Chapter 2

Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

Abstract In this chapter physical and socio-economic profiles of the state were
discussed. The physical profile gives an insight of the location of the study area, its
administrative set up during different periods of time, structure and relief, drainage,
climate, soils, natural vegetation, fauna etc. The main aim of describing physical
aspects is to make the reader familiar with the study area before proceeding towards
the next chapters discussing the land use patterns, water resources, irrigation water
management, crop productivity and agriculture development in the state. The char-
acteristics such as population growth, literacy rate, sex-ratio and occupational struc-
ture were included in the socio-economic profile of the state. Uttar Pradesh is the
most populous state of the country and lies in the most fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain.
It contributes a major share to agriculture production in the country. In 2011, the
population of the state has been recorded as 199.8 million. The state enjoys a tropi-
cal monsoon climate and about 60% of the workforce is engaged in agricultural
activities.

Keywords Administrative set up · Climate · Drainage · Groundwater resources ·

Literacy · Occupational structure · Population · Soils · Structure and relief

2.1 Physical Profile

2.1.1 Administrative Set Up

The state of Uttar Pradesh forms a part of the Ganga plain. It covers an area of
2,40,928 sq. km. According to Census 2001, the population of the state was
166.2 million accounting for 16.4% of the country’s population, although the state
accounts for only 7.5% of the geographical area of the country. In 2011, the popula-
tion of the state has been recorded as 199.8 million with the decadal growth rate of
20.2% (Census of India 2011). Situated in the Ganga plain and drained by a number
of rivers, the state has had a long history of human settlement. The fertile plain of
Ganga has a very high population density of 829 persons per sq. km, which is more

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 21

S. Lata, Irrigation Water Management for Agricultural Development
in Uttar Pradesh, India, Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00952-6_2
22 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

than twice the national average of 382 persons. Garlanded by the rivers of the Ganga
and the Yamuna, the state lies in a north-central part of the country. It is a landlocked
state and is bordered by the state of Uttarakhand and the country of Nepal to its
north, the state of Bihar in the east, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh to its southeast,
Madhya Pradesh to the south, and Rajasthan and Haryana, and the national capital
territory of Delhi to its west. It was created in the United Provinces on 1 April 1937
with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and it was renamed as Uttar
Pradesh on January 26, 1950, when India became a republic. Since then the state is
known as Uttar Pradesh (literally, the “Northern State”).
In 1991, the state comprised of 63 districts. On 9th November 2000, nine dis-
tricts of the erstwhile state were transferred to the newly created state of Uttarakhand
(comprising 13 districts of the hilly region, as well as the district of Hardwar). At
present, the state of Uttar Pradesh organized into 71 districts, 340 tahsils, and 821
development blocks. There are 59,163 village panchayats in the state covering
97,814 inhabited villages. Lucknow is the capital of the state. The remaining of 54
districts of 1991 increased to 70 in 2001 due to the emergence of 16 new districts
within the state. The districts of Meerut, Moradabad, Farrukhabad, Etawah,
Hamirpur, Banda, Allahabad, Deoria, Bahraich, and Gonda were bifurcated, and as
a result 10 new districts namely, Baghpat, Jyotiba Phule Nagar (JPN), Kannauj,
Auraiya, Mahoba, Chitrakoot, Kaushambi, Kushinagar, Shrawasti, and Balrampur
were formed. Besides, 2 new districts namely, Sant Ravidas Nagar (Bhadohi)
(SRNB) and Chandauli were carved out from the Varanasi district. Remaining of 4
new districts namely, Gautam Buddha Nagar (GBN), Mahamaya Nagar, Ambedkar
Nagar and Sant Kabir Nagar (SKN) were formed by taking the area from more than
one adjoining districts. District GBN was formed in the year 1997 by carving out of
entire Dadri tahsil (excluding 5 villages), 6 villages of Hapur tahsil (both belong to
Ghaziabad district), 152 villages and 3 towns of Sikandrabad, 104 villages and 3
towns of Khurja tahsil (both from Bulandshahr). Whereas, Mahamaya Nagar dis-
trict was also created in 1997 by transferring of entire Mahamaya Nagar tahsil, 162
villages, 3 towns of Sikandrabad tahsil of Aligarh district and 134 villages, 2 towns
of Sadabad tahsil of district Mathura. Similarly, Ambedkar Nagar district was
formed in 1997 by the merger of entire Akbarpur, Jalalpur and Tanda tahsils of
Faizabad district and 26 villages of Burhanpur tahsil of Azamgarh district. The dis-
trict namely, SKN was also formed in 1997 by transferring the entire Khalilabad
tahsil, 131 villages of Basti tahsil of Basti district and 161 villages of Bansil tahsil
of Siddharthnagar district. Besides these, some inter-district changes also occurred
during the decade of 1991–2001. At the time of preparation of Census 2001, the
state was divided into 70 districts and these districts were grouped into 17 revenue
divisions (Census of India 2001). One more district Kanshiram Nagar was added to
this in 2008 making a total of 71 districts in the Census of 2011.
2.1 Physical Profile 23

2.1.2 Structure and Relief

Structurally, the state of Uttar Pradesh can be divided into two distinct hypsographi-
cal regions:

2.1.2.1 The Ganga Plain in the North

The state of Uttar Pradesh is a part of the Ganga Plain which lies between the
Himalayas in the north and the Deccan Plateau in the south. The Ganga plain forms
the most important area from the economic point of view which stretches across the
entire length of the state from west to east. It is characterized by highly fertile allu-
vial soils, having a flat topology broken by numerous lakes, rivers, and ponds. The
region is made of alluvium brought by the Himalayan rivers, the Ganga, the Yamuna
and the Ramganga and the tributaries of these rivers. A vast expanse of alluvium of
Tertiary and Quaternary age with a general elevation of about 600 m above mean
sea level constitutes the plain. Alluvium is a generalized term for unconsolidated
sediments consisting of a mixture of sand, silt, boulders, and pebbles. The plain
forms an elongated belt all along the southern boundary of the Uttarakhand state
starting from the base of the hills and continues into the state of Uttar Pradesh. The
level surface of the plain commanded and traversed by the glacial-fed perennial riv-
ers of the Himalayas. With the absence of any marked surface irregularities on the
plain, rain water sinks into the ground, while percolation of water in sub-surface
also contributes to maintaining water level which can be tapped and offers facility
for the construction of canals (Williamson 1925). The area is very promising from
the hydrogeological point of view having substantial groundwater resources and
forms the major source of agriculture and industrial development (Bhatia 2010).
The entire alluvial plain can be divided into three sub-regions. The first lies in the
eastern tract consisting of 14 districts; they are subjected to periodical floods and
droughts, classified as scarcity areas. These districts have the highest density of
population which gives the lowest per capita land. The other two regions, the central
and the western are comparatively better with well-developed irrigation systems.
They suffer from the problems of water-logging and large-scale water user tracts.
The Ganga plain is watered by the Yamuna, the Ganga and its major tributaries, the
Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghra and the Gandak. The entire plain made up of
alluvium and is very fertile. The chief crops cultivated are rice, wheat, pearl millet,
gram, and barley. Sugarcane is the chief cash crop grown in the region.
The alluvium tract which forms one of the three main physiographic divisions of
India separates the peninsula from the extra-peninsular region and covers an area
estimated to be about 850,000 sq. km. The area is geologically uninteresting, but
being a rich agricultural tract is of great importance in human history. It is a syncli-
nal basin formed concomitantly with the elevation of the Himalayas to its north.
According to Eduard Suess, a great Austrian geologist, it is a ‘fore-deep’ formed
in front of the resistant mass of the peninsula when the Tethyan sediments were
24 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

thrust southward and compressed against them. According to the second view by Sir
Sydney Burrard (formerly the Surveyor General of India), the plains represent a
rift-valley bounded by parallel faults on either side. A third and more recent view
with regard to this region is that it is a ‘sag’ in the crust formed between the
northward-drifting Indian continent and the comparatively soft sediments accumu-
lated in the Tethyan basin when the latter was crumpled and lifted up into a moun-
tain system (Krishnan 1956).
The exact depth of alluvium has not been ascertained, but recent gravity, mag-
netic and seismic explorations show that its thickness varies from less than 1000 to
over 2000 m. In width, alluvial plains vary from a maximum of 480 km. in the west
to less than 144 km. in the east. The floor is not structurally uniform but is seg-
mented by ridges and hollows due to faulting. Magnetic survey reveals local highs
and lows, all of which dip steeply to the north. In 130 borings, the depth from the
surface to bed-rock was found to range between 90 and 390 meters. The depth of
alluvium is at its maximum between Delhi and the Rajmahal Hills, and it is shallow
in Rajputana and between Rajmahal and Assam (Wadia 1919). The deposits cover-
ing the Indo-Gangetic basin are composed of gravels, sands, and clays with remains
of animals and plants. These sands and gravels constitute aquifers. The older allu-
vium (called bhangar in the Ganga valley) is rather dark coloured and generally rich
in concretions and nodules of impure calcium carbonate known as kankar in north-
ern India. The kankar concretions are seen in all shapes and sizes from small grains
to lumps as large as the size of the human head. The older alluvium was accumu-
lated on slightly elevated terraces, generally above the flood level, the river has cut
through it to a lower level. It belonged to Middle to Upper Pleistocene age. The
newer alluvium (called khadar) is light coloured and poor in the calcareous matter.
It contains lenticular beds of sand and gravel and peat beds. It merges with insen-
sible gradations into the recent or deltaic alluvia and assigned to belong with an
Upper Pleistocene age (Krishnan 1956).

2.1.2.2 The Vindhyan Hills and Plateau of the South

The southern fringe of Ganga plain is demarcated with the presence of Vindhyan
hills and plateau. This region consists of the districts of Jhansi, Jalaun, Hamirpur,
and Banda (Fig. 2.1). It forms the upper border of the central Indian plateau. Low
hills and rocky spurs of the Vindhyachal Mountains amidst the jungles of stunted
trees give this tract a distinct character. The soils of lowlands consist partly of the
Ganga alluvium and partly of the detritus of Deccan trap. These are the mar and
kabar soils (a characteristic feature of central India) and the parka and rakar are the
deteriorated black soils. The mar is a rich dark coloured friable soil with a large
number of minute kankar nodules mixed in its texture. It contains a high proportion
of organic matter and characterized with an extraordinarily high moisture retentive
power. The kabar is a stiff tenacious soil containing a large percentage of clay and
deficient in the sand. Because of its hardness, it is difficult to work. The parua is a
light sandy soil, whereas, rakar is stony, generally marked with the presence of
2.1 Physical Profile 25

78o 79o 80o 81o 82o 83o 84o

UTTAR PRADESH
o o
31 31

Geology
N

Alluvium o
o 30
30 Siwalik system
Vindhyan group
Central Himalayan gneisses
Bijawar group
o Bundelkhand granite gnesiss o
29 29
Deccan trap

o o
28 28

o o
27 27

o o
26 26

o o
25 25

o o
24 24
20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Km
Source: Planning Atlas of UttaPradesh,
Government of India, UP,
Allahabad, 1987.
o o o o o o o
78 79 80 81 82 83 84

Fig. 2.1 Uttar Pradesh: geology

large kankar nodules. Parts of the districts of Jhansi, Hamirpur, and Banda have
mixed red and black soils. Under the heavier type of soils, a large accumulation of
calcium carbonate is seen mixed with the soil. In the light or sandy type of forma-
tions, soils are shallow and large size stones are present in them. The soils contain
sufficient quantity of potash and lime but are poor in P2O5 and nitrogen. These areas
receive a little amount of rainfall and water scarcity is widespread. The amount of
rain in this region varies between 80 and 100 cm. Dry farming is practiced over a
26 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

large area. This sub-region is important for the cultivation of gram, wheat and gram
as a mixture, linseed, til and jowar crops. This sub-region is known as gram produc-
ing area, both in terms of quantity and quality. The Betwa and Ken rivers join the
Yamuna river from the southwest in this region (Mirchandani 1971).

2.1.3 Drainage

The holiest and sacred rivers of India, the Ganga and the Yamuna flow through the
state and join at Allahabad. These two rivers along with their numerous tributar-
ies and distributaries form a riverine alluvial land known as the upper and the mid-
dle Ganga plain. Other than these two, the Ramganga, Son, Betwa, Gandak, Rapti,
Gomti, Ghaghra, Rind etc. are the other important rivers. The state lies within one
major basin i.e., ‘the Ganga basin’ which is further divided into sub-basins like the
Yamuna, Gomti, Ramganga, Ghaghra-Gandak, Betwa, Son, Tons and Ken.
The dendritic pattern of drainage follows the general slope of the landform, i.e.
from northwest to southeast. With the exception of right bank tributary of the
Yamuna, almost all the rivers have their origin in the Himalayas (Fig. 2.2). Other
rivers namely, the Son, Betwa, Ken, etc. have their origin in the hills of central India.
With the exception of river Ghaghara, these rivers flow in more or less straight
courses across the plain and somewhere forming ‘meanders’ and ‘ox-bow’ lakes.
The entire land of the state lies in the catchment area of river Ganga and its principal
tributaries namely, the Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Sarda, the Gomti, the Saryu and
the Ghaghra.

2.1.3.1 The Ganga

The Ganga originates from Gaumukh in the Gangotri glacier at an elevation of

about 7010 m. above mean sea level. It enters into the plain at Haridwar. Following
the general slope of the land, it flows towards the south and southeast up to Allahabad
and then continues towards the east until it passes into the state of Bihar on its
onward journey to West Bengal. Its total length is 2525 km, of which 1450 km lies
in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The Ganga basin covers an area of 8,61,404 sq. km., of
which nearly 34.2% lies in the state. Its principal tributaries are the Yamuna on its
right and the Ramganga, Gomti and Saryu rivers on the left side. The headwork situ-
ated on the Upper Ganga Canal is one of the most important irrigation works in the
state and is providing irrigation to 0.7 million ha (Shafi 1984).

2.1.3.2 The Yamuna

Although the Yamuna itself is a tributary of the Ganga, it is the second most impor-
tant river in the state. The Yamuna (which combines the waters of the beheaded
Saraswati) has its source at Yamunotri in the Uttarkashi district (now in the state of
2.1 Physical Profile 27

o o o o o o o
78 79 80 81 82 83 84

31
o UTTAR PRADESH 31
o
Uttarkashi Drainage
N

UT
Tehri

TA
Dehradun

RA
o o
30 30

KH
Pauri Garhwal

AN
Saharanpur Haridwar

D
Muzaffarnagar
Bijnor
RA

Baghpat Meerut Nainital

o o
29 29
M
GA

Rampur
JPN
NG

Ghaziabad SA
A

GBN
Moradabad Pilibhit R D
RI

Bareilly
VE

Bulandshahr A
R

o RI o
28 Budaun VE 28
Aligarh Shahjahanpur Kheri
R
Mathura Shrawasti
Hathras Etah
GO

Bahraich
Sitapur A Balrampur
MT

H
R
T
G

Hardoi Siddharthnagar
G

GA
P
ER
I

o Firozabad o
A
R IVE

27 R IV
Maharajganj 27
I
Mainpuri
A

ND
Agra Gonda
GA

Kannauj
R A RIV Basti

A
R Barabanki
Lucknow
VE
R
NG

ER

K
I Etawah
LR

RI
A

Auraiya Kanpur KanpurUnnao Deoria

A Faizabad Ambedkar

VE
B Nagar
AM
Dehat Nagar
I

R
CoH YAM
R

UNA E
V

Sultanpur o
26 RIV 26
R

A ER I Azamgarh Mau
W
R

T EFatahpur Pratapgarh Ballia

BE
V
R

Ghazipur
Banda
Mahoba
o o
25 Mirzapur Chandauli 25
ER
ER

V
RI
R IV

Lalitpur
ER Sonbhadra
RIV
KEN
AN

N
o SO o
AS

24 24
DH

0 50 100 200 Source: State Atlas of Uttar Pradesh,

National Atlas & Thematic Mapping
Km Organisation, Kolkata, 2008.

o o o o o o o
78 79 80 81 82 83 84

Fig. 2.2 Uttar Pradesh: drainage

Uttarakhand). The river passing through Siwaliks enters the western plain at
Faizabad and from there it flows roughly parallel to the Ganga for 1384 km to join
it at Allahabad. The Yamuna forms the natural boundary between Uttar Pradesh and
Haryana states, and enters the district of Mathura in the north and passes through
Agra and Etawah, forming the northern boundary of Jalaun, Hamirpur, Banda dis-
tricts and the southern boundary of Etawah, Kanpur, Fatehpur and parts of Allahabad,
where it joins the Ganga. Its course is 1376 km long and the entire basin covers an
28 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

area of 320 thousand sq. km. in Uttar Pradesh. Important tributaries of the river
Yamuna are the Chambal, Betwa, and Ken which originate from the Deccan pla-
teau. Historically, important places like Delhi, Agra, holy places like Mathura and
Allahabad are situated on its bank.

2.1.3.3 The Ghaghara

The snow-fed Ghaghara has its source near the Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Lake
Manasarovar in Tibet. The river flows in a southerly direction parallel to Ganga up
to Chapra before joining it. The total catchment area of the river is 1,27,950 sq. km.
This river has a high flood frequency and usually shifts its course several times. The
river Sarda or the Chauka which forms the boundary between Uttar Pradesh and
Nepal is the main tributary which joins it on the right bank. River Saryu is another
important tributary of the Ghaghara, on whose bank lies the historical city of
Ayodhya. Two other important tributaries of it are the Rapti and the Gandak.

2.1.3.4 The Ramganga

River Ramganga rises in the Garhwal district (now in Uttarakhand) at an altitude of

3110 m. above mean sea level and enters the plain near Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga
at Kannauj after traversing a distance of 596 km. The Ramganga basin covers an
area of 32,496 sq. km. The Ramganga flows for a total length of about 1080 km., the
upper half of which lies in Nepal and the lower half in Uttar Pradesh. The most
important tributaries are the Sarda, the Rapti, and the Little Gandak.

2.1.3.5 The Gomti

River Gomati also called Gumti, is the tributary of the Ganga river. It rises near
Mainkot, about 3 km. east of Pilibhit town in the Pilibhit district of the state at an
elevation of 200 m and drains the area lying between the Ramganga and the Sarda
in the upper reaches and lower down the area between the Ganga and the Ghaghara.
After flowing through a southerly course for a distance of about 24 km., it joins the
Ganga, near Kannauj in the Farrukhabad district. The total length of the river from
the source to its outfall into the Ganga is 596 km. and the entire length of it lies in
the state. The important tributaries of Gomti are the Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the
Kosi, the Deoha and the Sai.

2.1.3.6 The Sarda

It is formed by two streams the Kuthiayankti and Kalapani near the Indo-Tibetan
border at an elevation of 5250 m. The river flows in a southwesterly direction for
some distance forming the boundary between India and Nepal. In this reach, it
2.1 Physical Profile 29

receives the Dhauli Ganga, the Khoprang, the Sarju and the Ladhiya on its right and
the Chumlia on its left bank. It debouches into the plains after passing through a
series of rapids. Entering the plains, the Sarda continues to form the boundary
between India and Nepal for a short distance flowing over a boulder bed. Thereafter,
it flows in a southeasterly direction through the district of Pilibhit in a tortuous and
constantly changing course. One of the most important irrigation systems in Uttar
Pradesh, irrigating lands in the Gomti-Ghaghara doab emanates from this river from
Banbassa head works.

2.1.3.7 The Rapti

It is another tributary of the Ghaghra to join on its left bank. It rises in the lower
ranges of Nepal at an elevation of 3600 m. After traversing a distance of 150 km.
within Nepal, it enters the Bahraich district. It then flows in a southeasterly direction
through Gonda and Basti and joins the Ghaghara near Berhaj in the district of
Gorakhpur. The Rapti also inundates large territory along both the banks. But flood-
ing is beneficial because of the fine silt left behind, which makes the land fertile and
productive.

2.1.4 Climate

The state of Uttar Pradesh enjoys tropical monsoon climate. It is characterized by a

rhythm of seasons which is caused by southwest and northeast monsoons. The pres-
sure reversal takes place regularly twice in a year. At the time of northeast monsoon,
winds of continental origin blow generally from west to east, while during the
southwest monsoon they are oceanic in origin and blow mostly from east to west.
The southwest monsoon usually enters the state by the end of the month of June and
parts of the state get most of the rainfall from it, while western depressions may
bring few showers during the winter months. There are climatic variations in the
state due to large extent of the area surrounded by hills in the north, a considerable
distance from the sea and the relative height above the sea level. The average tem-
perature in the plains varies from 3 to 4 °C in January to 43 to 45 °C in the months
of May and June, whereas the rainfall varies from 70 to 160 cm and even over in
different parts of the state.
The climate of the tarai belt which extends from the districts of Saharanpur to
Deoria is humid and hazardous to health due to the humid characteristics. Plain
areas in the state generally experience extreme conditions of climate (cold in winter
and hot in summer). The southern part of the state is a plateau and being stony and
barren, it is severely cold in winters and severely hot in summers. About 90% of the
total rainfall in the state is received during the rainy season. Therefore, in rest of the
year irrigation is necessary for the cultivation of kharif crops in the summer, and for
growing of rabi crops in winters and it is also desirable even in the rainy season to
30 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

counter the effects of short dry spells.1 From a climatological point of view the
tropical monsoon climate has three distinct seasons:
(i) The cold weather season (October to February)
(ii) The hot weather season (March to mid-June)
(iii) The rainy season (Mid-June to September)

2.1.4.1 The Cold Weather Season

The cold season in the state starts from the month of October every year. During the
months of October and November, the entire north-western part of the country
including the whole of the Ganga valley remains under the high-pressure belt. The
prevailing direction of the winds is from west to east, owing to pressure distribution
and the influence exerted by the Himalayan relief. The chief climatic characteristics
of this season are a fall in temperature and the prevalence of dry and chilly (west-
erly) winds and clear skies. Occasionally, the western depressions bring rains
accompanying with them cold waves of winds and register temperatures below
freezing point. Seasonal variations in temperature in parts of the state are well
marked. The mean minimum temperature in the month of November at stations
Aligarh, Bareilly, Allahabad and Bahraich ranges between 5 and 10 °C, but mean
maximum temperature ranges between 29 and 33 °C. The month of December
records a further decrease in the day and night temperatures, with the minimum
temperature at some places fall below 2 °C in the month of January, while the mean
maximum temperatures vary between 25 and 27 °C (Fig. 2.3).
An important feature of the cold weather season is the occurrence of frost and
hail. Frost is locally known as pala, which usually occurs in the month of January
when rabi crops are immature and they are liable to injury. Hail occasionally may
occur and it can damage the plants when they are at the stage of flowering. In these
months heavy fog is locally known as kohra often occurs at night and lasts until the
morning with the sun rise. In the month of February, there is seen a clear sky. By the
end of the month of February, the temperature begins to increase, but it still remains
colder than November. The month of December is quite cold. By the end of
December and even first half of January, some western depressions enter in the
northern parts of India through Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan and move eastward
to cover the entire Ganga plains. Snow may occur on high ranges in Himalayas and
rain in sub-mountain tracks and the adjoining areas. These depressions create
cloudy weather and blowing in cold waves accompanied by light rain in plains of
the state (Gilbert et al. 1910).
The amount of rainfall during the winter season does not exceed 10 cm. The
amount of rain decreases as one goes from west to east (Fig. 2.4). The western part
of the state receives 10 to 12.5 cm. of rainfall with the winter cyclones. The amount

1
Dry spells (or monsoon breaks), which generally are 2–4 weeks of no rainfall during critical
stages of plant growth causing partial or complete crop failures, often occur every cropping
season.
2.1 Physical Profile 31

Fig. 2.3 Uttar Pradesh: annual temperature

of rainfall decreases southward from 5 to 7.5 cm. at Jhansi, Jalaun, Hamirpur,

Banda, and Lalitpur stations, whereas the plains get rainfall from 7.5 to 10 cm. The
winter rains though small in amount are of great importance to the rabi season crops
grown in the state. This amount of rain is not sufficient for rabi crops, especially for
high yielding varieties of wheat which require 4–5 irrigation waterings. Therefore,
the crops are grown during the rabi season, greater protection owing to less reliable
winter rain. Under these conditions, irrigation is a must to carry out successful agri-
cultural operations. Filling the fields with irrigation water also help save the crops
from the frost.
32 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

Fig. 2.4 Uttar Pradesh: annual rainfall

2.1.4.2 The Hot Weather Season

The hot weather season extends over the months of March to the first half of June.
This season is characterized by rising temperatures and lowering of pressures.
Though the temperature starts rising gradually from the months of February, from
early March it starts rising rapidly and continues rising until May and June. In the
month of May, the scorching heat becomes intolerable to human beings. The aver-
2.1 Physical Profile 33

age temperature of the state in this season is recorded from 36 to 39 °C and the mini-
mum to the extent of 21 to 23 °C. At some stations the temperature goes up to
40–46 °C for example, Kanpur, Allahabad, Lucknow, Agra, and Orai are the stations
record high temperatures. Due to the nearness of the Tropic of Cancer, the entire
Bundelkhand region remains very hot. Northwestern parts of the state also remain
hot. The maximum and minimum temperatures in the months of April are recorded
38 °C and 21 °C respectively. The months of May and June record exceptionally
high temperatures, as high as above 44 °C for quite a few days.
Due to high temperature, a low-pressure belt is established in north-western part
of the country which remains very near to the state. Due to the high-pressure gradi-
ent, the strong winds blow to the western parts. The days are characterized by inten-
sive heat, dry air, and low relative humidity. Regular phenomena of this season are
blowing of hot and dry winds, locally known as loo, and the occurrence of dust and
thunderstorms, which are locally known as andhis. The andhi is characterized by a
huge cloud of dust which obstructs the visibility in the atmosphere. These storms
are caused by the interaction between the dryland winds of the upper strata and the
damp sea winds which creeps into the lower strata. These storms are short-lived and
frequently end-up with the light showers of rain. Sometimes, they are accompanied
by hails and thunderstorms which modify the weather of the area for a short period
of time.
Total average rainfall in hot weather season is small. It ranges from 100 mm (at
the northern stations) to 20 mm (at the stations in the extreme southwest). This rain
benefits maize and fodder crops grown in parts of the state. The amount of rain
decreases from east to west, due to increasing distance from the sea, as the air gets
progressively drier. Gradually, easterly winds are replaced by the west winds, reduc-
ing the precipitation due to accompanying storms. Rainfall received during hot
weather season gives a temporary relief from the heat and helps in sowing of the
early rice crop. In the month of June, hot weather season becomes more intensified
and continued heat and dryness of air causes unbearable conditions.

2.1.4.3 The Rainy Season

Due to excessive heat of summer months, a low pressure is developed in northern

parts of India and by the middle of June, a complete reversal takes place in the
months of air movement. The rainy season in the state normally starts within the
second week of the month of June, when the southwest monsoon enters in the state.
Sometimes the onset of monsoon may take place in the last week of July. The Bay
of Bengal branch, which enters in the eastern parts of the state through Bihar plains
known as ‘purba’ provides the first rain by the end of June. This is the season of
general rains, which is characterized by the arrival of moisture-laden oceanic cur-
rents from the Bay of Bengal; a fall in temperature is experienced with cool air and
rainfall. With the burst of monsoon, a complete change in weather is brought about
with an immediate fall in temperature and an upward trend in relative humidity. The
maximum and minimum temperatures gradually fall from 44 °C and 27 °C in June
34 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

to about 30 °C and 25 °C in the month July. The relative humidity remains over 70%
throughout the rainy season. Rainfall days alternate with rainless gaps of a day or
two in months of the year as they receive more than 50% of total annual rainfall. The
average rainfall amount to 75 cm. and it decreases westward and southwards.
In the months of September, rains normally slacken and the rainless intervals
become longer and the day temperature varies. Humidity, however, remains high
due to very little movement of air. High humidity and cloudy weather make the heat
intolerable. October is the month of retreating monsoon, but mean maximum tem-
peratures remain as high as in September. Rainfall, though scantily is useful for rabi
season crops and helpful for the maturity of late rice. Rainfall in the months of June
and September is irregular affecting the agricultural practices of kharif and rabi
season crops, whereas, continuous rainfall for several days may create flood condi-
tions, which results in sheet and gully erosion and often floods in rivers, destroy the
standing crops and bring loss to life and property.

2.1.5 Soils

The soil is a vital natural resource and backbone of agriculture. Soils make available
food, fodder, and fuel for meeting the basic needs of human and animal beings. With
the increase in human and animal population, the demand for food has also
increased. However, the capacity of the soil to produce food is limited and limits on
production are set by intrinsic characteristics, agro-ecological setting, use, and man-
agement. This demands systematic appraisal of soil resources with respect to their
distribution, characteristics and yield potential, which are very important for devel-
oping effective land use systems for augmenting agricultural production on a sus-
tainable basis (FAO 1993).
The state comprises of two distinct physiographic regions from north to south,
which are (1) the Ganga plain and (2) the Vindhyan hills and plateau. It covers an
almost three-fourth area of the Ganga plain, which is very deep and gently slopes
from northwest to southeast. Elevated areas as now seen of the plain were filled with
older alluvium (bhangar), and relatively lower grounds with new alluvium (khadar)
along the courses of main rivers and their tributaries. The Vindhyan hills and plateau
lie at the southern end of the Ganga plain. It forms part of the foreland of the Deccan
tract. Its northern border is formed by the river Yamuna and parts of the Ganga river.
A great variety of soil is found in different parts of the state (Fig. 2.5). These may
divided into following types:

2.1.5.1 Bhabar Soils

Bhabar group of soils forms a narrow belt of alluvial fans which extends from west
to east, immediately adjacent to outer spurs of the Himalayas in the districts of
Saharanpur and Bijnor. These soils have developed under a sub-humid and moist
2.1 Physical Profile 35

Fig. 2.5 Uttar Pradesh: soils

climate which becomes dry during summer months. These soils were formed by the
alluvium transported from the adjoining Siwalik and Himalayan ranges comprising
sandstones in a rapid state of weathering and conglomerates interstratified with
boulders along with purple shales and clays.
These soils are underlain by small or large sized pebbles and coarse gravel detri-
tus. Dark grey, coarse gravelly to fine silty calcareous bhabar soils are rich in plant
nutrients but are excessively drained due to the occurrence of boulders. Therefore,
the cultivation of these soils is hampered by non-availability of the requisite amount
of moisture from the soil.
36 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

2.1.5.2 Tarai Soils

The term ‘tarai’ refers to a moist or wet area. The tarai region is the sub-montane
tract situated along the southern boundary of the Siwalik mountain ranges. The nar-
row belt of tarai soils is situated at the southern side of the bhabar soil and extends
from the district of Saharanpur in the west to Deoria in the extreme northeast and
cover about 5.7% of the total area of the state. These soils are young and virgin as
well as rich in humus. This tract can be divided into (i) northwestern tarai extending
from the districts of Saharanpur to Kheri, and (ii) northeastern tarai extending from
Bahraich to Deoria (Pathak 1991). The climate of the tarai area is sub-humid which
characterises as damp and unhealthy with annual precipitation ranging from 1000–
1500 mm, a maximum of it occurred during the months of July to September. These
soils are saturated during rainy months and remain quite moist during the winter due
to a high level of underground water. Soils of western and eastern tarai are produc-
tive and possess essential of plant nutrients, especially the nitrogen which gets
depleted within few years of intensive cultivation. These soils are responsive to
fertilization and well suited to multiple cropping.

2.1.5.3 Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils which cover nearly 61.2% of the total land area in the state. They
occur in the central, eastern, western and southern portions of the state with river
Yamuna as its western and southwestern boundary for most of its expanse with the
exception of a portion of Agra and Mathura districts, and river Gandak as it eastern
boundary separating it from the state of Bihar. These are very deep and were formed
due to the transformation of alluvium deposited by the Ganga and the Yamuna rivers
and their tributaries including the Ghaghara and Gandak. These soils vary in fertility
characteristics considerably, but they have been developed from the mild or strongly
calcareous parent material.
The nature of soils in alluvial areas differs widely from district to district. These
soils have been broadly classified into different soil associations and nomenclated
on the basis of the river family which has contributed to the deposition and develop-
ment. These soils, in general, are classified as: (i) Riverine soils or Kadhars and the
recent alluvium (ii) Soils of flat lands (iii) Soils of uplands, and (iv) Soils of low
lands. Although there are wide variations in soil characteristics from district to dis-
trict, the broad zonal features of soil associations remain more or less the same.
The soils belonging to the alluvium of recent accumulation are greyish to ash
grey in colour, light textured and calcareous. Flat land soils are neutral to moder-
ately alkaline, calcareous and have an accumulation of lime concretion at varying
depths in lower layers of the soil profile. Sub-soil of the profile exhibits marked
mottling resulting from the reducing environment prevailing in these soils and due
to partial water-logging. Soils of the uplands exhibit zonal characters and their pro-
files show a distinct evidence of maturity. Illuviation of sesquioxides and lime to ‘B’
horizon and accumulation of clay in lower layers is very profoundly exhibited by
2.1 Physical Profile 37

the soil profiles. These soils are permeable and excessively drained and are neutral
to slightly acidic in reaction.
Low land soils are found in depressions within the uplands. They are grey to dark
grey in colour, clay loam to clay in texture. Invariably, they have an alluviated hori-
zon of finer clay as well as a layer of calcareous nodules. Ferrogenous mottlings are
extensively evidenced in the sub-soils. The soils of the Ganga family differ from
each other and of the Yamuna family. With reference to morphological features and
agricultural behaviour, they also differ on the basis of their parent materials.
The Ganga alluvium has been formed by quite a wide variety of Himalayan
rocks, whereas much of the alluvium of Yamuna owes its origin from the basaltic
rocks of central India through which the Yamuna river flows in southwestern parts
of the state. The recent alluvium belonging to this family is of black in colour, fine
in texture and shows a marked uniformity at all depths. The flat-land soils are loam
to clay loam in texture and profoundly display the profile. Upland soils of the family
show an advanced stage of maturity having a zone of calcium carbonate accumula-
tion in lower depths. The soils of this family can be named as ‘tropical chernozems’.
With respect to parent material, alluvium found in the northeastern tracts of the state
laid down by the rivers Gandak and Ghaghara genetically differs from the soils of
Ganga plain. The soils in the Gandak and Ghaghara plains are highly calcareous in
nature. A predominating pedogenic process in this family includes remarkable cal-
cification and decalcification. The bottom soil contains calcium carbonate to the
extent of 50%. The flat-lands have a surface horizon devoid of lime with an accumu-
lation of calcium carbonate in nodular form in lower horizons. The upland soils are
completely devoid of lime, excessively drained and the soil profile exhibits features
of the advanced stage of maturity.
Agriculturally, these alluvial soils of the state are highly productive and consti-
tute one of the most fertile formations of the country. These soils respond very well
to manuring and have widely adaptable cropping patterns in various agro-climatic
regions, also they have immense potential for increased production and it is from
these soils that the agricultural production levels can be achieved with the use of a
high-yielding variety of seeds and adopting improved practices of cultivation.

2.1.5.4 Bundelkhand Soils

The Bundelkhand region of the state lies on the southwest of the river Yamuna. The
soils of this tract are entirely different from those of the state as a whole since they
differ geologically from the rest as being non-alluvial in nature. Bundelkhand soils
occupy 10.9% area of the state. These soils mainly occur in the districts of Jhansi,
Jalaun, Hamirpur, and Banda. These soils have developed from the Vindhyan rocks
abounding in gneiss and granites of the Deccan trap with highly ferruginous beds
and often soft limestone.
Four broad soil associations have been recognized in this area, which differs
from each other in respect of colour, texture, parent material, depth and crop adapt-
ability. These are: (i) Bundelkhand coarse-grained reddish brown soils, (ii)
38 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

Bundelkhand coarse-grained grey to greyish brown, (iii) Bundelkhand clayey loam

black, and (iv) Bundelkhand clayey black soils, which can be distinguished with
local names as rakar, parwa, kabar, and mar. Bundelkhand soils, in general, are
devoid of moisture and organic matter and, therefore, can afford only short duration
crops. This has been the main reason of backwardness in agricultural development
in the region.

2.1.5.5 Vindhyan Soils

The soils of Vindhyan region occur in the south of river Ganga in the southern tracts
in the districts of Mirzapur, Varanasi, and Allahabad, although its area does not
exceed more than 5% of the total area of the state. The Vindhyan system of rocks
comprises of Vindhyan and Kaimur sandstones, shales, mixed conglomerates, cal-
careous and haematitic slates, schists, gneisses, Carboniferous rocks and to some
extent the limestones in weathered form to make up the Vindhyan soils. The soils of
the Vindhyan region can broadly be classified into three categories as (i) Vindhyan
uplands, (ii) Vindhyan flats, and (iii) Vindhyan lowlands.

2.1.5.6 Aravali Soils

Aravali soils occupy 0.21% area of the state and occur at the southwest corner of
Agra district. Various formations of Vindhyan sandstones (including Kaimur group
as the lowest member and Bhander group as the highest member in the outer spurs
of Central Indian Hills occurring in Bharatpur and Dholpur districts of the state of
Rajasthan) were weathered to form the Aravali soils. The soils are coarse gravel
sands or even loamy sands depending on their location and topography. They are
locally known as bhur. These soils support scanty sowing of crops and wherever
agriculture is practiced, only inferior crops are grown.

2.1.6 Groundwater Resource Development

According to the estimates, the groundwater resources of the state constitute

76,138 million cubic metres (m.c.m.) of which 48,208 m.c.m. (about 63%) are util-
isable. In the districts of Baghpat and Agra, the net drafts were 556 and 980 m.c.m.
which were higher than their net potential, therefore, the groundwater use in these
districts exceeds to 100%, which sometimes reaches to the most critical level. This
situation arises because overexploitation of groundwater resources and leads to
decrease in the groundwater table. Ground water development is a ratio of the
annual ground water extraction to the net annual ground water availability. It indi-
cates the quantity of ground water available for use. In the districts namely,
Saharanpur, Budaun, Fatehpur, Muzaffarnagar, Moradabad, GBN of doab region
2.1 Physical Profile 39

groundwater use is well developed which consist of 89.72, 87.33, 86.56, 86.45,
84.98 and 81.89% respectively.
The districts which utilize less than 50% of groundwater resources include
Banda (48%), Balrampur (46.27%), Lucknow (45.2%), Kushinagar (43.17%),
Lalitpur (41.47%), Sonbhadra (41.45%), Chitrakoot (41.37%), Mirzapur (40.37%),
Ballia (39.37%), Chandauli (39.35%), Kheri (39.15%), Hamirpur (38.35%) and the
lowest occurs in Jalaun with 32.82% (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 District-wise groundwater availability in Uttar Pradesh, as on 31.3.2011

Net potential
(million cubic Net draft (all uses) Groundwater
S. No. Districts meter) (million cubic meter) utilization (per cent)
1 Agra 950 980 103.11
2 Aligarh 1533 1026 66.95
3 Allahabad 1110 607 54.71
4 Ambedkar 933 575 61.6
Nagar
5 Auraiya 653 372 57.02
6 Azamgarh 1320 803 60.82
7 Baghpat 493 556 112.76
8 Bahraich 1222 867 70.99
9 Ballia 1409 555 39.37
10 Balrampur 976 452 46.27
11 Banda 615 295 48
12 Bara Banki 1984 1335 67.32
13 Bareilly 1309 1019 77.86
14 Basti 1348 901 66.86
15 Bijnor 1385 881 63.62
16 Budaun 1096 957 87.33
17 Bulandshahr 1466 1103 75.19
18 Chandauli 686 270 39.35
19 Chitrakoot 239 99 41.37
20 Deoria 1422 890 62.55
21 Etah 1874 1027 54.78
22 Etawah 757 400 52.77
23 Faizabad 1228 921 74.98
24 Farrukhabad 588 361 61.42
25 Fatehpur 933 808 86.56
26 Firozabad 1057 639 60.47
27 GBN 479 392 81.89
28 Ghaziabad 809 591 73.04
29 Ghazipur 1181 625 52.88
30 Gonda 1267 932 73.58
31 Gorakhpur 1528 1095 71.63
32 Hamirpur 824 316 38.35
33 Hardoi 1732 1242 71.72
(continued)
40 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

Table 2.1 (continued)

Net potential
(million cubic Net draft (all uses) Groundwater
S. No. Districts meter) (million cubic meter) utilization (per cent)
34 Jalaun 1253 411 32.82
35 Jaunpur 1249 655 52.46
36 Jhansi 672 417 62.03
37 JPN 609 384 62.98
38 Kannauj 733 487 66.51
39 Kanpur Dehat 910 615 67.58
40 Kanpur Nagar 857 538 62.76
41 Kanshiram – – –
Nagar
42 Kaushambi 390 296 75.85
43 Kheri 2842 1113 39.15
44 Kushinagar 1360 587 43.17
45 Lalitpur 607 252 41.47
46 Lucknow 822 371 45.2
47 Mahamaya 701 450 64.13
Nagar
48 Mahoba 356 191 53.76
49 Mahrajganj 1160 758 65.33
50 Mainpuri 1202 602 50.09
51 Mathura 1358 782 57.55
52 Mau 462 355 76.86
53 Meerut 1268 873 68.88
54 Mirzapur 749 302 40.37
55 Moradabad 1210 1028 84.98
56 Muzaffarnagar 1714 1482 86.45
57 Pilibhit 961 713 74.19
58 Pratapgarh 1156 895 77.41
59 Rae Bareli 1105 738 66.83
60 Rampur 900 556 61.82
61 Saharanpur 1715 1539 89.72
62 Shahjahanpur 1450 1078 74.35
63 Shrawasti 485 309 63.65
64 Siddharthnagar 1647 972 59
65 Sitapur 2352 1245 52.95
66 SKN 941 511 54.33
67 Sonbhadra 282 117 41.45
68 SRNB 351 216 61.62
69 Sultanpur 1639 1040 63.45
70 Unnao 1788 1089 60.92
71 Varanasi 476 349 73.46
Uttar Pradesh 76,138 48,208 63.32
Source: Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India
(Available on http://cgwb.gov.in/gw_profiles/st_up.htm)
Note: (−) denotes data not available for this district
2.1 Physical Profile 41

2.1.7 Natural Vegetation

The state is endowed with rich flora and fauna. It has an amazing variety of some
1000 woody plants, including 3000 trees, 400 shrubs, and 100 woody climbers.
More than 200 species of grasses have been identified in the Gangetic plains along
with a rich stock of herbs and valuable medicinal plants. The plains of the state have
been rich in natural vegetation which has been removed extensively for meeting out
wide-ranging needs of the people. Only a few patches of natural forests are now
seen scattered here and there in the plains. About 7% of the geographical area of
Uttar Pradesh was under forest cover during 2001–2005. The Himalayan region and
the tarai and bhabar areas consist most of the forests.
The Vindhyan forests consist of mainly the scrubs. In the districts of Jaunpur,
Ghazipur and Ballia are free from forest lands, whereas 31 other districts have a
lesser area under forest cover.
Near the snow line, there are forests of rhododendrons and Betula utilis (bhojpa-
tra). Below them are the forests of silver fir, spruce, deodar, chir, and oak. On the
foothills and in the tarai-bhabhar area the forests have sal and gigantic haldu trees.
Along river courses, the sheesham grows in abundance. The Vindhyan forests con-
sist of dhak, teak, mahua, salai, chironji and tendu. The hill forests also have a large
variety of medicinal herbs. Sal, chir, deodar and sain yield building timber and
railway sleepers. Chir also yields resin, the chief source of resin and turpentine.
Sisso is mostly used in furniture making, while the khair yields kattha, which is
used with betel leaves for chewing. Semal and gutel are used as matchwood and
kanju in the plywood industry. Babul provides the principal tanning material in the
state. Some of the grasses, such as baib and bamboo are raw materials used in paper
industry. Tendu leaves are used in making of bidis (Indian cigarettes), and cane in
baskets and furniture making.
The transitional belt running along the entire length of the state, the tarai and
bhabhar areas are rich in forests. The bhabhar tract gives a place to the tarai area,
which is covered with tall elephant grasses and thick forests interspersed with
marshes and swamps.
Tropical moist deciduous forests are found in the moist region of tarai. They
grow in areas which record 100–150 cm. of rainfall annually, with an average tem-
perature between 26 and 27 °C and have a considerable degree of humidity. A spe-
cial feature of the forests is that deciduous trees of uneven size grow at higher
altitudes. Lower regions have several species interspersed with bamboo, climbers,
42 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

cand and evergreen shrubs. Main trees which grow in tarai are sal, ber, gular, jhin-
gal, palas, mahua, semal, dhak, amla, jamun, etc.
Tropical dry deciduous forests are found in all parts of the plains and usually in
central, eastern and western parts. Since sun-light reaches the ground in abundance,
shrubs and grasses also grow here. Large tracts of these forests have been removed
making land available for cultivation. Important trees grow here are sal, palas,
amaltas, bel, anjeer etc. Neem, peepal, sheesham, mango, jamun, babool, imli
(Tamarind) etc. usually found along river banks.
Tropical thorny forests are mostly found in southwestern parts of the state. Such
forests are confined to the areas which have low annual rainfall (50–70 cm.), mean
annual temperatures between 25 and 27 °C and low humidity (less than 47%).
Widely scattered thorny trees, mainly, babool and euphorbias are extensively found
here. The trees are generally small and form open dry forests. Important trees of the
region are phulai, khair, kokke, dhaman, danjha, neem, etc. These trees yield vari-
ous types of resins and gums.
Herbs obtained from these forests include some medicinal plants, like Rauwolfia
serpentina, Viala serpens, podophyllum, hexandrum and Ephecra gerardiana.

2.1.8 Fauna

The variegated topography and climate of the state are conducive for the upkeep of
enormous varieties of animal life. Animals depend on forests not only for food but
also for their habitat. Its avifauna is among the richest in the country. Animals found
in jungles of the state include the tiger, leopard, wild bear, sloth bear, chital, samb-
har, jackal, porcupine, jungle cat, hare, squirrel, monitor lizards, and fox. These can
be seen in all but the highest mountain ranges. The most common birds include the
crow, pigeon, dove, jungle fowl, black partridge, house sparrow, peafowl, blue jay,
parakeet, kite, mynah, quail, bulbul, kingfisher, and woodpecker.
Certain animals are found in special habitats. The elephants are confined to tarai
and the foothills. The chinkara and the sandgrouse prefer to live in dry climate and
are natives of the Vindhyan forests. The musk deer and the brown bear are found in
the higher Himalayas. Among the game birds resident of the state are the snipe,
comb duck, grey duck, cotton teal and whistling teal.
Several species of wildlife have become extinct in the state. Among them are the
lions of the Ganga plain and rhinoceros of the tarai. The fate of many species has
become uncertain, including the tigers, black bucks, musk deer, swamp deer, bus-
tards, pink-headed ducks, chirs and mural pheasants and four-horned antelopes.
Although a determined enforcement of laws against poaching and hunting has
yielded some results, the wildlife population today in the state is alarmingly low. To
preserve its wildlife, the state has established Dudhwa National Park in Kheri dis-
trict and 12 game sanctuaries, the Corbett Park, which is a major tourist attraction.
2.2 Socio–economic Profile 43

2.2 Socio–economic Profile

2.2.1 Population

The population of the state has become more than double since 1951 putting
tremendous pressure on resources and infrastructure. According to 2011 Census,
the population of the state is accounted for 199.81 million persons of whom
104.48 million were males and 95.33 million females, as against 166.19 million
persons with 87.56 million males and 78.63 million females in 2001, showing a net
increase of 33.61 million. The state of Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in
India. Allahabad district is the most populous with a population of 5.95 million
persons followed by Moradabad (4.77 million), Ghaziabad (4.68 million), Azamgarh
(4.61 million) and Lucknow (4.59 million). Mahoba with a population of 0.88 mil-
lion, however, is the least populous district of the state.
All India level decadal growth during 2001–2011 was 17.64%, whereas the
growth rate in respect of the state of Uttar Pradesh was 20.2% higher than that of the
national level. This rate was 25.4% during 1971–1981 and 25.6% during 1981–
1991, which slightly increased to 25.8% during 1991–2001. The growth rates of
rural-urban components of the population for the state were 18.0 and 28.8% during
the same period, respectively. It implies that rural population growth rate was lower
than the overall growth rate (20.2%) by 2.2%, whereas the urban population growth
rate was much higher by 8.6%.
With regard to demography, the state is marked by an adverse sex ratio, high
fertility and mortality rates, a high proportion of children and a slow process of
demographic change. The sex-ratio as measured is the number of females per thou-
sand males. According to 2011 Census, there is a predominance of males over
females, having a sex-ratio of 912 (918 for rural and 894 urban areas). The corre-
sponding figures for 2001 were 898 (904 and 879 respectively). The proportion of
children below 7 years of age constituted 15.41% of the total population, which was
significantly higher than the national average of 13.12%. In the state, the highest
figure for sex-ratio was recorded for Sonbhadra (40.14%) and lowest for Sitapur
(4.72%).

2.2.2 Literacy

Literacy is an important indicator of socio-economic characteristics of the country.

It has a direct bearing on the expansion of technology. A person who has attained
7 years and above who can both read and write with understanding in any language
is considered to be as literate. The state of Uttar Pradesh does not show much better
position in education. According to 2001 Census, the literacy was merely 57.36%.
Showing some signs of improvement, the state assumed literacy rate of 67.68%,
inching closer to the national average (74.04%) in Census 2011 (Census of India
44 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

2011). The literacy rate was higher in urban areas in comparison to rural areas,
which was 75.14% versus 65.46%. Male literacy rate in total, rural and urban areas
of the state were in the order of 77.3, 76.3 and 80.4% respectively, which were
higher than the corresponding rates of female literacy accounting for 57.2, 53.7 and
69.2% respectively. It is observed that GBN ranked at the top with 80.12% in total
literacy rate, whereas it was lowest in Shrawasti with 46.74%. In both the rural and
the urban areas of the state, the district of Auraiya recorded the highest literacy rate
with 77.50 and 85.70%, respectively and Shrawasti for rural (46.10%) and Rampur
for urban (56.0%) were at the bottom of the list.

2.2.3 Size and Structure of Operational Land Holdings

Land is a fundamental unit in agriculture without which no crop can be produced.

Understanding of land ownership and size of operational holdings are important in
agrarian class structure (Rawal 2008). In the context of the strategy for agricultural
development, knowledge of structure and characteristics of agricultural holdings is
imperative for responsive and efficient planning and implementation of the pro-
grammes. For this purpose, it is essential to have information about operational
holdings as it is distinct from ownership holdings.
An operational holding is defined as ‘all land which is used wholly or partly for
agricultural production and is operated as one technical unit by one person alone or
with others without regard to the title, legal form, size or location’ (GOI 1992).
Thus, an operational holding consists of all land cultivated by a particular opera-
tional holder irrespective of whether he owns it or not. In other words, an opera-
tional holding consists of land owned and self-operated and taken on lease from
others for cultivation. The land owned and leased out will not form part of a particu-
lar operational holder. This land will be included in the area of the operational hold-
ing of the person(s) who has taken on lease for cultivation.
Farmers are classified as landless, marginal, small, middle and large on the basis
of size of landholdings. Less than 1 ha, 1–2 ha, 2–4 ha and more than 4 ha of land
are the criteria for marginal, small, medium, and large farms. The average size of
land holdings in India is small, it is due to sub-divisions, and the primary cause of
these sub-divisions is the pressure of population on land, apart from the existing
laws of inheritance in vogue among Hindu and Muslim and other communities in
the country (Gadkary 1957). With increasing urbanization and industrial demand,
and subsequent pressure on the availability of cultivable land, the scope for expan-
sion of area for cultivation becomes limited. Also, core to the challenge is an increas-
ing population which leads to further fragmentation of land holdings. The small size
of agricultural land holdings is an impediment in increasing agricultural productiv-
ity. It prevents farmers from adopting improved agricultural technology and creates
barriers for accessing credit and adopting improved agricultural practices (Sankar
2011). In a study, Chand et al. (2011) have examined that the growth of rural popula-
tion is the main factor underlying in an increase in number of holdings in India. The
2.2 Socio–economic Profile 45

Table 2.2 Number and area of operational holdings by size class in Uttar Pradesh, 2010–2011
Size class (in hectares) Total holdings (‘000) Percentage Total area (‘000) Percentage
Marginal (Less than 1.0) 18,532 79.5 7171 40.7
Small (1.0–2.0) 3036 13.0 4243 24.1
Semi-Medium (2.0–4.0) 1334 5.7 3629 20.6
Medium (4.0–10.0) 398 1.7 2199 12.5
Large (10.0 and above) 25 0.1 380 2.1
Total 23,325 100.0 17,622 100.0
Source: Statistical Diary Uttar Pradesh 2015, Economics and Statistics Division, State Planning
Institute, Planning Department, Uttar Pradesh

study finds that while a small farm in India is superior in terms of production perfor-
mance, it is weak in terms of generating adequate income and sustaining livelihood.
Holdings below 1 ha do not generate enough income to keep a farm family out of
poverty despite high productivity per unit area. Small size of land holdings and low
yield of crops reduce the capacity of farmers from producing surpluses, and use
their resources in purchase of HYV seeds and irrigation, that can support it. Highly
fragmented holdings force farmers to depend on water buyers rather than investing
in their own irrigation infrastructure, which would be economically inefficient due
to poor utilization of the potentials created (Kishore 2004). Large-size farms with
capital- intensive techniques can give higher productivity with increased land hold-
ings, especially with multiple cropping (Rao and Chotigeat 1981).
Total number of all kinds of land holding in UP state was 23.32 million ha occu-
pying an area of 17.62 million ha in 2010–2011 (Table 2.2). Out of the total land
holdings, 79.5% were under the category of marginal holdings (less than 1 ha) and
small holdings (1–2 ha) constituted a share of 13%. Semi-medium (between 2 and
4 ha) and medium holdings (between 4 and 10 ha) covered 5.7 and 1.7% land hold-
ings in the state, respectively. Only a small fraction of 0.1% of holdings was under
the large holdings in the state.

2.2.4 Occupational Structure

The term ‘occupation’ connotes the exact function of work that an individual per-
forms in a sector. The Census of India has followed the UNO system of categorizing
different occupations under 9 major heads. These categories are conventionally
grouped into three major groups as primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary
group of occupation includes: (i) cultivation, (ii) agricultural labourers, (iii) live-
stock, forestry, fishing hunting and plantations, orchards and allied activities, and
(iv) mining and quarrying; a secondary group of occupation comprises: (va) house-
hold industry, (vb) other than household industry and (vi) constructional work; and
a tertiary group of occupation comprises of (vii) trade and commerce, (viii) trans-
port, storage and communications, and (ix) services.
46 2 Profile of the Study Area: Uttar Pradesh

UTTAR PRADESH
Distribution of Workers by Category of Work and Sex
(2011)

45.00

38.4

36.47
40.00

34.82
35.00 31.12

30.30
28.96

29.7
27.69
30.00
Percentage

25.00
22.2

20.00

15.00

9.7
10.00

5.92

4.72
5.00

0.00
Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household industry workers Other workers

Total Male Female

Fig. 2.6 Uttar Pradesh: distribution of workers by category of work and sex, 2011

The occupational structure of the state of reflects the preponderance of agrarian

economy. According to Census, 2011, about 60% workforce of the state was
engaged in agricultural activities. Out of the total workers which include main and
marginal workers, cultivators and agricultural labourers constitute 28.96% and
30.30%, respectively. Other workers were about 34.82%. If we compare sex-wise
contribution, males occupied the highest share of 31.12% as cultivators, whereas a
number of female was higher to work as agricultural labourers and in household
industry workers (38.4 and 9.7%) as against male workers of 27.69 and 4.72%,
respectively (Fig. 2.6).

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