Chapter 1: Introduction

Phonemes : the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one word from another
+ Vowel phonemes (e.g., /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/)
+ Consonant phonemes (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /m/)
- Phonemes are abstract (trừu tượng) representations of sounds, meaning that
different accents and pronunciations might have slight variations (called
allophones)
- We use special symbols to represent phonemes. The symbols are based on IPA
chart.
- Larger unit of speech: syllable (ex: teacher : 2 syllables, technology: 4
syllables)
- Aspects of speech: stress and intonation
Accents (different regions have different pronunciation about the same word) and
dialects (grammar, vocab, spelling, word_ex: lorry (UK) - truck (US))

● Bài tập: Từ đã cho có bao nhiêu phonemes/syllable

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Chapter 2+3: The production of speech sounds
Articulators (unit of mouth making speech sounds) above the larynx

the way they are produced: Vowels => no obstruction (sự cản trở) to the airflow/
consonants => certain obstruction to the airflow.
their different distributions: Vowels => center of the syllable / consonants =>
margins.
 Vowels are different in terms of:
- tongue height: close / mid close/ mid open / open
- the position of the tongue : front / central / back
- Mouth shape: rounded, spread, or neutral

Diphthongs & Triphthongs

● Bài tập: xác định vị trí và phân biệt short/long vowels, diphthongs,
triphthongs
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Chapter 4+6: Plosives, Fricatives and Affricates
Larynx: thanh quản
Vocal folds: make sound
- Glottis is the space between the vocal folds in the larynx
 - Four states of the vocal folds:

Plosives Complete closure: the airflow is fully blocked at a specific

point in the vocal tract.
Air pressure build-up: air accumulates behind the closure.
→ Sudden release (burst): the closure opens, releasing the built-up
air explosively.

Place of articulation Bilabial Alveolar Velar

Voiceless (Fortis) p t k

Voiced (Lenis) b d g

Fricatives: The air goes through the narrow gap → not smooth →
makes a hissing sound.

Place of Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Glottal

articulation

Voiceless (Fortis) f θ s ʃ h

Voiced (Lenis) v ð z ʒ -

Affricates: Begins as plosives and ends as fricatives.

Place of Post-alveolar
articulation

Voiceless (Fortis) tʃ
 Voiced (Lenis) dʒ

● Bài tập: phân biệt các plosives, fricatives và affricates về place / manner
(plosive, fricative, affricate) of articulation, xác định voicing.
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Chapter 7: Nasals and other consonants
Nasals: Air flows through the nose while the mouth is closed.

Place of Bilabial Alveolar Velar

articulation

Voiced (Lenis) m n ŋ

Other Consonants: Air flows smoothly without turbulence.

Place of articulation Symbol

Palatal j

Labio-velar w

Alveolar l

Alveolar r

Comparison of Nasals and Plosives

● Similarities: Both involve a complete closure of airflow in the oral cavity.

● Differences:

○ Plosives: After the closure, the air is released suddenly (p, t, k)

○ Nasals: Air does not escape through the mouth but through the nose.

trường hợp đặc biệt về cách phát âm /ŋ/

/ŋɡ/ : consist of just one morpheme each. (Ex: finger, linger, anger,...)
/ŋ/ : 2 -> n morphemes (Ex: singer : sing - a morpheme, er - a morpheme)
TH ngoại lệ:
longer - longest : tuy có 2 morpheme nhưng vẫn phát âm /ŋɡ/
 Consonant l
Type Phonetic Description Rule Examples
Symbol

Clear /l/ [l] The tongue tip touches the Occurs at the light, love,
(Light L) alveolar ridge, and the beginning of lucky
sound is produced forward syllables.
in the mouth with
vibration.

Dark /l/ [ɫ] The back of the tongue is Occurs at the end full, ball,
(Velarized raised toward the velum of syllables or milk
L) (soft palate), creating a before a
deeper, darker sound. consonant.

Devoiced / [l̥] The vocal cords do not Occurs after please,

l/ vibrate, making the /l/ voiceless clean, fly,
sound breathier or weaker. consonants (/p, t, place
k, f, s/).

Consonant r (p, t, k trước r => r bị voiceless)

Type Description Examples

Clear /r/ Regular /r/ sound at the beginning of a word or red, rabbit, road
syllable.

Linking /r/ /r/ is pronounced between two words when the first law and order →
ends in a vowel and the second starts with a vowel. "law-r-and
order"

Intrusive /r/ /r/ is added between two vowels even though it's not I saw it → "I
in the spelling (common in British English). saw-r-it"

Consonant j and w
Feature Type Place of Voicing Common Special Case
Articulation Words

/j/ ("yes") Approximant Palatal Voiced yes, you, Does not occur at word
Europe endings

/w/ ("we") Approximant Bilabial Voiced we, win, /ʍ/ sound in some accents
 woman (e.g., which vs. witch)

● Bài tập: phiên âm theo phonemes and phonetics, phân biệt các loại của
từng nasals/ other consonants
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Chapter 5: Phonemes and symbols

- Trước p, t, k, nếu có nguyên âm thì phụ âm sẽ bị biến đổi (trong ngữ âm học).
- Nếu chỉ có phụ âm phát ra hơi thở thì cũng sẽ bị biến đổi (ngữ âm học).
- b, d, g đứng ở đầu hoặc cuối từ cũng bị biến đổi.
- r, w, j, l bị biến đổi khi đứng sau p, t, k.
- aspiration không đứng ở vị trí final
- long vowels: khi đứng vị trị giữa, nếu có âm nào (ex: /p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ/) ở
dưới làm shorten nó => biến đổi
- dark [ɫ] → chỉ tồn tại ở cuối từ.
● Bài tập: phiên âm theo phonemes and phonetics