Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Created by:
Nita Anggraeni (21421016)
Syifa yulyani ()

ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION
LA TANSA MASHIRO UNIVERSITY
RANGKASBITUNG – BANTEN
2024
 PREFACE

Praise be to God Almighty, because of His grace we were able to finish this paper.
Shalawat and greetings may always be abundantly poured out on the Prophet Muhammad
saw.
We do not forget to thank Miss Hikmah Pravitasari, M.Pd as the lecturer in The
Sociolinguistics and TESOL course who has guided us.
We as writers realize that there are still many mistakes in writing. Therefore,
constructive criticism and suggestions will really help us out.

Lebak, November 2024

Writers
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
PREFACE............................................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER I.............................................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER II............................................................................................................................................6
DISCUSSION..........................................................................................................................................6
A. Definition of bilingualism...........................................................................................................6
B. Definition of multilingualism........................................................................................................7
C. Advantages of Bilingualism & multilingualism ............................................................................7
D. Example of bilingualism in Tesol................................................................................................11
E. Example of multilingualism in Tesol...........................................................................................12
CHAPTER III.........................................................................................................................................14
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................14
REFERENCE..........................................................................................................................................15
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Teaching in two languages is known as bilingual education. With a particular focus on

how language is employed in educational settings to achieve various linguistic results, this
article examines bilingual education within its sociolinguistic framework. However, we begin
by giving a historical summary of how bilingual education policies have evolved globally
before analyzing the goals and forms of bilingual education in the contemporary era.
The global prevalence of monolingual education in prestigious languages, often to the
detriment of local linguistic diversity, has deep roots in history. In Europe, the preference for
Greek and Latin over native languages in education dates back to ancient Greece and Rome,
where bilingual individuals fluent in these elite languages were highly respected (Lewis,
1976). This monolingual approach in elite languages still influences today’s educational
systems, where bilingual speakers of dominant languages often gain higher societal prestige
than monolingual speakers of regional languages.This monolingual model, combined with the
societal value placed on bilingualism in dominant languages, has led to the decline of
numerous minority languages. For example, Scottish Gaelic has seen significant language
loss (Dorian, 1981), and other ethnolinguistic communities have shifted away from native
languages over time (Fishman, 1991). Additionally, languages like English have become
globally dominant, further contributing to the phenomenon (Fishman, Cooper, and Conrad,
1977).
In the 18th and 19th centuries, as the United States developed, it introduced a distinct
variation of monolingual education. Immigrant communities saw their non-English languages
as cultural identifiers, with English largely representing commerce and trade. This led to the
emergence of bilingual schools in the 19th century, where immigrants could receive
instruction in their native languages (Pearlmann, 1990). However, the rise of public education
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries restored monolingual education for minority groups
around the world.The 1960s brought new attention to ethnic identity worldwide, spurred by
events like African independence movements, indigenous rights advocacy, the U.S. civil
rights movement, and global migration. Monolingual education began facing criticism for its
exclusion of language minorities, and using mother tongues alongside majority languages,
particularly in early education, became more widely endorsed.
Nations increasingly recognized their linguistic diversity. In Europe, for example, Great
Britain and Spain adopted bilingual education policies for regional minority languages. The
Welsh Language Act of 1967 allowed Welsh instruction, and Spain’s 1978 Constitution
granted official status to Catalan, Basque, and Galician (Baker, 1991; Siguán, 1988).Similar
developments occurred beyond Europe. In New Zealand, efforts to revive the Maori language
began in the 1970s with kohanga reo (or “language nest”) preschools and kaupapa Maori
schools, which taught primarily in Maori by the 1980s (Fishman, 1991). In more
linguistically diverse nations, bilingual or multilingual education gained traction. For
instance, after 1973, the Philippines adopted a bilingual education policy designating English
and Filipino for different subjects, India’s 1956 three-language policy supported English,
Hindi, and regional languages, and Tanzania’s educational system employed local languages
initially before transitioning to Swahili (Sibayan, 1991; Sridhar, 1991; Abdulaziz, 1991).
 CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION
A. Definition of Bilingualism

Some forms of bilingual education aim to encourage additive bilingualism, where

students enter school fluent in their native language and learn a second language. This
approach results in bilingual individuals. In contrast, other bilingual education models lead to
subtractive bilingualism. In these cases, students initially receive instruction in both their
native language and a second language, but eventually, instruction in the native language
stops, with the second language becoming the sole language used, ultimately replacing the
first (Lambert, 1980). Programs that support additive bilingualism are often called strong,
while those that foster subtractive bilingualism are seen as weak (Baker, 1993).
The nature of bilingual education, whether additive or subtractive, depends on why the
educational system uses two languages. Frequently, bilingual programs designed for the
language majority encourage additive bilingualism, whereas those for language minorities
tend to produce subtractive bilingualism. However, as Fishman (1976) suggests, bilingual
education with additive bilingualism as its goal can be beneficial for both minority and
majority groups.
Ferguson, Houghton, and Wells (1977) identified ten different goals for bilingual education,
including enhancing elite bilingualism, supporting language minority assimilation or
preservation, promoting societal integration, advancing global communication, fostering
understanding, and encouraging pluralism.
Bilingual education is a multifaceted phenomenon with diverse realities (Otheguy, 1982;
Cazden and Snow, 1990). Beyond the basic definition of bilingual education as using two
languages in school, the term has been broadened to include programs aimed at minority
language speakers, even when instruction is monolingual (Hornberger, 1991). For most
people, bilingual education now encompasses both the use of two languages for instruction
and the teaching of a second language to speakers of another language, even when instruction
occurs only in the second language.
B. Definition of multilingualism

C. Advantages of Bilingualism & multilingualism

Bilingualism and multilingualism play a crucial role for both language majorities and
minorities, offering cognitive, social, and psychological benefits. Research has shown that
students who are bilingual and biliterate experience enhanced cognitive skills, such as
improved divergent and creative thinking (Hudson, 1968), heightened metalinguistic
awareness, and better cognitive control of language processes (Bialystok, 1987; Galambos &
Hakuta, 1988), as well as increased communicative sensitivity (Genesee, Tucker, & Lambert,
1975). However, to fully benefit from these cognitive advantages, bilingual individuals must
attain age-appropriate proficiency in both languages. According to Skutnabb-Kangas (1977)
and Cummins (1981), there are two key thresholds: the first must be met to ensure that
children do not experience negative effects from bilingualism, while the second must be
surpassed to achieve positive cognitive benefits.
Beyond cognitive enhancements, bilingualism and biliteracy foster greater understanding
among diverse groups and contribute to a deeper knowledge of each other. Bilingual and
multilingual education exemplifies true multicultural education, providing individuals with
the means—through bilingualism—to cultivate greater awareness and understanding. It
surpasses traditional multicultural education by leveraging language to address racism and
inequality among different linguistic communities, aligning it with the anti-racist education
movement (Cummins, 1988).
In addition to cognitive and social benefits, there are psychological advantages, particularly
for language minorities who may struggle with self-esteem. Bicultural ambivalence has been
identified as a significant factor in the educational struggles of language minorities
(Cummins, 1981). In this context, bilingual education acts as empowerment pedagogy,
promoting the integration of home languages and cultures into the school environment,
engaging the community, utilizing the home language for assessment, and fostering a
reciprocal, interactive curriculum (Cummins, 1986).
D. Example of bilingualism in Tesol

Regarding the types of bilingualism, we focus on the theory outlined by Moradi (2014),
which categorizes bilingualism into three types: compound, coordinate, and subordinate
bilingualism.

Table 1 categorizes the types of bilingualism observed in the video of the learning process,
highlighting the mixed use of Indonesian and English vocabulary. The three types of
bilingualism identified are as follows:
1) Compound Bilingualism
The first type identified is compound bilingualism, marked by six instances, such as:
- (1) “Nanti kita akan belajar tentang parts of the body.” This sentence combines an
Indonesian phrase (Nanti kita akan belajar tentang) and an English phrase (parts of the body),
with Indonesian vocabulary being more dominant (five words in Indonesian compared to
three in English).
- Another instance is “Student–student mana suaranya,” where the Indonesian phrase
dominates due to its dialectal tone, translated as “student-student” instead of simply
“students” as in English.
 - “It’s not ‘kni’ ya bacanya tapi ‘nii’ ya" also reflects compound bilingualism, as the
Indonesian “ya” adds emphasis, which is absent in English.
- “Jadi kalo matanya dipegang satu itu ‘eye’ kalo dua-duanya eyes” features more
Indonesian words, categorizing it as compound bilingualism.
- “Sama dengan telinga, kalo yang dipegang satu this is ear (holding one ear) kalo dua these
are ears (holding two ears)” also uses more Indonesian words, emphasizing the Indonesian
language in the vocabulary mix.
- Lastly, “Kalo mam bilang jump, berarti semuanya harus lompat ya” combines both
languages, with Indonesian dominating through most of the vocabulary used.
Referring to Harding-Esch & Riley (2003), Filipović & Hawkins (2019), and Rahmanova
(2020), compound bilingualism involves two languages supporting each other to convey
meaning, often a result of simultaneous learning of both languages.
2) Coordinate Bilingualism
Coordinate bilingualism, seen seven times in the video, is characterized by an equal use of
both languages:
- Examples include “Apa itu parts of body?” and “Louder, please! yang keras,” where
Indonesian and English phrases balance the utterance.
- Another example is “loudly, please! yang keras,” with equal representation of both
languages.
- Similarly, “Loudly ya” balances both languages.
- In “Once more loudly, yang keras sekali lagi,” both languages are used in balanced
phrases.
- In “Zara tanya ke Damar: Damar what is this?” and “Damar jawabnya: that is a nose,” the
sentences are divided evenly between Indonesian and English, indicating balanced
bilingualism.
As explained by Harding-Esch and Riley (2003), coordinate bilingualism represents instances
where each language operates independently, often due to learning each language separately.
3) Subordinate Bilingualism
Subordinate bilingualism is observed in two instances, such as:
- “Now before we start our lesson today, let’s do tepuk PPK” and “Before we end this class,
let’s do tepuk PPK,” where English predominates while Indonesian is limited to “tepuk
PPK.” This type reflects an imbalance favoring English, with the potential for the lesser
language (Indonesian) to fade.
According to Romaine (1995), this form of bilingualism occurs when a speaker uses a
stronger language to supplement a weaker one. Here, English is dominant, with Indonesian
present only in the phrase “tepuk PPK,” which serves as a school-specific icebreaker intended
to energize students.
E.

CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Bilingual education, both for minorities and majorities, has experienced tremendous growth
all over the world in the last 30 years. This article has reviewed its historical development,
looked at the different societal aims for bilingual education, analyzed the advantages of
bilingualism, examined the different types of bilingual education, summarized the
sociolinguistic principles responsible for the differing linguistic outcomes of bilingual
education, and finally listed socio-educational principles associated with greater bilingualism
and biliteracy.
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