equally. As a matter of fact,
the needs of the disabled coincide with the needs of the majority, and all people are at ease with them.
As such, planning for the majority implies planning for people with varying abilities and disabilities.

PURPOSE

This publication is an attempt to provide for the first time in Lebanon a design manual on accessibility
for the disabled. It is a design guidebook made for the purpose of providing architects and designers
with the basic information and data necessary for a barrier- free environment. Its intent is to establish
7
standards and recommendations that will not only influence the development and reconstruction of the
BCD but assume national importance as well. The manual is expected to be a stimulus that will lead, in
the long run, to the establishment of national building and planning legislation covering access for
disabled people.

APPLICATION

The manual does not cover all the requirements of disabled people in detail. It is a straightforward
guide expected to be the first in a series of publications having the same theme. Most of the
recommended measures have been tested in developed countries, and while some have proven to be
effective, the outcome of others is still unknown. To determine the reliability and efficacy of these
measures for Lebanon, it is important to conduct experimental trials of all provisions. This will be of
great help in determining the positive and negative aspects of each measure. Practical advice from
legal, professional and academic institutions as well as individuals with disabilities is also of the utmost
importance in shaping the final form of an accessibility code which can be applied on a national level,
as an integral part of the Lebanese building law.

THE BCD - A CASE-STUDY

Since the BCD is a pilot project in the reconstruction process of Lebanon, implementing accessibility
requirements for the disabled will help to make the BCD a case-study or a demonstration project on a
national level. This will include the design of the traffic infrastructure and new buildings plus the
renovation of the existing infrastructure and buildings.

AIM

The social aim of this study is to integrate disabled people into society in order for them to take an
active part in society and lead a normal life. To be active, a disabled person should be able to commute
between home, work and other destinations. The technical aim of the manual is to provide a barrier-
free environment for the independence, convenience and safety of all people with disabilities.

TARGET GROUP

The target group is composed of five major categories:

(a) Wheelchair users

(b) People with limited walking abilities
(c) The sightless
(d) The partially sighted
(e) The hearing impaired

Other categories that may benefit to some extent from the proposed measures include the mentally
disabled, people susceptible to physical fits, people with extreme physical proportions, and people with
functional disabilities of the arm or hand.

As for the composition and size of the target group, no dependable statistics currently exist to define
the extent of disability in Lebanese society. However, taking into consideration the duration of the war,
one can deduce that the disabled form a significant percentage of the population. A good database on
disability in Lebanon is essential for any future development in this field.

CONTENT

The manual deals with the technical considerations and design provisions or measures to be taken into
account in the planning of the built-up environment. This includes issues related to the design of
several complementary domains: open spaces and recreational areas, local roads and pathways, the
immediate vicinity of buildings, building entrances and the interiors of buildings. For the purposes of
this manual, all information is divided into five sections:

I. URBAN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

II. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
8
III. BUILDING TYPES
IV. IMPLEMENTATION CHECKLISTS
V. APPENDICES

URBAN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

This section deals with the design requirements of open spaces, recreational areas and pedestrian
routes. It introduces solutions to the principal problems in the design of an accessible outdoor
environment.

It is subdivided into seven chapters:

1. OBSTRUCTIONS
2. SIGNAGE
3. STREET FURNITURE
4. PATHWAYS
5. CURB RAMPS
6. PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS
7. PARKING

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

This section deals with the design requirements of vertical and horizontal access in both new and
existing constructions. It is subdivided into 10 chapters:

1. RAMPS
2. ELEVATORS
3. PLATFORM LIFTS
4. STAIRS
5. RAILINGS AND HANDRAILS
6. ENTRANCES
7. VESTIBULES
8. DOORS
9. CORRIDORS
10. REST ROOMS

BUILDING TYPES

This section deals briefly with the accessibility requirements of selected building types. Special
buildings for people with disabilities, such as health and residential facilities and schools, do not fall
within the scope of this section. To establish building and planning legislation regarding access for
disabled people, this section needs to be thoroughly developed by local authorities, based on the size
of the target group, a classification of the various building types and a study of the specific needs of
each district.

IMPLEMENTATION CHECKLISTS

This section can be used by both designers and inspectors to identify and assess physical barriers in
the built-up environment, for both new and existing constructions. The checklists are arranged
according to the categories listed in sections I and II. Questions on almost all problem areas are asked,
and possible solutions are offered.

APPENDICES

1. TROUBLESHOOTING
2. ANTHROPOMETRICS
3. COMPARATIVE TABLES
4. HEIGHT LIMITS

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CHAPTER ORGANIZATION

Each chapter is composed of four parts:

1) Problem identification

This part defines problems encountered by the disabled in the built-up environment owing to the
absence or improper application of a certain measure or provision.

2) Planning principle

This part defines the target group, the general goal and the need for a certain measure.

3) Design considerations

This part deals with the technical and architectural aspects of implementing certain measures with
regard to general and particular application characteristics, criteria, minimum dimensions and
measurements, materials, etc.

4) Existing constructions

This part defines the problems encountered in existing constructions which hinder the implementation
of a certain measure. Accordingly, alternative solutions and modifications are suggested.

REFERENCES

The information provided is based on the accessibility codes and relevant knowledge available in
various countries. A comparative study of the available sources was conducted regarding each
measure. The information was then synthesized and organized according to the needs of the target
group. (See the list of references at the end of the book).

DIMENSIONAL DATA

Dimensional data are given in metric units. The graphic illustrations show only the minimum allowable
dimensions. Where appropriate, the maximum or approximate dimension or an allowable range is
given.

The Research Problem

How accessible is Boulder's built environment? Most people take for granted the ease with which they
move about the city, but for those with mobility impairments the built environment presents challenges
daily. This project addresses three questions: (1) what types of environmental or architectural barriers
are found in Boulder's built environment; (2) how prevalent are these barriers; and (3) to what extent
do these barriers limit access for Boulder's mobility-impaired citizens? It is clearly impossible to survey
the entire City of Boulder, but a good deal can be learned from a case study of a small section of the
city.

What is environmental accessibility?

Free movement in pubic spaces is assumed by most people to be a right. Access to public
transportation, easy movement along streets and through buildings, and clear routes of egress in
emergency situations are all elements of an accessible environment. For some, however, these basic
conditions are not adequately met. This bus stop, for instance, is not easily accessible to someone in a
wheelchair. The grass on either side of the cement and the bench present obstacles between the bus
and sidewalk.

10
In the photograph below, the street is not accessible from the sidewalks. Accessibility would be
improved if the sidewalk were at street level and curb-cuts were installed.

Getting around in the physical world is something many of us may take for granted. Curbs, thresholds,
stairs, sidewalk gratings, obstructions, narrow passages – these are barriers we walk over, around, or
through many times a day. We may seldom think about signs, loudspeaker announcements, traffic
signals, and other sources that direct us or give us necessary information, except to avoid or use them.

For those of us who have some physical difficulties, however – a curb or a few stairs can be large
barriers. Airport loudspeaker announcements are often difficult to understand for people with perfect
hearing; for those who are deaf or hard of hearing, they might as well not exist. Signs, no matter how
well-placed they are and how much information they carry, do someone who is vision impaired no good
unless they are in predictable places and can be read by touch.

In other words, physical features that people without physical disabilities take for granted can present
serious problems for people with different abilities, mostly because their needs haven’t been
considered in designing those features. That lack of consideration can also be extended to the ways
people with disabilities can be treated when they seek employment, education, or services. In over 50
countries, this situation has been recognized and addressed, at least to some extent, by laws that
protect people with disabilities from discrimination, and guarantee them at least some degree of access
to public facilities, employment, services, education, and/or amenities.

This section is part of a chapter that deals with changing the physical and social character of
communities. We will discuss making community changes that ensure that people with disabilities have
physical access to buildings and other spaces that are used by the public, as well as changes to ensure
their access to employment, services, education, the functions of government, and full civic
participation.

Q.4 Elaborate the role of Voluntary Organizations and Self-Help Groups in providing
resources for the disabled population. (20)

The role of these organizations includes providing a voice of their own, identifying needs, expressing
views on priorities, evaluating services and advocating change and public awareness. As a vehicle of
self development, these organizations provide the opportunity to develop skills in the negotiation
process, organizational abilities, mutual support, information sharing and often vocational skills and
opportunities. In view of their vital importance in the process of participation, it is imperative that their
development be encouraged. This paragraph outlines the role of organizations of disabled people,
which will be discussed in this paper. First, however, as a background, it is important to define disabled
peoples' organizations, to describe the worldwide situation of people with disabilities, and to discuss
the evolution of key philosophical tenets of the disabled people's movement.

B. The situation of disabled people

1. Scope of disability

The World Program of Action states that:

"More than 500 million people in the world are disabled as a consequence of mental, physical or
sensory impairment. These persons are entitled to the same rights as all other human beings and to
equal opportunities. Too often their lives are handicapped by physical and social barriers in society
which hamper their full participation. Because of this, millions of children and adults in all parts of the
world often face a life that is segregated and debased." (WPA, p. 1) It is estimated that one person out
of ten is disabled by physical or mental or sensory impairment, and at least 25% of any population is
adversely affected by disability. At least 350 million disabled persons are living in areas where they do
not receive the services needed to enable them to overcome their limitations. (WPA, p 11)

Disabled people in the developing world often face more acute barriers than those in developed
nations. Up to 80% of disabled persons live in isolated rural areas in the developing world. In some
11
countries 20% of the population are disabled. Thus, it can be estimated that, when disabled people's
relatives are included, 50% of the population is affected by disability. In addition, disabled people are
the poorest of the poor. They often do not have access to adequate medical services. As a result
disabilities are often not detected in time to minimize disability affects. By the time they receive
medical attention, if at all, impairment may have become irreversible. (WPA, pp. 13-14)

In addition, the number of elderly people is rising around the world. Thus, disabling conditions, that
are not common to younger people, such as strokes, heart disease and deteriorating vision or hearing,
are becoming more prevalent. (WPA, p. 14)

Another disabling factor is war and violence. The arms race costs 600 billion dollars a year or one
million dollars a minute. These funds could be used towards socially useful programs to prevent
disability and provide services. In addition war causes countless other physical and psychological
disabilities.

On a larger scale the economic structure of society may be decimated by war leading to malnutrition,
housing, sanitation and other problems -- all increasing the risk of acquiring or compounding the
problems of disability. (Heath, 1984, p. 4)

Disabled women face a situation of double jeopardy. They are both disabled and women. They are
handicapped by both situations:

"There are a great many countries where women are subjected to social, cultural and economic
disadvantages which impede their access to, for example. health care, education, vocational training
and employment. If, in addition, they are physically or mentally disabled their chances of overcoming
their disablement are diminished, which makes it all the more difficult for them to take part in
community life. For example, a woman with a disability is often not considered "marriageable" by a
family. They often cannot fulfill the usual role as a worker in the field and home. In the case of
children, impairments often lead to their rejection and isolation for experiences that so-called normal
children experience. This may be exacerbated by community and family attitudes that disabled children
are abnormal, and cannot participate like everyone else. This has an affect on children's self-image
development.

There are, in addition, over 100 million disabled refugees in the world. Many of them have been
disabled physically or psychologically by their persecution. Most of these refugees live in the
developing world, where services are limited. Being a disabled refugee is a double handicap.

2. Societal Attitudes

Add to the foregoing situation the perception of society that disabled people are sick, and helpless and
in need of being taken care of, and one has a situation that is indeed deplorable. As Jim Derksen
states:

"The individual who becomes permanently physically disabled today find himself in a bewildering world,
a new and different world. A world where he is no longer responsible for his family, for his personal
financial needs, for his behaviour, for most of the things he had been responsible for as an adult
person in society. Gone with these is his right to expect equal social acceptance as a responsible adult
human person. The right of political and economic involvement in society; the right of access to public
buildings and programs; the right to equal access to private services and facilities; the right to travel
freely; the right to choose his employment and associations; the right to sexual expression and so on.
All are gone, or at least diminished." (Derksen, 1980, p.1)
The situation is buttressed by societal attitudes that reinforce the passivity and dependence of disabled
people. These attitudes can be classified in two different ways. The first, the "medical model", is more
often found in developed countries, and the second, religious factors, are more prevalent in developing
countries.

a) The medical model

This point of view is that people with disabilities are sick patients who need to spend their lives trying
to get well. This "sick role" deprives disabled people of the responsibilities of so-called normal people in
society. As Jim Derksen, a Canadian, relates:

12
"This [sick role] relieves him of all responsibilities but regaining his health. The 'patient' or 'sick'
disabled person is allowed and even expected to behave in a childlike manner. Like a child, however,
he must follow orders; in this case the orders of doctors and the agents or proxies of doctors. Full
participation in social, sexual, political, economic and other forms of adult behaviours are denied or at
the very least discouraged on the 'patient'." (Derksen, 1980, p.5)

The medical model became more entrenched in the post-World War II world. In the developed nations
the rehabilitation professions arose in response to the disabled veterans of World War II. As a result of
medical advances, more and more young people with post-polio disablement, spinal cord injuries and
other disabilities began to live longer. Improved technical aids, such as electric wheelchairs and
portable respirators meant that people with disabilities could move around more independently. Young
disabled people had their whole lives in front of them. They began to want to live in the community like
everyone else. This did not coincide with the prevailing medical model upheld by doctors, social
workers and rehabilitation experts, that disabled people should spend their lives getting better.

b) Religious Factors

In many developing countries religious practices impact on society's attitudes about disabled persons.
These attitudes have tended to limit the role that disabled people could play in society. In the Hindu
and Shinto religions of Asia, disabled people are seen to be disabled because of some sin committed in
the past, or due to a sin committed by the family. As a consequence, many disabled people beg, as it
is expected of them.

Dropping coins into the blind beggar's bowl may lead to avoidance of punishment in the after life.
Disabled beggars in Asia do not hesitate to remind the public of this possibility, nor do they thank the
donor since they are aware that the interaction is merely to acquire credit. Begging is seen as the
rightful duty of the disabled person. If a family has a disabled child they see it as their duty to exploit
the disability for financial gain. (Miles, 1983, p. 27)

These attitudes limit the role people with disabilities can play in society.

C. The Growth of Organizations

Ultimately, disabled people began to form their own organizations to represent themselves. They
revised society's definitions of them as "sick" and as being punished by God. They redefined
themselves as citizens with rights -- the same rights as all other human beings -- to medical and social
services, education, transportation, employment, housing and family life. The first organizations of
disabled people were blind uni-disability groups, and some deaf groups, and then multi-disability
organizations were formed in many countries. The organizing process began in the 1950's in some
countries. By 1980 there were at least uni-disability organizations in some 50 countries. (Driedger,
1987)

Uni-disability, international organizations such as the International Federation of the Blind and the
World Federation of the Deaf, were founded in the 1950's and 1960's. By 1980, a multi-disability
international organization was conceived in Winnipeg -- Disabled Peoples' International. Since 1980,
particularly through DPI's Leadership Training Program, new multi-disability local and national
organizations have sprung up in an additional 50 countries.

The philosophy of these organizations is one of "self-representation" and a "rights" orientation. They
also believe that all disabilities united into one organization provides a stronger voice for change than
each disability group speaking out separately. What, then, is the role of organizations of disabled
people?

1. Self-representation - "A voice of our own"

Disabled people's organizations believe that people with disabilities are their own best spokespersons.
DPI's motto is this, "A voice of our own". This premise is the backbone of the movement. For too long,
medical and social work professionals, and extended families, have spoken for people with disabilities.
In the words of Ed Roberts, a disabled American, "...when others speak for you, you lose." (Roberts,

13
1983, p. 7)

Disabled people believe that they best know the needs and aspirations of disabled people. They will
represent themselves to governments, service providers, the United Nations and the public. As
mentioned earlier, people with disabilities redefined themselves as citizens with rights, not as patients
and clients of professionals, nor as beggars asking for hand-outs. As the National Council of Disabled
Persons of Zimbabwe (NCDPZ) believes, "Our role is to act as a voice of the disabled. We are a 'civil
rights' organization of the disabled formed to conscientize the disabled about their rights and to fight
for the right to access to all community services". (NCPDZ "A Voice", 1983, p. 1)

Organizations of disabled people arise in response to a group of people's perception that there are
barriers to participation for disabled people in society that need to be addressed. These organizations
are based on the needs and aspirations developed by the disabled grassroots community. The disabled
people who start such organizations are usually educated and are better off financially than the
majority of disabled persons in their countries. Their educational advantage causes these disabled
persons to identify and analyze the barriers that bar the participation of people with disabilities in
society. They have learned the tools that the rest of society uses and they turn them towards the
benefit of all disabled people, who are in some developing countries, 99% illiterate. Furthermore it is
disabled people who must identify their own needs and how to meet them. Paulo Freire explains in
Pedagogy of the Oppressed:

those who recognize, or begin to recognize themselves as oppressed must be among the developers of
the pedagogy. No pedagogy that is truly liberating can remain distant from the oppressed by treating
them as unfortunates and by presenting for their emulation models from among the oppressors. The
oppressed must be their own example in the struggle for their redemption." (Freire, 1970, p. 39)
Indeed, disabled people in their organizations identify the forces that oppress them, and organize to
overcome those forces -- physical and attitudinal barriers.

Disabled persons' organizations around the world have forged mechanisms to hear from the grassroots
disabled constituency. There are three ways this can be accomplished.

a) Organizing local chapters

DPI's members have made it a priority to establish local chapters of their organizations throughout
their countries. This is important, not only to build the infrastructures of their organizations, but to
solicit and represent the views of all people with disabilities in a country. In countries such as
Argentina the disabled people's organization realizes that it must reach out into the rural areas beyond
Buenos Aires to help disabled people organize. Through outreach the needs and aspirations of rural
people with disabilities are learned.

In Zimbabwe the National Council of Disabled Persons (NCDPZ) started a rural outreach program in
1984. It sends development workers into rural areas to locate people with disabilities. They meet with
local chiefs and village leaders to discuss the need to locate and to integrate disabled people into
everyday life. In the process of organizing local chapters disabled people previously hidden away in the
community are discovered and so are their needs and aspirations:

"Rural members usually meet in small groups or cells which form part of the branch. Members try to
locate disabled people in their villages and introduce them as new members. They inform their branch
secretaries of children or adults in need of treatment and education. Sometimes a branch is able to
refer these cases to suitable hospitals or schools themselves; if they are unable to do this they request
help from the headquarters office of NCDPZ." (NCDPZ, ca. 1984, p. 2)
b) Open forums

Disabled people's organizations also hold open forums to discuss issues of concern to disabled persons.
Over the last ten years the Coalition of Provincial Organizations of the Handicapped (COPOH) in Canada
has held six forums on various issues. Some 100 disabled people have attended each forum along with
government officials, business people and members of the community. The forums have dealt with
14
barriers to disabled persons' participation in employment, transportation, rehabilitation and
independent living. (Driedger, 1986, pp. 9-10)

The forums help disabled Canadians to identify the barriers to their participation in each area and
formulate strategies for changes. For example:

The first forum held in Winnipeg in 1978 focused on employment. Disabled people affirmed that
employment was a right of every citizen in society. And disabled people agreed that working in the
community with all other citizens was the best option for them. (Driedger, 1986, p. 9)

c) Democratic representation

Both the forums and outreach activities of organizations of disabled persons provide direct input from
grassroots disabled people. Democratic representation also provides another kind of input which is
more indirect. Organizations of disabled people, by definition, are controlled at the board and decision-
making levels by disabled persons. People are elected to the decision-making bodies of organizations
by their membership. Thus, the disabled people elected to the disabled persons organizations' boards
represent those people's concerns to governments, service providers and the public. Frank Bowe, an
American disabled advocate explains the process of representation:

"Before I can represent a group of people, I must first consult with them. This process involves sharing
with these people my knowledge or expectation that certain issues among the many which concern
these people are likely to become subject to public debate in the near future. I must solicit from these
individuals informed opinions on these issues and receive from them instructions to represent these
views. These instructions constitute my authority as a representative." (Bowe, 1980, pp. 13-14)
As a genuine representative, he or she then returns to report to the group, "In order to complete my
work as a genuine representative, I must then return to my group and represent to these people the
views, decisions and other deliberations of the people with whom I met on the groups behalf." (Bowe,
1980, p. 14) This is how the system of representation would ideally work. Indeed, the views of the
group are represented by individuals to other bodies. DPI is the international manifestation of such a
representative system.

Organizations of disabled people fulfill the role of a vehicle to represent the needs of disabled people to
decision-makers and service-providers at the local, national and international levels. Their
representatives make presentations to decision-makers. In the case of DPI its members are multi-
disability organizations of disabled people, and thus decision-makers can hear a united voice. In the
past, in many countries, before the advent of multi-disability groups, many uni-disability groups would
present their varying points of view without consulting other groups of people with disabilities.
Government found it difficult to know which group to give priority to in the consultation process. As
O'Rourke of the American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities (ACCD) stated:

"For a long time was a big problem with disabled groups in America because when the legislation was
brought before the Congress, perhaps forty different groups would go to Congress. Each had a
different position.. It became very difficult for the people within the government themselves to make
decisions. The American disabled citizens formed a multi-disability coalition to surmount this problem.

Forrester, of the Combined Disabilities Association in Jamaica reiterates the important role of
organizations in the consultation process:

"It is more convenient and advantageous to make representatives to government concerning change or
to lobby political leaders as associations, since politicians are more liable too act where they perceive
that proposals are being made by associations rather than individuals". (Forrester, 1985, p. 7)
Indeed, government planners can discover what the majority of disabled people want. Too often
priorities are set in social services that have little to do with the actual needs of disabled people. It,
thus, is good economic and policy planning to include disabled persons in the planning process because
they are the ones that best know the needs of disabled people:

"Most frequently in the past, programs, even in America, were designed by people who themselves
were not very close to the problem. Disabled people themselves often know how to deal with situations
when people who are not disabled need to think about how this problem should be handled. This
thought itself is still only theory because they are not disabled themselves, and lacking experience they
have difficulty coming up with simple solutions.
15
4. Evaluating and monitoring services

Since disabled people themselves best know their own needs, organizations of disabled people play a
role in evaluating and monitoring services. This process would perhaps take place more often in
developed countries, where there were more services, than in developing countries. It would also
happen more often in countries where there was an expectation from their citizens that their social
needs should be served by government as a right. This attitude appears in countries such as Canada
and Sweden where their social welfare states provide subsidized medical care and technical aids. The
monitoring of services takes place in Sweden through HCK, its multi-disability organization. In Canada,
the Coalition of Provincial Organizations of the Handicapped (COPOH), as its first lobbying effort,
worked to obtain accessible public transit services for disabled people in 1975. (Driedger, 1983, pp. 9-
12) The group perceived that there was a need for disabled people to have the same right to
affordable, public transit as other citizens:

5. Self-development

Organizations of disabled people play a role in the development of disabled people's skills in the
negotiation process, organization, management, and proposal and letter-writing. They also provide a
forum for mutual support, while the above skills are being developed. Organizations give disabled
people the opportunity, through being volunteer committee members or salaried employees, to learn
skills which would benefit them in the open employment market. Indeed, much of the skills training
has taken place in local and national organizations where disabled people learned new skills because
they had to do those things at the time to further the aims of their organization. There was no one else
to take on these jobs, especially when groups started out with few monetary resources. The skills
development of disabled people in the developing world is one of DPI's main arms. DPI established a
Self-Help Leadership Training Program in 1982 for this purpose. DPI has raised monies from agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency and the UN Trust Fund to help fund these
seminars. Since 1982, DPI training seminars have been held in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the
Caribbean. These week-long seminars deal with budgetting, management, fund-raising, writing letters,
project proposals and reports, and establishing local self-help businesses.

Similar seminars are taking place in some developed countries on the initiative of local and national
organizations of disabled people. In June 1987 the Saskatchewan Voice of the Handicapped, a
provincial member of COPOH, hosted a seminar focussing on leadership training.

6. Mutual support and solidarity

Organizations of disabled people, at all levels, are a vehicle for mutual support and solidarity. Disabled
people who belong to these groups find that they have a common purpose, that of promoting their
right to live as citizens in society. This common purpose engenders feelings of mutual support and
solidarity in a common cause. Indeed, the DPI Development Program Evaluation discovered that
disabled people, who were given the opportunity to meet and discuss issues of concern with each other
experienced this:

Seminar participants:

 learned from the presence of persons with different disabilities that all had problems which were
largely common, and that solidarity of effort was a natural outcome;
 developed a deeper appreciation of the strength that can come from groups of disabled persons
joining together with the purpose of seeking to have their rights as people met. (Neufeldt, et.al., p. 15)
The seminars and membership meetings of local, national and international organizations indeed
bolster the feelings of solidarity in disabled people, as participants in the DPI Asia/Pacific Regional
Convention in 1984 felt:

It helped create power for people.

Knowing that you are not on your own is a very empowering bit of knowledge. It gives you a strange
sense of security and the will to create change.
16
It was a wonderful experience for me. I felt I was part of the majority and normal again, not just a
"poor thing" in a wheelchair. (Heath, 1984, p. 20)

Also, as Alan Simpson of the Canadian Coalition of Provincial Organizations of the Handicapped
(COPOH) reiterates:

"... the local consumer group is a fellowship -- a chance to enjoy common activities, concerns and
frustrations. This group often evolves into a combination of social-recreation programs and periodic
social-action thrusts to meet various personal needs..." (Simpson, 1980, p. 4)

7. Vehicle for self-help projects

Disabled people's organizations play the role of initiators of self-help projects aimed at integrating
disabled people into the mainstream of society. The projects have been initiated in two main areas:
independent living and employment.

In the U.S., Canada and the United Kingdom organizations have investigated the need for independent
living of disabled people in the community like everyone else. Organizations controlled by disabled
people, called independent living centres, have arisen to ensure that disabled people live as
independently as possible. In some cases, as in the United Kingdom, the development of these centres
is spearheaded by multi-disability organizations of disabled people at the local level. The centres were
needed to fill gaps in services that disabled people identified. They needed to live independently in the
community: "They [independent living centres] are needed because they are a practical and
imaginative way of correcting the historical omission of disabled people in the past, and to ensure that
future service developments correspond to disabled peoples' legitimate aspirations". (Davis, 1983, p.
4) Indeed, independent living centres which are controlled at the board level and managed by disabled
people can identify what are the real needs of disabled people.

8. Networking mechanisms

Organizations provide the opportunity for disabled people to share ideas and information, especially at
the international level. DPI has played an important role in facilitating information-sharing among
organizations of disabled people from different countries. DPI's Leadership Training Seminars and
regional meetings of World Congresses provide forums for formal an informal information exchange.
For example, delegates from the organization in Guyana attended a Training Seminar in Barbados in
1983 and returned home inspired to create a multi-disability organization in their country. After
Guyanese delegates attended another DPI Leadership Training Seminar in Barbados in 1985, they
returned home to start a chicken hatchery cooperative run by disabled people. They had heard of the
projects that other disabled people were starting in the Caribbean; they saw that disabled people's
businesses were both possible and successful enterprises.
DPI's Regional Development Officers in South America, Central America, and the Caribbean have also
served as networking vehicles. For example, the Regional Development Officer for the Caribbean,
Derrick Palmer, has travelled extensively in that area providing information and tools on how the
disabled people can organize more effectively for social change. In some countries the Regional
Development Officers have met with representatives of the disabled people's organizations and
government officials. This has served to lend credibility to local groups, as DPI backing adds credibility
to fledgling groups; DPI has consultative status with UN/ECOSOC and other international agencies.
Thus, DPI through its Regional Development Officers provides an information tool for groups, which
also lends them added credibility with governments.

9. Promoting Public Awareness

Organizations of disabled people also create public awareness about the needs, aspirations and abilities
of people with disabilities. This awareness is promoted through many of the activities of disabled
people's organizations: lobbying government, monitoring service agencies, publishing a newsletter,
speaking in the national media, conferences, etc. For example, the Council of Disabled Persons in
Zimbabwe promotes awareness about the needs and abilities of disabled people and the need for their
integration into community through its Outreach Program as described earlier. Village leaders are
sensitized to begin to look at including disabled people in community life. Many organizations

17
undertake specific "public awareness" campaigns which are usually carried out in the media (radio,
newspapers, television) or in the schools with children. Organizations often operate speakers' bureaus
which send disabled people out to speak at community events. Others have school programs, which
promote awareness. In Canada, the Manitoba League of the Physically Handicapped in conjunction with
the Mennonite Central Committee, ran such a program. Disabled people spoke to school children about
disabled people's issues. The premise behind such a program is that children will be exposed to a
disabled person and hear that person's point of view. Many children do not have this opportunity when
they are young. Children's attitudes about disabled people often have not had the chance to become as
negative as those of adults, who may often view disabled people as "sick", "helpless", and "childlike".

Q.5 Write notes on the following:

a) Aids and devices for disable students. (10)

There is no silver bullet that can destroy the difficulties that students with special needs experience
with writing. There are, however, many tools and strategies educators can employ so as to aid an
individual student's writing process. These tools are most effectively utilized when an educator is
acutely aware of an individual student's special requirements. Students in special education may have
disabilities that can make writing a challenging task. Special education teachers can use various writing
tools in their classrooms to enable their students to produce better written work. Writing tools can help
with the formation of ideas and the mechanics of writing. They can also help disabled children improve
their spelling and grammar.

Environment

Perhaps the single most important factor in the a student's ability to write effectively is the
environment in which they are asked to write. This is doubly important for students with special needs,
as oftentimes specific conditions (autism, Downs syndrome, emotional disability) are exacerbated by
environmental conditions such as heat, noise, light and other occupants of a room. Consequently, one
of the greatest tools for helping students with special needs to write effectively is the existence of a
resource center or other quiet, monitored space they can choose to relocate to should they choose.

Recorder

Many students with special needs are able to express ideas clearly and logically during discussions, but
remain unable to capture these ideas in writing. Consequently a simple tape recorder can be a
powerful tool enabling students with special needs to do most of their planning and composition out
loud before transcribing these ideas to the page based on the recordings.

Manipulatables

Some conditions (dysgraphia, dyslexia) indicate a physiological condition which can be managed
through different implements used during the writing process. For example, students with dysgraphia
are physically uncomfortable when using standard pens and pencils, and benefit greatly from being
able to compose on a computer or when using larger than normal pens or pencils. Similarly, students
with dyslexia can often overcome their transposing habits when they read and write text on magnified
computer screens.

Support Professionals

In addition to supportive environments, support professionals are the single-most important tool that
can aid a student with special needs as he or she attempts to write effectively. Capable of developing
personal relationships with individual students that allow them to understand that student's writing
process and struggles, support professionals -- be they special education instructors or
paraprofessionals -- provide encouragement and motivation for students struggling with difficult tasks.

Grpahic Organizers
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Graphic organizers can make writing easier in education. These tools help special education students
visualize their topics instead of relying on language processes. Graphic organizers can help special
education students who get bored easily gain interest. They can also help students who have trouble
organizing or comprehending writing topics. Graphic organizers can help students understand
relationships, classify information, compare and contrast topics, form a sequence and develop concepts
by using storyboards, KWL charts, Venn diagrams, word webs, concept mapping and charts.

Pencil Grips

Some disabled students need help to place their fingers on their pencils correctly when they write.
Pencil grips help students in special education learn the proper ways to hold a pencil. This tool allows
them to concentrate on their writing instead of worrying about where they should grip the pencil. Pencil
grips make holding a pencil feel natural to these children. Penmanship can be significantly improved
when students use these tools.

Physical and Sensory Writing Tools

Some disabled students have physical or sensory problems that can make writing a difficult task. There
are various types of software available that can help special education students engage in writing
tasks. These writing tools include a large keyboard and speech recognition software, which help
students with coordination problems and programs that read text back to children who have cannot
seeing. The types of tools used by special education teachers will depend on the disabilities of her
students.

Word Processors With Grammar and Spell Check

Children with disabilities may have trouble in areas such as spelling and language mechanics. Word
processing programs that check spelling and grammar and offer corrections can help students in
special education learn to write better. Students can become more confident as they learn to choose
correct word choices and use proper punctuation. Students with language difficulties will be able to
produce better written work by using writing tools.

Auditory Learners and Aids

Auditory learners focus more on the spoken word rather than the written one. Taped recordings of
lectures or movies are helpful to auditory learners because they pick up on speech nuances such as
tone and pitch. Computers with speech-recognition devices will also help auditory learners to process
and retain information better than just reading from a textbook. Students with hearing disabilities will
also benefit from teachers who use microphones while lecturing.

Visual Learners and Aids

Slide projectors have given way to PowerPoint presentations in the modern classroom, but the concept
is the same. Visual learners understand meaning through graphic portrayals such as charts,
illustrations and diagrams. Teachers that take the time to compose or find visual supplements to
accompany their lectures help to greatly augment learning potential. The old adage that "a picture is
worth a thousand words" still rings true, especially in today's image-submerged society.

Children with learning disabilities can become frustrated with writing assignments because they
struggle with the mechanical or organizational components of writing. There are writing activities
teachers can implement in the classroom to help special education students become more confident in
their writing ability. To be effective, writing activities should be used in all areas of learning that
require writing.

Hand Exercises

Pre-writing hand exercises help students flex their writing muscles and improve dexterity. Before all
writing assignments, teachers should instruct students to flex their fingers, press palms on desks, and
squeeze fists or stress balls. For more in-depth activities, teachers should use plastic tweezers for

19
special education students to grasp and release small objects and play finger games to improve fine
motor skills.

Tools

Students can master the mechanics of writing through repetition. Students who struggle with the
mechanical aspect of writing will benefit from assisted technology in the classroom. Mechanical
activities include writing alphabet letters, numbers and vocabulary words multiple times, upgrading to
writing sentences for older children. Pencil grips come in various shapes and sizes to help students hold
their pencils properly, and paper with raised lines forces students to keep their handwriting straight.
Similarly, a tilted surface helps children keep their bodies in line with their writing.

Teachers can buy bookmarks with transparent strips called EZC Readers to aid students in tracking
words in textbooks. Trackers can also be made from cardboard or construction paper by cutting out a
rectangle in the middle of the paper about an inch high. Trackers are most often used for writing
activities that require students to copy information from a book.

If handwriting is still laborious and time consuming, electronic writing tools may be a better solution for
longer writing activities. The Alpha Smart is used in many special education classrooms, and is
lightweight and portable. Teachers and paraprofessionals can also transcribe for a child when electronic
writing tools are not available.

 It is likely that at least one student in your classroom belongs to one of the most at-risk
populations. Take time to learn about the topics affecting children and youth from the most at-risk
populations, and take steps to ensure that your classroom is a safe and supportive environment.

 Avoid assumptions that may result in students feeling excluded or stigmatized.

Remember that not all students have the same knowledge about body parts and sexual activities, have
already engaged in sexual activities or feel ready to do so, come from two-parent or heterosexual
households, are biologically related to their families, are heterosexual, have “typical” genitalia, or
identify as male or female.

 Create a safe learning environment based on equality and respect. Teachers can set a
positive tone in the classroom and can model and establish expectations that students practise
respectful communication. Character development programs can help set a positive environment in
your classroom and promote a healthy community.

 Work with students to establish ground rules that identify behavioural expectations
for a safe and productive conversation. Ground rules help to create an inclusive and safe learning
environment and can be used to address disruptive behaviour. Teachers can add to the list of student-
generated guidelines. For example, as School Board and Teachers’ Federations discourage teachers
from sharing personal information, teachers should ensure that “no personal questions of the teacher
or the class” is included.

b) Costs of care in differential circumstances. (10)

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