CATA LYZ I N G

I N T EGRATION

Climate Change,
Agriculture &
Food Security
BACKG RO U ND

CATALYZ IN G IN T EG RAT I O N S E RI ES Despite decades of progress, there are

Efforts to reduce extreme poverty and achieve the
approximately 702 million people living
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) require in extreme poverty1 and the Food and
an in-depth understanding and reflection of the Agriculture Organization of the United
interconnected nature of people’s lives. Development Nations (FAO) estimates that 795 million
solutions need to be as multifaceted as the challenges people worldwide remain chronically
they are designed to address. FHI 360 believes that
undernourished, the majority of whom live
an intentional, integrated approach to the design,
in low- and middle-income countries.2
delivery, and evaluation of programs has the potential
to make an enduring difference in the lives we are
dedicated to serve.
795M
PEOPLE WORLDWIDE WHO ARE
At its core, integration refers to activities in which CHRONICALLY UNDERNOURISHED
actors from different sectors deliberately coordinate
their work to maximize impact and progress toward
common or complementary goals. Integration is most 9.8B
ESTIMATED GLOBAL POPULATION BY 2050,
effective when it purposefully leverages opportunities WHICH WOULD REQUIRE A 60% INCREASE
to reach more people, offer better services, reduce IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION TO FEED
inequality, or reduce costs.
If the current rate of food
i. Food security is
FHI 360 has developed a suite of resources designed consumption continues, by comprised of four
dimensions: food
to advance integrated development approaches. 2050 a 60 percent increase in availability, stability of
food supplies, access to
Many of these resources also synthesize lessons agricultural production will be food, and food utilization.3
ii. Climate change, as
learned and recommendations from integration required to feed an estimated defined under the United
Nations Framework
across a diverse array of sectors. The Catalyzing global population of 9.8 billion Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) is “a
Integration Series offers a closer look at integration people. As a result, food securityi change of climate which
is attributed directly
between specific development sectors — including will remain an elusive goal for or indirectly to human
activity that alters the
the rationale, evidence of impact, promising practices, many in the developing world.4 composition of the
global atmosphere and
key tools, and other technical guidance resources. With the power to reduce crop which is in addition
to natural climate
production and food availability, variability observed
over comparable
climate changeii further time periods.”5

threatens this goal.2, 4, 6

I NT EG RAT ED
DEVELOPMENT
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Climate Change,
Agriculture &
Food Security

In order to address food insecurity by increasing the Without action, climate change
availability of, and access to, food it must also be could reduce the global caloric
recognized that agricultural production is itself a driver production of maize, soy, wheat,

24%
of climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions result from and rice by up to 24 percent
land clearing, the use of fertilizers, livestock waste, and by 2090.10 Understanding
the storage and transportation of agricultural products. and developing integrated
Climate change causes shifts in weather patterns, which programming that acknowledges WITHOUT ACTION,
CLIMATE CHANGE
increase the frequency of extreme weather eventsiii the interaction between human COULD REDUCE THE
that directly affect crop production and threaten activity (including agriculture GLOBAL CALORIC
PRODUCTION OF MAIZE,
food security. If the current rate of greenhouse gas production) and climate is critical SOY, WHEAT, AND RICE
BY UP TO 24 PERCENT
accumulation in the atmosphere continues, the effects to reducing the threat climate BY 209010
of less predictable extreme weather eventsiv are likely to change poses to long-term food
cause wide-scale food insecurity. 7
security.11, 12 Essential to this two-way relationship is
the need to maintain the integrity of the ecosystems
Smallholder farmers and
and natural resources that are key to the prosperity of
pastoralistsv who mainly rely
smallholder producers, and to increase the capacity of
on rain-fed agriculture and
poor and vulnerable populations to adapt to climate

1/3
predictable weather patterns
change-related impact.13 Indeed, food production
for consistent production are
in most low-to middle-income countries is largely
especially vulnerable to the
dependent on both ecosystem services and natural
increasing unpredictability of BY 2050, RICE PRICES
IN LOW- AND MIDDLE- resources, furthering the importance of an integrated
extreme weather. For example, INCOME COUNTRIES programmatic approach.
production of rice (a key food COULD INCREASE BY
APPROXIMATELY ONE-
crop), could decline by up to THIRD AS A RESULT
15 percent in low- and middle- OF CLIMATE CHANGE9 iii. Examples of extreme weather events include: greater variability in precipitation patterns
that may result in more intense rain events that are less frequent, increased periods of
dryness and drought, increased threat of flooding, and changes in the temperature and
income countries by 2050, and prices could increase by salinity in bodies of water.

approximately one-third as a result of climate change.9 iv. Scientists foresee significant sea level rise and coastal inundation, increased salinity, and
significant disruption of food systems.7
Extreme weather events can also destroy the roads and v. Smallholders are small-scale farmers, pastoralists, forest keepers, and fishers who
manage areas varying from less than one hectare to 10 hectares. Smallholder farmers
facilities that support agricultural production, disrupt are characterized by family-focused motives such as favoring the stability of the farm
household system, using mainly family labor for production, and using part of the
communications with markets, hinder food distribution produce for family consumption.8

systems, and cause further food insecurity.7

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Climate Change,
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The Importance and Impact of Integrating

Climate Change Interventions with
Agriculture and Food Security Efforts

The linkages between climate change and food food.15 The ability of the rural poor to provide food for
security are apparent. Weather, the timing and their households will be further challenged as climate
change exacerbates degradation of natural resources
amount of rain, daily average temperatures,
and reduces agricultural productivity. For example, rural
and the wind (among other factors) have
South Asia produces 15 percent of the world’s wheat, but
profound effects on agricultural production by 2050 production is projected to reduce by over half if
and food security. Agricultural planners, climate change continues unabated.16
managers, and farmers have long used The relationship between food security and climate
the historical record and calendars to help change is complicated by the role agriculture plays in
determine which crops to plant, and when and contributing to climate change. Activities within food
where to plant them. But the historical record systemsvi contribute between 19 and 29 percent of
may no longer provide a road map. global greenhouse gas emissions; this figure rises to
nearly 74 percent in low to middle-income countries.18, 19
Food security programs must recognize the subtle
Seasonal shifts in precipitation are increasing and
relations between agriculture, climate change, and food
becoming less predictable, changes in average daily
security. Otherwise, programs will fail to deliver on
temperatures affect seed germination, and some regions
sustainable production, a critical element of Sustainable
are experiencing greater periods of dryness while others
Development Goal 12, which addresses sustainable
experience extremely wet weather. All of these changes
consumption and production.20 Integrated approaches
argue for a strong collaboration between climate-change
naturally consider all three elements, a logical way
scientists and agricultural practitioners, planners, and
forward in addressing the complex challenges faced by
managers to address food insecurity on global, regional,
low- and middle-income countries.
national, and local levels.
Integrated programs—combining innovative agricultural
Further, as the global population continues to increase,
techniques with activities designed to effectively
sustainable agricultural production that adapts and
respond to the effects of climate change and improve
thrives under the changing climate will be critical to
food security—can have significant impact across
building resilience, particularly in low- and middle-
several dimensions.
income countries.14 The World Bank estimates that
approximately 70 percent of the world’s poor and vi. “Food systems encompass all the people, institutions and processes by which
agricultural products are produced, processed, and brought to consumers. They also
most food insecure populations live in rural areas and include the public officials, civil society organizations, researchers and development
practitioners who design the policies, regulations, programmes, and projects that shape
depend on their own crops as a primary source of food and agriculture.”17

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Food Security

Ecosystems Services21-23
• Climate-friendly approaches to agricultural production—such as leaving plant litter and other biomass
in place on the soil’s surface—enhance the natural resource base and the systems that regulate the
Earth’s food, water, and nutrient cycles.

• Sustainable agriculture techniques that are site and context specific, such as no-till farming, protect the
soil and water resources critical to food production.

• Efforts to maintain and protect the natural resource base to support sustainable food production
reduce negative impacts on the earth’s biodiversity and essential land resources (e.g. soil, trees), which
serve as a carbon sink for greenhouse gas emissions.

Improvement of Livelihoods24, 25
• Climate mitigation and adaptation efforts that support sustainable food production help maintain the
agricultural system, which provides jobs not only on farms but also in affiliated industries, such as food
processing and transportation.

• Climate mitigation and adaptation programming increase the resilience of smallholder farmers to
climate shocks as they are less likely to be dependent on food production as their sole source of
income and are able to overcome periods of decreased agricultural production.

• Programs that seek to address climate change will reduce the threat of damage to infrastructure that
could limit access to markets as well as hinder disaster response for affected populations.

Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions6, 16, 26

• Climate smart land-use practices for food production lower greenhouse gas emissions through
decreased land clearing and application of fertilizers and pesticides.

• Sustainable agricultural livestock management practices that take into consideration their role in
climate change result in lower greenhouse gas emissions and increased production.

• Intentional integration in planning and management leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions by co-
locating food production, processing, and infrastructure.

Climate Change and Food Security Enhance Efforts to Reduce Conflict27, 28

• A stable and resilient community that provides for its citizenry, grows the economy, and develops
multiple means of income generation can overcome the shocks and stressors that accompany
climate change and food insecurity.

• Limiting shocks from climate change supports sustainable crop production and agricultural sector
employment, thereby maintaining and improving food security and eliminating a threat multiplier.

• In low- and middle-income countries, women are responsible for between 60 to 80 percent of food
production and are more vulnerable to any conflicts that could result from reduced agricultural
production. Research has shown that women’s involvement in decision-making is critical for
mitigating the impact of climate change.

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Climate Change,
Agriculture &
Food Security

Challenges and T E NS I O NS AND CH AL L E NG ES

The interplay between climate change and food security varies across time

Entry Points and location, which prevents sweeping generalizations. A lack of actionable,
downscaled data also hinders the ability to tailor activities to the needs of
a specific region. For example, modeling suggests that if the current rate
of climate change continues, maize production in Kenya could increase
nearly 18 percent, whereas neighboring Uganda could experience a maize
crop decrease of 9 percent by 2050.29 Coffee crops, which are particularly
sensitive to weather fluctuations, have already been harmed by climate
change in both countries. The goals and objectives of climate-responsive
economic programming and interventions are not always in agreement
with economic plans at the national level. In addition, competition between
agricultural export and food commodities for local or regional markets drives
food insecurity as the shift away from subsistence farming to producing cash
crops could occur.

Dissonance between Sectors

The overarching economic development policies of a country striving
to improve livelihoods through infrastructure development can conflict
with the goals of programs seeking to expand carbon neutral, green, and
resilient economic development. In addition, where national economic
(agricultural export and food commodities) sectors push farmers to produce
cash crops that may have environmentally harmful effects, food security
programs are working to build farmers’ capacity to grow their own food
sustainably, including through climate smart and climate change-responsive
approaches. This is often the case with smallholder farmers, who are
particularly susceptible to climate change-driven shocks and stresses due
to their reliance on the natural resource base as a means of production. As
climate change exacerbates degradation of the resource base (e.g., water,
soil, and nutrients), and limits farmers’ access to productive assets, they
may find it difficult to adapt to new environmental conditions and produce
subsistence crops.

E NT RY PO INTS AND MO D E LS FO R INTEG RATIO N

As programmers and policymakers face the inevitable future of climate

change and food insecurity, the entry points for integrating them should be
further explored to achieve optimal impact. One approach is demonstrated
through an emerging program in Ethiopia. Peace Centers for Climate
and Social Resilience has developed an integrated approach that brings
stakeholders together to mutually design and address interventions that
build their adaptive capacity to manage climate change-driven natural
resource scarcity. In essence, the program demonstrates how integrating
climate change response through natural resource management and conflict
resolution enhances the target community’s resilience to climate change.

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Climate Change,
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Climate Smart Agriculture family planning methods will reduce unintended

pregnancy and fertility rates, positively impacting
Recent research and innovative approaches that
both food security and climate in two important
integrate climate change science with agricultural
ways: (1) lessening demand on already overburdened
production provide a road map for improving food
agricultural systems and ecosystems, thereby reducing
security while adapting to and mitigating the effects
the greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate
of climate change. In particular, the emerging field of
change; and (2) decreasing the amount of food needed,
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), defined by the Food
increasing food availability.32, 33
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as agricultural
practices that sustainably increase productivity and An integrated, multi-sectoral approach can meet
system resilience while reducing greenhouse gas the current unmet demand for family planning.34 For
emission. CSA combines climate change knowledge example, the population, health, and environment (PHE)
with agriculture, providing an indicator of what can be approach links climate adaptation and environmental
achieved through integration. 7, 30, 31
The three objectives improvement efforts with family planning and
of CSA include: women’s health.28, 35

→ → PRODUCTIVITY: to increase sustainable agricultural Ecosystem Services Programming

production and agricultural related incomes to The earth’s human population is dependent on
enhance food security and livelihoods.30, 31 maintenance of ecosystem servicesvii for the water, soil,
and nutrients necessary for agricultural production. Thus,
→ → ADAPTATION: to promote and strengthen the ability efforts to protect and manage the earth’s ecosystem will
of agricultural systems to adapt and become resilient directly benefit climate change mitigation and adaptation,
in the face of climate change.7 contributing to sustainable agricultural production
and improvement of food security through a healthy
→ → MITIGATION: to reduce the negative environmental ecosystem. This can be accomplished through land
impact of agricultural production through changes use management and attempts to stem deforestation
that lead to lowering the systems contribution to and protect the earth’s biodiversity through habitat
greenhouse gas emissions.7 protection, thereby contributing to agricultural landscape
diversification. Also, cropping systems that leave ground
Voluntary Family Planning Services cover in place (rather than open tilling) support soil
While climate change decreases available farmland, the health, enhance ground water infiltration, and result in
world’s population is simultaneously increasing. By 2100, decreased greenhouse gas emission.2, 36
the United Nations estimates that the global population
will be more than 12 billion if family planning efforts are vii. The complex and interactive system we see through the earth’s natural resource base,
not improved.32 Increased access to global, voluntary the regulation of the global climate and other natural systems that support human life
with food, clean water, and medicine is frequently referred to as ecosystem services.2

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Climate Change,
Agriculture &
Food Security

Strategic Planning and Crop Diversification Climate Change, Food Security, and Conflict
Integrated planning and management can reduce Emerging evidence and research that examines the
dissonance between those working on climate change linkages and interplay between climate change, resource
and food security programming and those working in degradation, food security, and conflict is expanding,
economic development. Further, through improved but the complex nature of the triggers for conflict and
knowledge of climate change impacts on certain crops, food insecurity and the role of climate change remain
scientists and agriculturalists can continue to identify unclear.37 Indeed, it is most accurate to say that much of
crops that will flourish under the changed climatic the research that looks at these sectors in an integrated,
conditions prior to reaching a crisis point. For example, multi-variable manner is at an early stage and a more
numerous studies have shown that crop diversification complete understanding of the linkages is needed to
can enhance resilience to climate change through develop appropriate programming. For example, recent
improved resistance to pests and disease. 26
research has suggested that climate change-driven
migration of rural agricultural producers to urban centers
These examples demonstrate that integrating climate
was trigger in the ongoing Syrian civil war.27 However,
change knowledge, agriculture, and food supply issues
programming that brings together all three sectors in an
increases the possibility of achieving global food security
integrated manner will help build the needed evidence
and decreasing the negative impacts of climate change.
base as countries seek to lessen the likelihood of
Programming that brings together all three sectors
violent conflict.
will help build the evidence base needed for successful
future endeavors as all countries seek to understand
the interrelationships.

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Climate Change,
Agriculture &
Food Security

Key Tools and Resources

CLIMATE-RESILIENT DEVELOPMENT Community-Based Adaptation Toolkit

A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING Digital Toolkit – Version 1.0 – July 2010
AND ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE

Jessica Wunderlich©CARE

For more information and contacts, see the Toolkit Team page
at the end of this Manual, or email toolkits@careclimatechange.org.

__________
This Toolkit has been produced by CARE International, with
technical input by the International Institute for Sustainable
Development (IISD). CARE acknowledges the critical role played
by IISD in all stages of Toolkit development.

MARCH 2014 1

Climate-Resilient Community Based Mercy Corps’ Climate Resilient

Development: A Framework Adaptation (CBA) Development Approach
for Understanding and Project Toolkit
Addressing Climate Change

CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE
Sourcebook

Climate Smart Agriculture Climate Smart Agriculture (ODI)

Sourcebook, Food
and Agriculture
Organization (FAO)

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Climate Change,
Agriculture &
Food Security

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