ANSWER FOR ALL OF THESE QUESTIONS
FRENCH REVOLUTION
What is meant by the crisis of the Ancient Régime? How did it contribute to the outbreak of
the French revolution?
Women and the poor played a major role in the French Revolution but benefited the least
from it. Discuss.
How successful was the French Revolution in creating a new 'Political Culture' ?
The French Revolution attacked privilege not property. Elaborate.
INTRODUCTION
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a groundbreaking event that ended the old system of monarchy
and privilege in France, replacing it with new ideas of equality, freedom, and the rights of the people. It
was driven by widespread frustration over social inequalities, economic struggles, and rigid political
systems, inspired by Enlightenment thinkers who called for change. This movement not only changed
France but also influenced the rest of the world by challenging monarchies and promoting the principles of
democracy and human rights. The Revolution’s impact went far beyond France, spreading ideas of equality
and fair governance to other countries. However, it also faced challenges, with different governments trying
to balance these bold ideas with the need for stability. To understand its significance, we must look at the
social, economic, and political problems that led to this powerful movement and its lasting impact on
history.
CRISIS OF THE ANCIEN REGIME
The crisis of the Ancien Régime and its underlying causes laid the foundation for the French Revolution.
The economy under the Ancien Régime was fragile and unstable, marked by poor harvests, soaring food
prices, and an inefficient transportation system, which exacerbated the cost of living. Fiscal troubles were
compounded by an outdated tax system and extravagant expenditures on wars, particularly the Seven Years'
War and the American Revolutionary War. The aftermath of these conflicts left France in financial ruin,
with significant colonial losses and a weakened navy. Despite attempts to rebuild forces and support the
American Revolution, these efforts came at a steep financial cost with little tangible gain, further
destabilizing the monarchy.
King Louis XVI faced significant resistance as he sought solutions to these crises. His attempts at reform,
such as calling the Assembly of Notables in 1787, were met with rejection, weakening royal authority. The
monarchy's indecisiveness and inability to implement necessary reforms were exacerbated by opposition
from the parlements, which obstructed change. Meanwhile, the Enlightenment fueled revolutionary ideas,
disseminating criticism of royal absolutism, aristocratic privileges, and the influence of the Catholic
Church. Writers and thinkers, like Abbé Sieyès, challenged the existing social order, advocating for liberty,
equality, and republicanism, which gained widespread public support.
The Estates-General convened in 1789, representing the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate, which
included the majority of the population. The Third Estate quickly gained prominence, declaring itself the
National Assembly on June 17, 1789. This move symbolized the people's rejection of the old regime and
their demand for a constitution. Despite royal resistance and attempts to suppress the Assembly, including
the gathering of troops around Paris and Versailles, revolutionary fervor intensified. The storming of the
Bastille on July 14, 1789, became a turning point, symbolizing the collapse of royal authority and the rise
of revolutionary power. The National Guard and Paris Commune played key roles in managing the ensuing
chaos, with figures like Lafayette and Jean-Sylvain Bailly emerging as leaders in revolutionary governance.
The National Constituent Assembly, which formed in the aftermath, took significant steps to dismantle
feudal privileges through the August Decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen,
laying the groundwork for a new constitutional framework. This period also saw economic hardships,
particularly bread shortages, fueling grassroots movements like the October 1789 Women's March on
Versailles. The revolution redefined the Church’s role, with legislation like the Civil Constitution of the
Clergy subjugating it to state control, leading to widespread resistance and persecution.
Political FACTORS
Political factions soon emerged within the revolutionary movement, with moderates advocating stability
and radicals pushing for more extensive reforms. The Jacobin Club became a central political institution,
attracting a wide array of members and eventually splitting into factions. The National Assembly continued
drafting a constitution, introducing reforms such as temporary and independent magistracies, jury trials,
and the abolition of hereditary offices, while economic reforms aimed at eliminating trade barriers and
guild restrictions were enacted. Throughout this period, the revolutionary process continued to evolve,
grappling with internal and external challenges while striving to redefine France’s political and social
landscape.
Louis XVI grew increasingly uneasy with the unfolding revolution, exacerbated by his brother, the Comte
d’Artois, and Queen Marie Antoinette, who urged him to adopt a firmer stance against revolutionary
forces. Fearing for his family's safety, Louis attempted to flee Paris on the night of June 20, 1791, disguised
as a servant. However, his escape was thwarted, and he was recognized and arrested at Varennes. This
failed flight had profound consequences, further alienating public opinion against the monarchy, clergy, and
nobility, accelerating the push towards a constitutional monarchy. The incident also weakened influential
figures like Lafayette and his National Guard, who faced intense public backlash. The revolution faced
threats from abroad as well. The Declaration of Pillnitz by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, Prussian King
Frederick William II, and the Comte d’Artois called for Louis XVI’s absolute liberty and hinted at military
intervention. Though Leopold sought to avoid war, the declaration incited outrage within France,
prompting revolutionary forces to escalate militarization. This external pressure intensified the internal
conflicts, pushing the revolution into more radical phases.
Before Louis XVI’s flight, the National Constituent Assembly worked to draft a constitutional framework,
which the King reluctantly accepted. On September 30, 1791, the Assembly dissolved, and the Legislative
Assembly was established on October 1, 1791. However, the Legislative Assembly struggled to function
effectively, plagued by divisions among factions such as the Feuillants, Girondists, and Jacobins. The King
retained significant powers, including a royal veto and control over ministerial appointments, but the
constant clashes with the Assembly paralyzed decision-making. Issues such as émigrés, clergy legislation,
and foreign threats deepened the constitutional crisis.
Failure of the Constituent Assembly
Despite achieving liberal and individualistic reforms, the Constituent Assembly failed to consolidate these
gains. The King’s reluctance to relinquish power and his support for foreign monarchs further destabilized
the monarchy. Additionally, revolutionary attacks on the Catholic Church, land seizures, and rising
inflation from excessive paper money issuance alienated the urban poor and rural peasants alike. The
working class, or sans-culottes, felt excluded as the benefits of the revolution were monopolized by
property owners, fueling discontent.
By August 10, 1792, revolutionary militias and the radical Paris Commune stormed the Tuileries Palace,
massacring the Swiss Guards tasked with protecting the royal family. The monarchy was suspended, and a
truncated Legislative Assembly—dominated by Jacobins—assumed power. Amid advancing enemy troops,
the Paris Commune orchestrated the "September Massacres," executing prisoners, including non-juring
priests. This violence further entrenched divisions between moderates and radicals, with leaders like Marat
accused of terrorism. In response to these upheavals, the newly elected National Convention convened on
September 20, 1792, operating under universal male suffrage. On the following day, the Convention
formally abolished the monarchy and declared the French Republic, marking the beginning of Year One of
the French Republican Calendar.
Prolonged Wars and the French Revolution
From 1793 to 1815, France engaged in nearly continuous warfare with Britain and shifting coalitions of
European powers. Early victories spread revolutionary ideals, but Napoleon's defeat in 1815 saw a
reactionary reversal with the monarchy's restoration under Louis XVIII. The revolution's escalation
toward conflict began with war against Austria in 1792, following Emperor Leopold II’s death. Despite
initial setbacks, key battles like Valmy and Jemappes bolstered the French Republic, pushing into
Belgium and the Rhineland. However, Louis XVI's execution in January 1793 provoked a unified
European coalition, leading to early defeats before French forces rebounded in 1794 with victories such
as the Battle of Fleurus. These successes fractured the coalition, leaving Britain and Austria as France’s
primary opponents.
The Revolution had a major impact on colonies, especially seen in the Haitian Revolution, which
echoed revolutionary ideas worldwide. Slave uprisings and colonial revolts were inspired by France’s
ideals, leading to changes in governance and society abroad. At home, tensions rose after Louis XVI’s
execution, with the Brunswick Manifesto worsening conflicts. Louis XVI was condemned by a slim
margin in the National Convention, and his death angered conservatives across Europe, increasing
opposition to revolutionary France.
Economic crises compounded the Revolution’s challenges, with radical Jacobins, supported by
sans-culottes, enacting extreme measures to address inflation and food shortages. Policies like "The
Law of the Maximum" sought price controls but instead led to famine and unrest. The Committee of
Public Safety resorted to confiscation and arrests, marking the height of the Reign of Terror
(1793–1794). Governed by Jacobins under Robespierre, this period saw mass executions through the
guillotine, targeting perceived enemies of the revolution, including prominent figures like Queen Marie
Antoinette. The Revolutionary Tribunal oversaw swift trials, with atrocities extending beyond Paris,
such as the infamous drownings in Nantes by Jean-Baptiste Carrier.
The War in the Vendée (1793–1796), a counter-revolutionary uprising, underscored rural resistance to
conscription, secularization, and attacks on traditional beliefs. Republican forces responded with brutal
measures, including mass executions and scorched-earth policies. Casualties ranged from 117,000 to
250,000, deepening divides between rural communities and revolutionary urban leadership. Meanwhile,
dechristianization campaigns sought to replace the Catholic Church with revolutionary symbols,
intensifying opposition and eroding support for Jacobin policies.
The Reign of Terror ended with the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794, when Robespierre and his
allies were arrested and executed. This marked the Jacobin regime’s collapse and ushered in the
moderate Directory under the Constitution of the Year III (1795). The Directory aimed to stabilize the
Republic but faced persistent challenges, including economic hardship, royalist conspiracies, and unrest
from radical Jacobins. Its reliance on military support laid the groundwork for Napoleon Bonaparte’s
ascent.
Napoleon rose amid this instability, gaining prominence through successful campaigns in Italy and
Egypt. In 1799, dissatisfaction with the Directory allowed him to stage the Coup of 18 Brumaire,
ending the French Republic and establishing the Consulate. Under Napoleon, France transitioned into
an empire, consolidating power while maintaining revolutionary reforms like the Napoleonic Code.
However, his regime diverged from the democratic ideals of the revolution, emphasizing central
authority and expansionism.
Throughout the revolution, media and symbolism played vital roles in shaping public identity.
Revolutionary newspapers, pamphlets, and songs like "La Marseillaise" spread ideals of liberty,
equality, and fraternity. Symbols such as the tricolor flag and the Phrygian cap replaced monarchical
imagery, fostering national unity. However, revolutionary ideals often coexisted with authoritarian
practices, as ideals of freedom were overshadowed by suppression of dissent and internal conflict.
The Revolution also saw the exclusion of women from public affairs. While initially active in
revolutionary movements, women were sidelined by the Jacobins, who dissolved women’s associations
and clubs in 1793. The decree reinforced domestic roles, permanently barring women from organized
political participation in the Revolution. This exclusion highlighted the contradictions within the
revolutionary push for equality.
How Successful Was the French Revolution in Creating a New 'Political Culture'?
Revolutionary Ideals and the Creation of Political Culture
The French Revolution marked a radical departure from monarchical absolutism to popular sovereignty. As
Robert Darnton argues, it redefined the principles of governance, replacing the divine right of kings with
the will of the people as the source of legitimate power. This ideological shift introduced modern political
concepts, such as "left" and "right," symbolizing the broader transformation of political thought and
practice. Enlightenment ideas shaped this vision, with revolutionaries seeking to build a new society based
on reason, morality, and equality, challenging the hereditary privileges of the old regime.
Lynn Hunt emphasizes that the Revolution invented key tools of mass mobilization, including propaganda,
festivals, and symbols, to engage ordinary citizens in the political process. This politicization of everyday
life marked a significant innovation, demonstrating how deeply the Revolution penetrated society's cultural
fabric. The sans-culottes and other lower-class movements embodied this newfound political participation,
challenging aristocratic norms and asserting equality.
Contradictions in Revolutionary Political Practice
The French Revolution aimed to expand political participation and establish a republic based on
equality and liberty. However, it faced significant challenges in living up to these ideals. The Reign of
Terror, with its public executions and widespread violence, reveals the contradictions at the heart of
revolutionary politics. Historian Lynn Hunt critiques how the instability and suppression of dissent
during this period weakened the democratic spirit of the Revolution, paving the way for Napoleon's
authoritarian rule. This period highlighted how difficult it was to turn high ideals into practical
governance.
Robert Darnton’s analysis of revolutionary violence shows its two-faced nature: while violence was a
tool to fight for equality and freedom, it also left behind a brutal legacy that influence future
revolutions. Events like the September Massacres—where mass killings were used to target perceived
enemies of the Revolution—demonstrate how violence both advanced and complicated the
Revolution’s goals, leaving a mixed legacy.
Cultural and Social Transformations
The Revolution didn’t just change political systems; it also reshaped cultural and social life. Historian
Sara Maza points out that historians now focus more on the cultural aspects of the Revolution, such as
how it changed everyday life. For instance, terms like citoyen (citizen) replaced monsieur (sir),
symbolizing a rejection of aristocratic privilege. Festivals and rituals celebrated the new republic,
uniting people and promoting a shared revolutionary identity.
But not everyone embraced these changes. Historians like Hunt and François Furet note that, despite
political upheaval, many social structures, such as landownership patterns, remained unchanged. This
resistance to change shows that the Revolution’s cultural and social goals were limited in their success.
Historiographical Perspectives
Historians have long debated how successful the French Revolution was in building a new political
culture. Early Marxist historians like Alphonse Aulard and Albert Mathiez saw it as a class struggle
that ended feudalism and laid the foundation for modern democracy. On the other hand, revisionist
historians like François Furet and William Doyle argue that ideas from the Enlightenment, rather than
economic forces, were the driving factors of the Revolution. Furet criticizes how the Revolution
descended into terror and authoritarianism, calling it a failure of its own ideals.
Lynn Hunt offers a balanced view, describing the Revolution as an experiment that shaped modern
political culture. She identifies three major political traditions that emerged from this period:
democratic republicanism, socialism, and authoritarianism. While Hunt acknowledges the Revolution’s
flaws, like its inability to completely dismantle social hierarchies, she also emphasizes its lasting
influence on modern political thought.
Women’s Role in the French Revolution
Women’s Contributions
Women were central to revolutionary activities, participating as organizers, agitators, and advocates for
equality. Events such as the Women’s March on Versailles (October 1789) underscore their agency.
Thousands of Parisian women marched to Versailles, protesting bread shortages and demanding
accountability from King Louis XVI. This pivotal moment pressured the monarchy to address economic
hardships and symbolized women's active participation in shaping revolutionary outcomes.
Women also formed political organizations, such as the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, to
advocate for gender equality. Prominent figures like Olympe de Gouges and Théroigne de Méricourt
emerged as intellectual leaders, challenging the male-dominated narrative of the Revolution. Olympe de
Gouges’ "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen" (1791) called for extending
revolutionary ideals to women, advocating for rights in areas like divorce and the recognition of
illegitimate children. Madame Roland, though not exclusively focused on women’s liberation, hosted
salons for political discourse and became a significant revolutionary voice. Facing execution, her final
words, “O liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name,” epitomize the sacrifices of revolutionary
women.
Resistance to Women’s Involvement
Despite their contributions, women’s aspirations were met with resistance. The 1793 ban on women’s
political clubs and assemblies epitomized the backlash against their involvement. Revolutionary leaders
like Robespierre and the Jacobins prioritized a patriarchal vision of citizenship, restricting public and
political spaces to men. The Napoleonic Code (1804) later institutionalized women’s subordination,
relegating them to the domestic sphere and undoing many gains made during the Revolution.
In rural areas, women resisted revolutionary changes that threatened their religious practices. Measures like
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) faced opposition from women defending traditional Christian
customs. Through anti-oath pamphlets, boycotts of constitutional priests, and efforts to preserve religious
traditions, these women highlighted the broader struggle to safeguard cultural heritage.
The Role of Symbolism
Lynn Hunt argues that revolutionaries used symbols to reflect transformative ambitions, including changes
in fashion that mirrored social ideals. Women’s fashion shifted from elaborate styles to simpler attire,
symbolizing a rejection of aristocratic excess and aligning with egalitarian principles. Gendered allegories
in revolutionary art depicted women as embodiments of liberty and justice but often excluded them from
active political roles. Scholars like Joan W. Scott and Monica Juneja note that while female allegories
inspired civic virtue, they reinforced traditional gender hierarchies by portraying women as passive
symbols rather than active participants.
The Poor and the Revolution
The poor, particularly the urban working class (sans-culottes) and rural peasants, were the backbone of
revolutionary movements. Economic hardships, inequality, and exploitation drove their demands for
change. The sans-culottes pushed the Revolution towards radicalism, participating in key events like the
Storming of the Bastille (July 1789) and the overthrow of the monarchy (August 1792). Their demands
extended beyond political reform to include economic justice, price controls, and relief from food
shortages.
Rural peasants, driven by grievances over feudal oppression and high taxes, contributed through revolts
during the Great Fear (summer 1789), leading to the abolition of feudal privileges. This achievement
dismantled centuries-old structures of exploitation, yet its benefits were unevenly distributed.
Structural and Systemic Exclusions
Despite their contributions, the poor reaped limited benefits from the Revolution. The new political and
economic order favored the bourgeoisie, who consolidated power and wealth at the expense of the working
class and peasantry. Land reforms often excluded the landless rural poor, while urban workers’ demands
for economic equality were sidelined, particularly after the Thermidorian Reaction (1794). Similarly,
women’s political and social advancements were curtailed by patriarchal attitudes that relegated them to the
private sphere.
Revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality, grounded in Enlightenment thought, often excluded women
and the poor. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) articulated universal rights
but restricted their practical application to male property owners. The focus on protecting private property
and market freedoms clashed with the poor’s demands for redistribution and social welfare. Gendered
interpretations of natural roles justified the exclusion of women from public life, perpetuating entrenched
norms.
Long-term Implications
The Revolution’s failure to address social and economic inequalities left its ideals incomplete. Women’s
exclusion from political rights persisted, with French women gaining the vote only in 1944. Feminist
movements of the 19th and 20th centuries had to build on the unfinished work of revolutionary women like
Olympe de Gouges. For the poor, structural poverty remained unaddressed, with industrialization
introducing new forms of exploitation. Labor rights and social welfare reforms emerged only through later
political movements.
The French Revolution brought significant economic changes, including the abolition of tithes, feudal dues,
and the guild system. However, these measures often resulted in economic hardship for peasants, as they
faced higher rents and taxes. The government’s issuance of assignats, backed by nationalized church lands,
contributed to runaway inflation, peaking at 3500% by 1795. Napoleon later introduced reforms to stabilize
the economy, issuing the franc as the new currency in 1803. Beyond economics, the Revolution disrupted
France’s social fabric, dismantling aristocratic privileges and fostering a more egalitarian society. However,
challenges such as political factionalism persisted, as seen in the varied responses to the Revolution’s
legacy during the Bourbon Restoration and later periods, including Vichy France.
The Revolution had a profound impact across Europe and the New World. In Germany, it introduced liberal
and democratic reforms, sparking nationalist movements that shaped German identity. Similarly, in
Belgium, revolutionary ideas led to short-lived republics before being subdued by external forces.
Elsewhere, in Britain and Scandinavia, the Revolution inspired gradual reforms, albeit met with resistance
from conservative elites. In the United States, the Revolution polarized politics, contributing to the creation
of a party system that influenced subsequent foreign and domestic policies. The historiography of the
Revolution reflects a wide range of interpretations, from Marxist analyses focusing on class conflict to
more contemporary studies exploring the social impact and the evolution of democratic ideals.
The French Revolution's legacy extended beyond immediate political and social changes. It fundamentally
transformed France’s identity, reducing the influence of the aristocracy and the Church, and replacing them
with principles of equality and constitutional governance. The Revolution's ideals influenced movements
worldwide, shaping the course of democratic thought and socialism, and inspiring future revolutions in
various parts of the globe. Despite facing setbacks during the Bourbon Restoration and later regimes, the
revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity persisted, reshaping France’s political landscape and
contributing to modern democratic institutions.
HISTORIOGRAPHY
Historiography of the French Revolution: Evolution and Scholarly Debates
The French Revolution has been the subject of intense historiographical debate, evolving through
different interpretations shaped by the ideological, political, and methodological inclinations of
historians across centuries. From early responses rooted in contemporary reactions to later Marxist,
revisionist, and feminist critiques, these interpretations reveal the Revolution's complexities and its
enduring significance.
Early Historians and Contemporary Reactions
The earliest historiography emerged from immediate responses to the Revolution, often shaped by
ideological commitments rather than systematic historical methods. Edmund Burke and Joseph de
Maistre, critics of the Revolution, framed it as a product of intellectual conspiracies and moral
excesses, with Burke famously condemning its rejection of tradition and advocating for gradual reform.
In contrast, Madame de Staël supported the Revolution’s initial ideals, championing constitutional
monarchy while decrying the excesses of the Reign of Terror. These early narratives laid the
groundwork for ideological debates surrounding the Revolution, emphasizing its political and moral
dimensions.
Nineteenth-Century Perspectives
Liberal Historians
During the Restoration period, liberal historians like Adolphe Thiers and François Mignet sought to
systematize revolutionary history. Mignet attributed the Revolution to structural socio-economic
grievances, portraying it as a necessary transition from feudalism to modernity. Thiers initially critiqued
revolutionary radicalism but later acknowledged its contributions to progress, focusing on the roles of
the bourgeoisie and aristocracy. Madame de Staël's Considerations on the Main Events of the French
Revolution provided an early synthesis, emphasizing moderation while critiquing revolutionary
excesses.
Idealist and Romantic Historians
The mid-19th century saw a shift towards more emotive and narrative-driven interpretations. Thomas
Carlyle's The French Revolution: A History dramatized events, presenting them as a moral and
existential struggle. Jules Michelet celebrated the Revolution as an expression of the people’s spirit,
emphasizing spontaneity and the emotional power of collective action. However, Michelet’s
romanticized view often lacked nuanced analysis of the socio-economic forces at play. Historians like
Alphonse de Lamartine and Edgar Quinet also explored the Revolution's political and spiritual
dimensions, reflecting the Romantic era’s intellectual currents.
Third Republic and Twentieth-Century Marxist Interpretations
Third Republic Historians
The establishment of the Third Republic influenced historiography, emphasizing republican ideals.
Alphonse Aulard adopted rigorous source-based analysis to defend the Revolution’s republican legacy,
focusing on the political transformations it initiated. In contrast, Hippolyte Taine shifted from
liberalism to conservatism, critiquing Jacobinism and elevating the Girondins as representatives of
moderation and rationality.
Marxist and Class-Based Historians
The early 20th century marked the rise of Marxist interpretations, framing the Revolution as a class
struggle. Jean Jaurès, Georges Lefebvre, Albert Mathiez, and Albert Soboul dominated this school of
thought, emphasizing socio-economic conflicts and the role of the bourgeoisie, peasants, and
sans-culottes. Lefebvre’s The Peasants of the French Revolution analyzed rural discontent and its
impact on revolutionary dynamics, while Soboul focused on urban workers, highlighting their critical
contributions. These historians underscored the Revolution's dual character as both a bourgeois and
popular movement.
Post-War Revisionism and Critiques
Revisionist Historians
By the mid-20th century, Marxist orthodoxy faced challenges from revisionist historians like Alfred
Cobban and François Furet. Cobban rejected the notion of the Revolution as a bourgeois triumph,
arguing instead for the influence of local notables and administrative elites. Furet reinterpreted the
Revolution as a precursor to modern totalitarian regimes, emphasizing its radical and authoritarian
tendencies. His work sparked debates over the Revolution’s legacy, particularly regarding its
democratic and despotic dimensions.
Feminist and Neo-Liberal Histories
The late 20th century introduced feminist and neo-liberal perspectives, broadening the scope of
revolutionary historiography. Lynn Hunt and Joan Landes explored gender dynamics, revealing the
active participation of women and their subsequent exclusion from political life. Olwen Hufton
highlighted rural-urban divisions, challenging monolithic class-based interpretations. Neo-liberal
historians like Keith Baker critiqued Rousseauian influences on revolutionary ideology, questioning
their connection to the Terror and highlighting intellectual diversity within revolutionary thought.
Conclusion
The historiography of the French Revolution reflects the evolving methodologies and ideological
debates of historians across centuries. From the early critiques of Burke and de Maistre to the
socio-economic focus of Marxist scholars and the cultural and gendered analyses of recent decades,
each interpretation has enriched our understanding of this transformative period. Despite its
contradictions—combining aspirations for liberty and equality with violence and authoritarianism—the
Revolution remains a foundational event in modern political culture, inspiring democratic movements
worldwide. The diversity of historiographical debates underscores its enduring complexity and
relevance.
French society during the era leading up to the French Revolution was deeply unequal and divided into
three distinct estates. This medieval social structure had become outdated and increasingly
anachronistic. The society was essentially split between a privileged minority and an unprivileged
majority. The first estate comprised the clergy, the second the nobility, and the third the rest of the
population. The first two estates represented only about five to six percent of the total population,
leaving the vast majority in the third estate.
The First Estate
The clergy constituted the first estate. They numbered a little over 100,000, yet their influence was
disproportionately significant due to France's status as a Catholic nation. Besides their religious
influence, the church held substantial social power as the largest landowner, collecting an income of
130 million livres from land alone, while paying little to no taxes. The clergy enjoyed immunity from
taxation and contributed only a voluntary 'don gratuit.' However, this privilege was not equally
distributed. While the upper clergy came from noble backgrounds and were wealthy, with bishops like
the Bishop of Strasbourg earning an income of 40,000 livres, the lower clergy were far less fortunate.
They often came from the third estate and faced poverty, struggling to make ends meet, thus sharing
many of the grievances of the common people.
The Second Estate
The nobility represented the second estate. They numbered about 400,000 and were divided into two
categories: the noblesse d’épée (old feudal aristocracy) and the noblesse de robe (aristocrats elevated by
the monarchy). The older aristocracy suffered financially due to stagnant income from rent amidst
rising prices, while those with ties to the royal court fared better. There was a growing tension between
these two groups. Many aristocrats were dissatisfied with their loss of old privileges, particularly
political and judicial powers that were stripped during Louis XIV’s reign. Despite some noble
reformists advocating for modernization, the general trend among aristocrats was to reassert their old
privileges, often leading to a reactionary stance. This tension culminated in their eventual opposition to
the monarchy, leading to their downfall alongside it.
The Third Estate
The third estate was by far the largest social group, comprising the majority of the French population. It
included the wealthiest bourgeois as well as the destitute. Abbe Sieyes, in his pamphlet What is the
Third Estate?, famously stated, “It was nothing. What did it want to become? Everything.” This
highlighted the lack of privileges they endured despite shouldering the majority of taxes.
The bourgeoisie, a more advanced section of the third estate, had acquired considerable wealth through
trade, industry, and commerce. Over the centuries, many of them utilized this wealth to buy offices or
gain nobility, yet this group still faced status inequality solely dependent on birthright. Lefebvre
identified different types of bourgeoisie, including administrators, finance professionals, intellectuals,
and small traders. These individuals, particularly those in the lower ranks, were deeply affected by
economic crises, with stagnant wages and rising prices. This section of the bourgeoisie, referred to as
the ‘impecunious men of talent,’ deeply criticized the outdated structure and looked forward to civic
equality and liberty. They were instrumental in disseminating revolutionary ideologies through public
spaces like coffee-houses and political clubs.
The peasantry made up the majority of the population, with estimates suggesting they constituted about
67% of the population while owning only 33% of the land. Peasants were divided into landowners,
sharecroppers, and landless agricultural laborers, with significant regional variations. Their grievances
were exacerbated by seigneurial dues and multiple taxations—imposed by landlords, the church, and
the state. These included banalite, champart, terrage, payage, and a host of other burdensome dues.
Demographic growth and rising prices further intensified the burden on the peasantry, pushing them
towards near-starvation.
Urban laboring classes, sans culottes, and other marginalized groups experienced extreme poverty. With
wages failing to keep pace with rising prices, the urban poor faced economic ruin. Between 1785 and
1789, wages rose by 22%, yet the price of bread increased by 88%. As a result, poverty intensified,
leading to a revolutionary mindset. Despite economic hardship, urban populations like those in Paris
and other major cities were not mobilized solely by hunger but by broader grievances and aspirations
for political reform.
The State
France was ruled by an absolute monarchy, peaking during the reign of Louis XIV, who had effectively
weakened both the church and the nobility. The Estates General had not been summoned since 1614,
and provincial parlements were in abeyance until Louis XVI revived them for political gain. However,
the royal authority was arbitrary, and lettres de cachet allowed for indiscriminate arrests. The medieval
administration had become obsolete, and provincial intendants introduced by Louis XIV were widely
unpopular due to their arbitrariness. This discontent fueled demands for reform, as reflected in the
cahiers submitted during the Estates General.
Economy
The eighteenth century witnessed a steady rise in prices, while inflation eroded the real value of income
from rents. Ernest Labrousse analyzed the economic crisis, showing that France experienced a cyclical
depression post the 1770s. Wine prices, for instance, plummeted by 50%, impacting smallholders and
sharecroppers the most. Crop failures and the resulting rise in food prices worsened the economic plight
of the population. By 1788, the situation became dire, with no room for wage increases amidst surging
food costs, ultimately leading to widespread poverty.
The fiscal crisis was exacerbated by the extravagant court and costly wars fought by France, draining
the treasury. Turgot warned that the state was on the brink of bankruptcy, yet the government persisted
in joining wars like the War of American Independence. The inability to impose new taxes on the
privileged classes—who enjoyed fiscal immunity—exacerbated the crisis, compelling the monarchy to
seek reforms. These failed attempts at reform set the stage for revolutionary upheaval in 1789.
The Philosophes and the Revolution
The Enlightenment played a significant role in shaping revolutionary ideas. Thinkers like Montesquieu,
Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot contributed to a broader intellectual movement that criticized social
inequality and sought reform. Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers, Voltaire for
anti-clericalism, and Rousseau emphasized liberty and equality. The writings of these philosophes,
along with others like Diderot’s Encyclopaedia, helped disseminate revolutionary ideologies among the
bourgeoisie and the broader populace, fueling the call for a new, more equitable social order.
